ADVANDCES IN TAXATION VOLUME 1 ppt

Publications in Different Types of Journals To gain additional understanding of the research and publication activities of tax scholars, we further classify publications into those publi

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Information Management, University

of Tennessee, TN, USA

University, MT, USA

State University, NC, USA

Administration, Northeastern University,

MA, USA

of Northern Iowa, IA, USA

Business, Washington State University,

WA, USA

Tulsa, OK, USA

Administration, Northeastern University,

MA, USA

Administration, Northeastern University,

MA, USA

vii

Dennis Schmidt College of Business, Montana State

University, MT, USA

University, TX, USA

Walton College of Business, University of Arkansas, AR, USA

Gerald E Whittenburg School of Accountancy, College of

Business Administration, San Diego State University, CA, USA

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORSviii

University of Florida Janet A Meade University of Houston Michael L Roberts University of Colorado-Denver David Ryan

Temple University Dan L Schisler East Carolina University Toby Stock

Ohio University

ix

Florida International University

Mary Ann Hofmann

Andrews University

Yongtae Kim

Santa Clara University

Bruce Lubich University of Maryland – University College Steven Matsunaga University of Oregon John Phillips

University of Connecticut Debra Sanders

Washington State University Michael Schadewald

University of Milwaukee

Wisconsin-Jerrold Stern Indiana University Robert Yetman University of California – Davis

xi

STATEMENT OF PURPOSE

Advances in Taxation is a refereed academic tax journal published annually.Academic articles on any aspect of Federal, state, local, or internationaltaxation will be considered These include, but are not limited to, compli-ance, education, law, planning, and policy Interdisciplinary research in-volving economics, finance, or other areas also is encouraged Acceptableresearch methods include any analytical, behavioral, descriptive, legal,quantitative, survey, or theoretical approach appropriate to the project.Manuscripts should be readable, relevant, and rigorous To be readable,manuscripts must be understandable and concise To be relevant, manu-scripts must be directly related to substantive issues inherent in the system oftaxation To be rigorous, manuscripts should scrupulously follow the ten-ants of sound research design and execution Conclusions must follow log-ically from the evidence and arguments presented Reasonable assumptionsand logical development are essential for theoretical manuscripts

AIT welcomes comments from readers

Additional information regarding the journal is available at the Advances

in Taxation link athttp://cms.scu.edu/business/accounting/ait.cfm

Editorial correspondence pertaining to manuscripts should be forwardedto:

Professor Suzanne Luttman

Santa Clara University

Accounting Department

500 El Camino Real

Santa Clara, CA 95053

Suzanne LuttmanSeries Editor

xiii

Has the publication activity of tax accounting scholars changed over time?

In a study of where the 25 most productive accounting faculties publishedfrom 1973 to 1977,Windal (1981, p 656)states, ‘‘Tax specialists, of course,tend to publish in tax journals.’’ He then identifies tax journals as TheJournal of Taxation, Taxes, and the Tax Adviser, a selection which indicatesthat he expects tax scholars to publish their research primarily in ‘‘profes-sional’’ journals, i.e., journals read primarily by tax practitioners Kozub,Sanders, and Raabe (1990) studied publication productivity by business

Advances in Taxation, Volume 17, 3–35

Copyright r 2007 by Elsevier Ltd.

All rights of reproduction in any form reserved

ISSN: 1058-7497/doi:10.1016/S1058-7497(06)17001-5

3

school tax faculties from 1981 to 1988 in eight academic and 22 professionaljournals They found that faculty members at eight of the 35 most prolifictax publication schools published primarily in ‘‘academic’’ journals, i.e.,journals directed toward academic audiences Yet, at the three most pro-ductive schools in their study, the tax scholars also published a significantnumber of articles in professional journals.

The purpose of this study is to examine the overall publication tivity of tax scholars and to determine how much tax scholars publish in tax,accounting, and other professional and academic journals in different stages

produc-of their careers Individuals listed in Prentice-Hall Accounting Faculty rectories (Hasselback, 1978–1997) with a teaching or research interest in taxare designated tax scholars.1It is important to develop an understanding oftax scholars’ publication activity because it is closely linked to promotionand tenure decisions (Henderson, Ganesh, & Chandy, 1990) as well as salary(Gomez-Mejia & Balkin, 1992) This information also may be helpful insetting performance goals for and evaluating tax scholars at different stages

Di-of their careers There is increasing emphasis on assessment in universitysettings, including assessing publication activity across scholars at differentstages in their careers (Swanson, 2004) In keeping with this growing in-terest, our purpose is to capture a broad range of publication activity acrossdifferent journal classifications from the careers of scholars who have em-phasized tax as a specialty

Across universities, differences in focus and standards can signal thatpublications in some journals are more highly valued than those in otherjournals (Schultz, Meade, & Khurana, 1989;Cargile & Bublitz, 1986) Asthe mission of a particular school changes over time, so too may its em-phasis on publications in different types of journals Some universities mayemphasize and reward publication in professional journals as buildingbridges to the professional tax community Other universities may empha-size publication in academic journals as expanding the boundaries ofknowledge and the reputation of the school Still other schools may valuepublications in educational journals as a means of improving pedagogy Thedegree to which work in other business disciplines is acknowledged alsovaries among universities (Swanson, 2004) While there appears to be nosingle standard for all universities for the publication activities of tax schol-ars, we can see how much and where these scholars have successfully pub-lished in different time periods in the past

This study contributes to the tax scholar research productivity literature

by examining intradisciplinary and interdisciplinary publications in a widerange of journals in several different time periods We provide measures of

ANNE L CHRISTENSEN AND CLAIRE K LATHAM4

research productivity in tax, accounting, and non-tax/non-accounting nals in early as well as later time periods in scholars’ careers Publicationactivity in the highest-rated accounting journals is noted Our productivitymeasures are further divided into separate measures of publications injournals with primarily professional or academic readership, thereby ex-tending the discussion raised in prior literature.

jour-We select three samples of tax scholars who received an accounting Ph.D.and then took tenure track positions at U.S universities We then examinetheir publication records in the first seven years of their careers as well asduring later time periods We refer to scholars in the first seven years of theircareers as new scholars The ‘‘93/94’’ sample consists of 1993 and 1994graduates, the ‘‘87/88’’ sample of 1987 and 1988 graduates, and the ‘‘77/78’’sample of 1977 and 1978 graduates We then search ABI Inform, CCHFederal Tax Articles, the EconLibrary Database, and the Social ScienceCitation Index to develop publication records for each member of our sam-ples.2We classify academic publications into three categories based on thejournals in which the articles appeared (1) tax, (2) accounting, and (3) non-tax/non-accounting journals We adopt the same classification strategy forpublications in professional journals We also create a separate category forpublications in education journals Academic and professional journals arethen differentiated on the basis of primary readership, which is determined

on the basis of publications such as Cabell’s Directory of Publishing portunities in Accounting: 2001–2002

Op-In terms of overall productivity, we find that the 93/94 new tax accountingscholars published an average of 4.0 articles in the first seven years of theircareers compared to 5.87 articles for the 87/88 scholars and 3.51 for the77/78 scholars We observe that while publications in professional journalscontinue to be a significant part of tax scholars’ research portfolios, thepercentage of publications in academic journals has increased from 38 to 42

to 47 percent, respectively for 77/78, 87/88, and 93/94 new tax scholars Inthe latter part of their careers, the percentage of publications in academicjournals for the 77/78 and 87/88 scholars declines slightly, but not signifi-cantly In addition, we find that the aggregate number of articles published

in The Accounting Review by tax scholars in the first seven years of theircareers decreased from twelve to nine to four by the 77/78, 87/88, and 93/94scholars, respectively

The remainder of this article is organized as follows The next sectiondescribes the motivation and research questions We then discuss the re-search design followed by the results The paper concludes with a discussion

of the findings and implications for future research

MOTIVATION AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Overall Research Productivity Measures

Kozub et al (1990)provide evidence on the publication activity of businessschool tax faculty in 30 journals (eight academic and 22 professional) from1981–1988 Their study is one of the few studies that specifically examinesthe productivity of tax faculty and it includes many more tax journals thanany prior study.Christensen, Finger, and Latham (2002)show that researchproductivity measures are affected by the number and type of journals in-cluded Their study documents considerably greater research productivityfor new accounting scholars when publications in non-accounting journalsare included in the productivity measures This held true for scholars em-ployed at both accounting doctoral and non-doctoral granting institutions

As our starting point, we determine the research productivity of new taxscholars using productivity measures that include publications from an ex-tensive list of journals The first research question is:

Question 1 How productive are new tax scholars when the productivitymeasures include publications from an extensive list of tax, accounting,and non-accounting journals?

We compute the average number of publications per new scholar in alltypes of journals as well as in academic and professional journals Theseaverages are computed separately for the 93/94, 87/88, and 77/78 scholars

We further divide the samples into individuals employed at accountingdoctoral granting and non-doctoral granting schools because prior researchshows higher research productivity levels for the doctoral granting schools(Christensen et al., 2002;Read, Rama, & Raghunandan, 1998;Englebrecht,Iyer, & Patterson, 1994;Campbell & Morgan, 1987;Milne & Vent, 1987).3

Differences in Productivity Measures for Publications in Professional

and Academic Journals

Windal (1981)suggested that tax faculty would direct their publication effortstoward a professional audience However,Kozub et al (1990)find evidence ofsignificant tax faculty publication efforts directed at both professional andacademic audiences Bricker and Previts (1990)provide evidence that as thenature of the professoriate changed and accounting scholars were required tohave doctorates, accounting scholars shifted their research efforts toward ques-tions of interest to an academic audience rather than a professional audience

ANNE L CHRISTENSEN AND CLAIRE K LATHAM6

They suggest that this shift may have isolated the academic community fromthe practice community We examine whether new tax scholars, who startedtheir careers in three different time periods, include publications in professionaljournals in their research portfolios Hence, our second question is:

Question 2 Has the quantity of new tax accounting scholars’ publications

in professional journals changed over time?

If we find that tax scholars who received their degrees at different points

in time publish a substantial amount in professional journals as well as inacademic journals, it suggests that tax scholars have not become isolatedfrom the professional tax community

Publications in Highest Rated Journals

New scholars’ publication records are evaluated in terms of both quantityand quality A number of studies have measured perceptions of the quality

of accounting, business, and tax journals over the years (Swanson, 2004;

Brown & Huefner, 1994;Hall & Ross, 1991;Hull & Wright, 1990;Raabe,Kozub, & Sanders, 1987) Although schools and individuals do differ inperceptions of which journals are of highest quality, we can use the con-sistently top-rated journals from prior studies to observe the frequency withwhich tax scholars publish in specific journals and whether there have beenchanges in publication rates over time Thus our third research question is:Question 3 Has the tendency for new tax scholars, as a group, to publish

in the highest rated tax and accounting journals changed over time?

We provide information on the number of articles published by new taxscholars in highly rated as well as common outlets

Timing within Careers: Academic and Professional Publications

The importance of publishing in academic journals has increased overtime (Ettredge & Wong-On-Wing, 1991; Hagerman & Hagerman, 1989;

Campbell & Morgan, 1987) Such pressure may lead tax scholars to focustheir early research efforts on empirical or theoretical work publishable inacademic journals However, there is also pressure to have a sufficientnumber of publications in particular time periods Zivney, Berton, andGavin (1995, p 11) found that only 40 percent of accounting graduatespublish in academic accounting journals and 23 percent publish in what theydefine as the top three accounting journals (The Accounting Review, Journal

of Accounting Research, and Journal of Accounting and Economics) Hence,

to have a sufficient number of publications, new scholars may also directtheir efforts toward applied research that is published in professionaljournals

As the number of years since obtaining the doctoral degree increases,scholars may believe that it is increasingly difficult to undertake empirical

or theoretical research Such individuals may believe that they are morelikely to be successful in undertaking applied research, publishable inprofessional journals In contrast, scholars may hone their empirical ortheoretical research skills over time and thus develop a competitive advan-tage for later career publishing in academic journals The fourth researchquestion addresses the timing of types of publications within scholars’careers:

Question 4 Do publications in professional journals versus academicjournals typically occur earlier or later in the careers of tax accountingscholars?

To examine this question that considers a much longer timeline, we clude tax scholars’ publications in academic and professional journals frombefore the Ph.D was granted through year 10 for the 93/94 scholars, year

in-15 for the 87/88 scholars, and year 25 for the 77/78 scholars (hereafter,

‘‘Expanded 93/94,’’ ‘‘Expanded 87/88,’’ and ‘‘Expanded 77/78’’ samples)

Publications in Different Types of Journals

To gain additional understanding of the research and publication activities

of tax scholars, we further classify publications into those published in taxjournals (e.g., The Journal of the American Taxation Association and TheTax Adviser), those published in accounting journals (e.g., The AccountingReview and Journal of Accountancy), and those published in business andsociety journals (e.g., Journal of Finance and Journal of European Business)

We also examine publications in education journals by tax scholars (e.g.,Issues in Accounting Education and Journal of Accounting Education) Wethen address the fifth research question:

Question 5 Has the tendency for tax scholars to publish their research intax, accounting, business and society, or educational journals changedover time?

Publications in tax journals are likely to advance knowledge within thetax community, while publications in accounting journals are likely to

ANNE L CHRISTENSEN AND CLAIRE K LATHAM8

advance knowledge in the broader accounting community Publications inbusiness and/or society journals reach audiences outside the accountingdiscipline and may be viewed favorably or unfavorably depending upon themission of the particular school Publications in educational journals may beincluded in either research or teaching portfolios of scholars, again de-pending upon the mission of the school.

RESEARCH DESIGN

Selection of Tax Scholars

This paper provides evidence on changes in outlet choice by new tax ars over time To examine these changes, we compile samples of tax grad-uates in three different time periods and focus on their publicationportfolios before graduation and in the six years following the Ph.D.4These publications were likely to be considered in the scholars’ tenure de-cisions.5 We use the Accounting Faculty Directory (Hasselback, 1996) toidentify all tax scholars who obtained their degrees from U.S universities

schol-To increase the sample size, we pool 1994 and 1993 tax graduates, makingthe assumption that there are no systematic differences between successiveyears We compile two additional samples to compare with the 94/93 sam-ple One sample is made up of 1987 and 1988 tax graduates and the otherconsists of 1977 and 1978 tax graduates.6

Only tax scholars listed as ‘‘Assistant’’ or ‘‘Associate’’ were included inthe samples to ensure they were tenure-track We determine the scholars’first employers and omit scholars with non-U.S employers This processresults in a 93/94 sample of 51 tax scholars, an 87/88 sample of 46 taxscholars, and a 77/78 sample of 45 tax scholars

The employers of tax scholars in the three samples are further classified bywhether they offer accounting doctoral programs Of the 51 scholars in the93/94 sample, 11 were employed at universities with accounting Ph.D pro-grams The 87/88 sample contains 23 of 46 and the 77/78 sample includes 26

of 45 scholars employed by schools with accounting Ph.D programs

Measures of Productivity

Consistent with a number of other studies that examine the productivity

of scholars who receive tenure (Christensen et al., 2002; Englebrecht

et al., 1994; Hagerman & Hagerman, 1989; Campbell & Morgan, 1987;

Milne & Vent, 1987), we measure productivity by counting published ticles As noted previously, we measure new tax scholar productivity byincluding articles that were likely to be considered for tenure decisions.Therefore, we include all pre-Ph.D publications (with no time limit), pub-lications in the year of graduation, and publications within the following sixyears We include only articles that exceed two pages in length and excludebook reviews, dissertation summaries, and commentaries We do countdiscussant comments that are published in journals such as the Journal ofAccounting Research Supplement and The Journal of the American TaxationAssociation Supplement.7

ar-For research question 4, which examines publication activity over alonger time horizon, we extend the time frame to include publicationsthrough year 10 for the 93/94 scholars, 15 for the 87/88 scholars, and 25 forthe 77/78 scholars

Publication Data

After selecting the tax scholar samples, we searched ABI Inform, CCHFederal Tax Articles, the EconLibrary Database, and the Social Science Ci-tation Index to develop comprehensive publication records for each member

of our samples.8We conducted an author name search for the scholars ineach database and used cross-references to ensure that we also capturedthose publications in which our scholars were not the lead authors.9

We classified both academic and professional publications into three egories based on the journals in which the articles appeared tax, accounting,and non-tax/non-accounting journals We consider journals with the word

cat-‘‘tax’’ in the title as tax journals and journals with the word ‘‘accounting’’ or

‘‘auditing’’ as accounting journals.10 We also include publications in cation journals as a separate category Academic and professional journalsare differentiated on the basis of primary readership according to Cabell’sDirectory of Publishing Opportunities in Accounting (Cabell & English, 2001–2002a), Cabell’s Directory of Publishing Opportunities in Economics, andFinance (Cabell & English, 2001–2002b), Cabell’s Directory of PublishingOpportunities in Management (Cabell & English, 2001–2002c), Cabell’sDirectory of Publishing Opportunities in Marketing (Cabell & English,2001–2002d), The Author’s Guide to Accounting and Financial ReportingPublications (Vargo & Vargo, 1998–1999), and the International Guide toAccounting Journals (Spiceland & Agrawal, 1988) Our sample scholarspublished in 212 different journals Using the classification scheme notedabove, three of the journals are classified as academic tax, 28 as academic

edu-ANNE L CHRISTENSEN AND CLAIRE K LATHAM10

accounting, and 75 as academic non-tax/non-accounting Within the fessional journal classification, 29 are classified as tax, 23 as accountingjournals, and 50 as non-tax/non-accounting journals Four of the journalsare classified as education journals.11 A list of the journals in which ourscholars published along with the corresponding classification and thenumber of articles published in each journal is provided in the appendix.

pro-RESULTS

Overall Research Productivity Measures

To address the first question,Table 1presents research productivity ures for the 93/94, 87/88, and 77/78 samples Counting a comprehensive list

meas-of academic, prmeas-ofessional, and educational journal publications results in asmaller percentage of non-publishers than found in many prior studies ofaccounting research productivity (Christensen et al., 2002;Read et al., 1998;

Englebrecht et al., 1994) Among the 93/94 tax scholars, only five or 9.8percent had no publications For 87/88 and 77/78 tax scholars, only four(8.7 percent) and eight (17.8 percent) scholars had no publications.12Twentyscholars (29 for 87/88, 11 for 77/78) published articles in both academic andprofessional journals In contrast, 12 scholars (6 for 87/88, 12 for 77/78)published exclusively in academic journals and 14 scholars (7 for 87/88,

14 for 77/78) published exclusively in professional journals The averagenumber of publications per 93/94 (87/88; 77/78) scholar was 4.00 (5.87,3.51) This average includes those scholars who had no publications.13When tax scholars employed at schools with accounting Ph.D programsare compared to scholars employed at schools without accounting Ph.D.programs, we find fewer non-publishers and a higher average number ofpublications at the Ph.D granting institutions for all three samples Asindicated in Table 1, at Ph.D granting institutions, only one individual ineach of the three samples had no publications, while four, three, and sevenindividuals in the 93/94, 87/88, and 77/78 samples at non-doctoral grantinginstitutions had no publications The 93/94 scholars employed at doctoralgranting schools had an average of 4.64 publications compared to 3.82publications at non-doctoral granting institutions (t ¼ 0.79, p ¼ 0.217).14The average number of publications for 87/88 (77/78) scholars employed

at doctoral granting institutions was 7.70 (4.88) compared to an average

of 4.04 (1.63) for scholars employed at non-doctoral granting institutions(87/88 t ¼ 2.78, po0.01; 77/78 t ¼ 3.35, po0.01).15

Table 1 Research Productivity Statistics for 93/94, 87/88, and 77/78 Ph.D Tax Graduates.

Number of Tax Scholars

All Employed at schools with Ph.D.

programs

Employed at schools without Ph.D.

programs 93/94

(1) 87/88 (1) 77/78 (1) 93/94 (2) 87/88 (2) 77/78 (2) 93/94 (1) 87/88 (1) 77/78 (1) 93/94 (2) 87/88 (2) 77/78 (2) 93/94 (1) 87/88 (1) 77/78 (1) 93/94 (2) 87/88 (2) 77/78 (2) Total tax scholars

(n)

51 46 45 51 46 45 11 23 26 11 23 26 40 23 19 40 23 19 Non-publishers 5 4 8 16 7 5 1 1 1 2 1 1 4 3 7 14 6 4 Total tax scholars

3.01 4.77 3.57 1.90 5.94 14.68 3.56 5.35 3.79 1.80 6.50 16.34 2.86 3.24 2.19 1.90 5.05 12.29 Distribution of total academic publications per scholar

Mean 1.86 2.46 1.33 0.96 2.09 3.47 3.82 3.74 1.92 2.09 3.13 5.12 1.32 1.17 0.53 0.65 1.04 1.21 Median 1.00 1.00 1.00 0 1.00 1.00 3.00 3.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 1.00 0 0 0 1.00 Standard

deviation

2.28 3.16 2.10 1.54 2.30 5.38 3.19 3.90 2.48 1.92 2.38 6.50 1.64 1.34 1.02 1.27 1.69 1.69 Distribution of total professional publications per scholar

Mean 2.14 3.41 2.18 0.92 3.39 7.76 0.82 3.96 2.96 0.55 3.78 7.35 2.50 2.87 1.11 1.03 3.00 8.32 Median 2.00 3.00 1.00 0 1.00 3.00 1.00 3.00 1.00 0 1.00 3.00 2.00 2.00 0.00 1.00 1.00 5.00 Standard

deviation

2.55 3.88 3.26 1.57 5.78 14.58 0.87 4.67 3.69 1.04 6.68 16.21 2.75 2.89 2.21 1.69 4.82 12.32

Notes: (1) represents first seven years of publication records; for 1977 graduates, it is years 1977–1983, for 1978, it is years 1978–1984, for 1987,

it is years 1987–1993, for 1988, it is years 1988–1994, for 1993, it is for years 1993–1999, and for 1994, it is for years 1994–2000; (2) represents publication records up through year 25 for the 77/78 scholars (for 1977 graduates, it is years 1984-2002, for 1978 graduates it is years 1985– 2003), records up through year 15 for 87/88 scholars (for 1987 graduates, it is years 1994–2002, for 1988 graduates, it is years 1995–2003); records up through year 10 for 93/94 scholars (for 1993 graduates it is years 2000–2003, and for 1994 graduates, it is years 2001–2004).

Differences in Publication Outlet Over Time

Question 2 explores whether the tendency of new tax scholars to publish

in professional journals has changed over time As indicated inTable 1, the93/94 tax scholars published 53.4 percent (109/204) of their articles in pro-fessional journals compared to 58.1 percent (157/270) for 87/88 tax scholarsand 62 percent (98/158) for 77/78 tax scholars The average number ofpublished professional articles for 93/94 tax scholars was 2.14, which is lessthan the average number for 87/88 tax scholars, 3.41 articles, but not muchless than the average number for 77/78 tax scholars, 2.18 articles AnANOVA test indicates the difference among the average number of pro-fessional articles for these three groups of scholars is not significant(F ¼ 2.325, p ¼ 0.102).16These results indicate that publications in profes-sional journals may have declined somewhat but continue to be an impor-tant component of the research portfolios of new tax scholars

The average number of academic articles for the 93/94, 87/88, and 77/78tax scholars is 1.86, 2.46, and 1.33, respectively The differences in theseaverages are not statistically significant (ANOVA, F ¼ 2.21, p ¼ 0.113).However, when both professional and academic articles are added together,the overall average number of articles for the 87/88 tax scholars (5.87) issignificantly greater than the overall average for the 93/94 tax scholars (4.00)and the 77/78 tax scholars (3.51) (ANOVA, F ¼ 4.865, po0.01)

Publications in Highest Rated Journals

Question 3 examines the frequency with which new tax scholars publish inhighly rated journals.17Table 2presents the number of articles published inselected journals for the 93/94, 87/88, and 77/78 tax scholars We find thenumber of articles published by tax scholars in The Accounting Reviewsteadily declined from 12 articles (0.27 per scholar) by the 77/78 scholars tonine (0.20 per scholar) by the 87/88 scholars and four (0.08 per scholar) bythe 93/94 scholars During the same time period, the number of articlespublished in The Journal of the American Taxation Association steadily rosefrom four (0.09 per scholar) by the 77/78 scholars to 18 (0.39 per scholar) bythe 87/88 scholars to 25 (0.49 per scholar) by the 93/94 scholars The taxscholars in our three groups almost never publish in Accounting, Organi-zations, and Society, but occasionally publish in the Journal of Accountingand Economics, the Journal of Accounting Research, and the National TaxJournal Differences in the years that various journals actually began pub-lication make it difficult to draw conclusions regarding the tendency for tax

ANNE L CHRISTENSEN AND CLAIRE K LATHAM14

Table 2 Publications of 93/94, 87/78, and 77/88 Tax Ph.D Graduates in Selected Journal.

Journal (year started) Articles Published Both before and within Seven

Years of Receipt of Ph.D.

Articles Published after Seven Years

Publications by scholars in the 93/94 sample (N ¼ 51 scholars)

Publications by scholars in the 87/88 sample (N ¼ 46 scholars)

Publications by scholars in the 77/78 sample (N ¼ 45 scholars)

Publications by scholars in the 87/88 sample (N ¼ 46 scholars)

Publications by scholars in the 77/78 sample (N ¼ 45 scholars)

Publications by scholars in the 93/94 sample (N ¼ 51 scholars)

J of Am Tax Assoc (1979) 25 (13) a 18 (13) 4 (4) 16 (10) 18 (11) 7 (6)

Cont Acct Res (1984) 2 (2) 3 (3) 0 3 (3) 7 (3) 0

J of Acct & Econ (1979) 5 (3) 2 (1) 3 (2) 4 (2) 3 (2) 2 (2)

J Acct & Pub Pol (1982) 5 (5) 2 (2) 3 (3) 0 5 (4) 2 (1)

Publications by scholars in the 87/88 sample (N ¼ 46 scholars)

Publications by scholars in the 77/78 sample (N ¼ 45 scholars)

Publications by scholars in the 87/88 sample (N ¼ 46 scholars)

Publications by scholars in the 77/78 sample (N ¼ 45 scholars)

Publications by scholars in the 93/94 sample (N ¼ 51 scholars) CPA Journal (1931) 15 (11) 13 (9) 7 (5) 14 (8) 35 (9) 8 (4)

scholars from different time periods to publish in highly rated journals Wealso note that only few articles by tax scholars are published in accountingeducation journals.

Timing within Careers: Academic and Professional Publications

Question 4 explores whether publications in professional journals or demic journals occur earlier or later in tax scholars’ careers.Table 3showswhen academic and professional articles occur during tax scholars’ careers.For example, if a 93/94 tax scholar published two articles in academicjournals in year five, both articles would be included in the 17 articles foryear five in Panel A of Table 3 The number of publications of each typerelative to year of graduation for the 93/94, 87/88, and 77/78 tax scholars ispresented in Panels A, B, and C, respectively

aca-When we compare the number of publications in academic journals to thenumber of publications in professional journals each year, we do note somedifferences The 93/94 scholars published the largest number of professionalarticles in the pre-Ph.D time period and the largest number of academicarticles in year six This result suggests that these scholars experienced suc-cess during their doctoral programs in writing articles targeted toward pro-fessional journal audiences The large number of academic publications inyear six is consistent with scholars publishing as many articles as possiblebefore tenure For the 93/94 tax scholars, nearly 50 percent of the articles inprofessional journals were published by year four and over 50 percent of thearticles in academic journals were published by year five We then comparethe proportion of publications in professional journals to academic journals

in the pre-tenure time period (pre-Ph.D through six years after Ph.D.) withthe post-tenure period (year seven through year 10) and find no significantdifferences (X2¼0.523, p ¼ 0.536).18

Table 3 Panel B provides an expanded time horizon for publications by87/88 tax scholars We note that the greatest number of professional pub-lications occurs in year three and the greatest number of academic publi-cations occurs in year five Over 50 percent of both academic andprofessional articles are published by year six We compare the proportion

of publications in professional journals for both the primary time period(pre-Ph.D through six years after the Ph.D.) to the secondary time period(years seven to 15 after the Ph.D.) There was no statistically significantdifference (X2¼0.476, p ¼ 0.490) between the early period (58 percent

in professional journals) and the later period (62 percent in professionaljournals)

Table 3 Timing of 93/94, 87/88, and 77/78 Tax Ph.D Graduates’ Publications Relative to Year of

Graduation

Panel A: 93/94 sample (N ¼ 51 scholars)

Year Relative to Graduation All Publications Publications in Academic Journals Publications in Professional Journals

# % of 300 Cum % # % of 144 Cum % # % of 156 Cum.% Pre-Ph.D 32 10.7 10.7 10 6.9 6.9 22 14.1 14.1

Panel B: 87/78 sample (N ¼ 46 scholars)

Year Relative to Graduation All Publications Publications in Academic Journals Publications in Professional Journals

# % of 522 Cum % # % of 209 Cum % # % of 313 Cum.% Pre-Ph.D 19 3.6 3.6 5 2.4 2.4 14 4.5 4.5

Panel C: 77/78 sample (N ¼ 45 scholars)

Year Relative to Graduation All Publications Publications in Academic Journals Publications in Professional Journals

% of 664 Cum % # % of 216 Cum % # % of 448 Cum.% Pre-Ph.D 10 1.5 1.5 3 1.4 1.4 7 1.6 1.6

Table 3 (Continued )

Panel C: 77/78 sample (N ¼ 45 scholars)

Year Relative to Graduation All Publications Publications in Academic Journals Publications in Professional Journals

% of 664 Cum % # % of 216 Cum % # % of 448 Cum.%

The longest publication time horizon is presented inTable 3Panel C forthe 77/78 tax scholars For these scholars, we find that over 50 percent oftheir academic publications occur by year 11 and over 50 percent of theirprofessional publications occur by year 13 We test for differences in theproportion of publications in professional journals for both the pre-tenureand post-tenure periods In the pre-tenure period, 62 percent of publicationswere in professional journals; this percentage increased to 69.1 percent in thepost-tenure period But again, there are no statistically significant differ-ences among these percentages (X2¼2.641, p ¼ 0.104).

Publications in Different Types of Journals

The fifth research question considers whether tax accounting scholars lish their research in tax, accounting, business and society, or educationaljournals Table 4 presents the number and percentage of academic andprofessional publications in each category for 93/94, 87/88, and 77/78 taxscholars in the first seven years of their careers This same information isprovided for the 93/94 scholars for years seven through 10 after the Ph.D.,for 87/88 scholars for years seven through 15 after the Ph.D., and also foryears seven through 25 for the 77/78 tax scholars

pub-The 93/94 tax scholars in the first seven years of their careers published32.6 percent of their academic articles in tax journals, 43.2 percent in ac-counting journals, 20.0 percent in non-tax/non-accounting journals, and 4.2percent in educational journals When professional journals are considered,these scholars published 45.9 percent in tax journals, 33.0 percent in ac-counting journals, and 21.1 percent in non-tax/non-accounting journals.Excluding the publications in educational journals, the proportion of ar-ticles in tax, accounting, and non-tax/non-accounting journals is neitherstatistically different (X2¼3.57, p ¼ 0.17) for academic and professionalpublications in the first seven years of their careers nor statistically different

in years seven through 10 (X2¼0.455, p ¼ 0.80)

In the first seven years of their careers, the 87/88 tax scholars published27.4 percent of their academic articles in tax journals, 36.3 percent in ac-counting journals, 23.0 percent in non-tax/non-accounting journals, and13.3 percent in education journals In contrast, 63.1 percent of their pro-fessional articles appeared in tax journals, 28.0 percent in accounting jour-nals, and 8.9 percent in non-tax/non-accounting journals Again excludingeducation articles, we find the proportion of articles in each of the remainingthree categories does differ significantly for academic and professional pub-lications (X2¼27.073, po0.01) In years seven through 15, and again

Table 4 Publications of 93/94, 87/88, and 77/78 Tax Ph.D Graduates by Journal Classification.

the 93/94 sample (N ¼ 51 scholars)

Publications by the 87/88 sample (N ¼ 46 scholars)

Publications by the 77/78 sample (N ¼ 45 scholars)

Publications by the 93/94 sample (N ¼ 51 scholars)

Publications by the 87/88 sample (N ¼ 46 scholars)

Publications by the 77/78 sample (N ¼ 45 scholars) Academic tax 32.6% 27.4% 11.7% 26.5% 26.0% 15.4%

100% (98 articles) 100% (47 articles) 100% (156

articles)

100% (350 articles) Total articles 204 270 158 96 252 506

excluding education articles, the proportions for tax, accounting, and tax/non-accounting publications in professional journals continue to be sig-nificantly different (X2¼25.64, po0.01) from those in academic journals.During the first seven years of their careers, the tax scholars who receivedtheir Ph.Ds in 1977 or 1978 published 11.7 percent of their academic articles

non-in tax journals, 51.7 percent non-in accountnon-ing journals, 30.0 percent non-in non-tax/non-accounting journals, and 6.7 percent in education journals These per-centages are very different than those for professional articles of which 75.5percent were published in tax journals, 17.4 percent in accounting journals,and 7.1 percent in non-tax/non-accounting journals (X2¼57.139, po0.01).The percentages of tax, accounting, and non-tax/non-accounting articles inacademic and professional publications continues to differ significantly inthe post-tenure time period from year seven to 25 (X2¼42.21, po0.01)

In summary, the results for the 93/94 scholars are very different thanthose for both the 87/88 and 77/78 scholars In every time period, the 87/88and 77/78 tax scholars had a much greater percentage of their professionalarticles published in tax-oriented journals Their academic articles weremore often targeted toward a broader accounting audience There are feweracademic tax journals than accounting journals In addition, several of thetax journals did not come into existence until a later time period, which mayaccount for the difference in academic publication results between the 93/94scholars and both the 87/88 and 77/78 scholars

We also find the proportions of academic tax, accounting, and non-tax/non-accounting articles differ significantly between the 77/78 and 87/88scholars and the 77/78 and 93/94 scholars, but not significantly between the87/88 and 93/94 scholars in the first seven years of their careers.19As notedpreviously, the proportion of academic tax publications in the total aca-demic portfolio increases from 11.7 percent (77/78 sample) to 32.6 percent(93/94) It also is interesting to note the portion of tax scholars’ publicationactivity in academic journals that are neither tax nor accounting journals

Of the total academic publications, 30.0, 23.0, and 20.0 percent of the 77/78,87/88, and 93/94 scholars’ publications, respectively, are in non-tax/non-accounting journals such as the Journal of Finance and the Journal ofEconomic Psychology

scholars, with the two earlier groups Looking first, however, at overallproductivity measures, we note that all three samples of tax scholars possess

a significantly smaller percentage of non-publishers and a higher averagenumber of publications per scholar when the productivity measures includeall types of publication outlets (i.e., tax, accounting, non-tax/non-account-ing in both academic and professional journals) Similar to the findings inprior research (Christensen et al., 2002), publication activity is greater inschools with accounting Ph.D programs

A substantial number of tax scholars publish in both academic and fessional journals, indicating that the isolation of the academic tax com-munity from the practice tax community may not be as pronounced as hasbeen suggested (Bricker & Previts, 1990) Although publications in academicjournals as a whole are increasing, a substantial number of tax articlesauthored by academicians continue to be published in professional journals.Hence, collectively, tax scholars’ research portfolios reflect a balance be-tween publications accessible to academic and professional audiences Ad-ditionally, a comparison of the timing of these academic and professionaljournal publications across the expanded time periods of the 87/88 and77/78 samples shows no statistically significant differences The balance ofprofessional and academic articles is maintained over the extended careers

pro-of tax scholars

The research focus, rigor, and training in Ph.D programs may accountfor the increase in the overall number of publications in academic journalsover time The creation of additional journals may serve to offset the lowacceptance rates in some journals Further, the reward structure within theacademic community and reduced teaching loads are likely to contribute tocontinuous publication efforts over tax scholars’ careers Finally, the mis-sion of a particular school to expand the boundaries of knowledge, buildbridges to the professional community, or improve pedagogy is likely toinfluence the research and publication activities of tax scholars

We also see a change in the latest scholar group with regards to lications in professional journals Of the three groups, the 93/94 scholarspublished the largest number of professional articles in the pre-Ph.D pe-riod The increase in professional journal publications in this early timeperiod may reflect an increased pressure to publish before exiting the doc-toral program but also may support an early understanding of the appli-cability of one’s research to the broader professional community

pub-The results for the 93/94 scholars also differ from the 87/88 and 77/78scholars in terms of where their professional articles are published In everytime period, the 87/88 and 77/78 tax scholars have a greater percentage of

ANNE L CHRISTENSEN AND CLAIRE K LATHAM24

their professional articles in tax journals and a smaller percentage of ademic articles published in tax journals This percentage is closer to beingequal for the 93/94 sample Further, examining professional journal activity,

ac-we see a shift in outlet choice by the 93/94 scholars from professional tax toprofessional accounting and non-tax/non-accounting In contrast, looking

at academic journal activity, we see a shift in publications from academicaccounting to academic tax

As noted previously, differences in the years various journals began lication challenge our ability to compare publication activity For tax schol-ars in the 93/94 and 87/88 samples, we do find an increase in the number ofarticles published in The Journal of the American Taxation Association andAdvances in Taxation, a decrease in the number published in The AccountingReview and only occasional publications in Accounting, Organizations andSociety, the Journal of Accounting and Economics, and the Journal of Ac-counting Research These findings are consistent with the intertemporal ev-idence ofSwanson (2004), who shows the proportion of accounting facultypublishing in four major journals declining over the time period 1980–1999(The Journal of Accounting & Economics, Journal of Accounting Research,The Accounting Review, and Contemporary Accounting Research), as well asadditional evidence of an increase in competition measured by an increase inthe average number of co-authors It underscores the importance of TheJournal of the American Taxation Association and Advances in Taxation asoutlets for academic tax publications and provides support for the sugges-tion ofSwanson (2004, p 249)‘‘to allow the most highly rated journal in anaccounting faculty member’s primary area of interest (that is, finance, man-agerial, auditing, systems, or tax) to be treated as a major journal.’’Our results should be considered in light of several limitations First, thetax scholars in the 77/78 and 87/88 samples must have remained in academia

pub-at least through 1996 Second, fewer 93/94 tax scholars were first employed

at accounting Ph.D granting institutions than the 87/88 and 77/78 taxscholars The publication activity of scholars who completed their Ph.Ds inother years may differ from those in the years we selected Third, as in manyprior productivity studies, we count dissimilar publications without adjust-ing for quality and we give full credit to all authors Giving equal weight tosole-authored and co-authored publications may increase the number ofpublications examined in totality.Englebrecht et al (1994, p 67)suggest the

‘‘lack of a logical rule for employing differential weights to co-authored andsole-authored publications preclude(s) any such classification’’ in studies ofthis type Finally, our findings are limited by any inaccuracies that may bepresent in the databases used

This study provides a comprehensive examination of where tax scholarshave directed their research efforts It documents a long-standing and con-tinuing stream of publications directed toward the professional tax com-munity, while observing an increase in academic publications, many ofwhich appear in academic tax journals There is increased interest in as-sessment in university settings, including reporting and evaluating publica-tion activity of researchers at different stages of employment and whenadjusting salaries Though we do examine the period of time that is typicallyviewed as the tenure clock, we include additional time period comparisons.Depending on the research expectations of a university, the results of thisstudy could be constructive in both establishing goals for and in evaluatingperformance of tax scholars annually and at other traditional milestones intheir academic careers.

NOTES

1 The 1996 Prentice-Hall Accounting Faculty Directory was selected to allow forthe lag time that may have occurred in 1994 graduates being listed in the directory.Some of the selected individuals had one or more other teaching or research interests

2 We also searched the Lexis/Nexis Index of Law Review Articles, but did notfind any additional publications by the individuals in our samples We did find onelaw review article by a member of one sample listed in CCH’s Federal Tax Articles

3 We collected information on scholars who moved from doctoral grantingschools to non-doctoral granting schools and vice versa during the pre-tenure period(Hasselback, 1978–1997) We noted no significant differences in the overall mean andmedian number of publications by scholars at doctoral and non-doctoral grantingschools when adjustments are made for school changes Hence, we classify scholarsstrictly on the basis of their first school of employment after the doctoral degree

4 Tax scholars with a J.D or L.L.M were only included in the study if they alsohad a Ph.D This decision was made because the type of research training undertaken

in Ph.D programs differs from that in J.D and L.L.M programs

5 Some universities consider only publications of scholars while in residence fortenure and promotion decisions We provide information so that the mean number

of publications can be calculated excluding those that occurred prior to completingthe Ph.D

6 We chose 1988 graduates in order to provide a seven-year time period thatincludes 1988 through 1994 We then increased the sample size by pooling the 1988graduates with the 1987 graduates The earliest sample (1977 and 1978) allows us tocompare findings from a decade earlier

7 In cases where the same article may have been reprinted in another journal, with adifferent title, authors were given credit for two publications In cases where the title didnot change, as in articles first published in Taxation for Accountants and then reprinted

in Taxation for Lawyers, the authors were given credit for a single publication

ANNE L CHRISTENSEN AND CLAIRE K LATHAM26

8 The reader is referred toChristensen et al (2002)for a comprehensive sion of ABI Inform and the Social Science Citation Index The EconLibrary (formerlythe Economic Literature Database) updates the Accounting Literature Index andseveral other indexes to include 475 journals of economics, finance, accounting,insurance, and real estate The CCH Federal Tax Articles also includes a number ofjournals specializing in tax that are not incorporated in the other databases searched.

discus-9 We recognize that the databases we searched are unlikely to contain 100 percent

of the publications of our scholars We obtained vitae from a subset of our scholarsand compared the publication records we developed from the various databases tothe publication records on specific vitae We did discover some publications on thevitae that were not included in our data set These journals tended to be of a morespecialized nature, such as The Marquette Sports Law Journal and The BehaviorTherapist There were articles also in the study dataset that were not reflected on thevitae Follow-up phone calls to these scholars indicated that the vitae contained onlyselected publications Because not everyone responded to our request for vitae, weincluded only publications that were included in the databases This approach createsconsistency in the treatment of all scholars in our samples

10 Management Accounting has been renamed Strategic Finance, which we alsoclassify as an accounting journal

11 Books, monographs, and other non-journal publications are omitted from thisstudy although they are considered for promotion and tenure purposes at mostschools

12 Christensen et al (2002) use 1987/88 and 1977/78 samples comprised ofscholars from all the accounting disciplines They note that 34% of the 1987/1988sample and 51% of the 1977/1978 sample did not publish Using the AccountingLiterature Index,Read et al (1998)examine publication productivity of accountingfaculty promoted during the period 1987–1994 and find 40% (0%) of faculty at non-doctoral granting institutions (doctoral granting institutions) have no publications.Examining accounting faculty who were promoted in 1987, 1988, and 1989,

Englebrecht et al (1994)determine that approximately 2–38 percent of the uals promoted are non-publishers with the low end of the range being for individuals

individ-at accredited doctoral-granting institutions and the high end being for faculty individ-at accredited, non-doctoral granting institutions

non-13 Excluding non-publishers, the average number of publications is 4.44 for the93/94 scholars, 6.43 for the 87/88 scholars, and 4.27 for the 77/78 scholars

14 This is a one-tailed test as we expected scholars employed at doctoral grantinginstitutions to have a larger number of publications than those employed at non-doctoral granting institutions (Christensen et al., 2002;Read et al., 1998)

15 The average number of publications for each group over different time periodsmay be calculated using Table 3

16 These are two-tailed tests as we did not have any a priori expectations that onegroup would publish more in professional or academic journals than another group

17 We rely on highly rated journals listings from prior studies.Read et al (1998)

base their listing of the top nine journals on a study byBrown and Huefner (1994),who asked senior faculty to rank 44 journals We include their journals and add TheNational Tax Journal, which was included on the senior faculty list but not in theirstudy, as it was not part of the data source they used (Accounting Literature Index)

For journals not included in Table 2, the reader is referred to the appendix, whichprovides frequency counts for all the journals in which the sample scholars arepublished.

18 These are two-tailed tests as we did not have any a priori expectations that theproportion of publication in professional journals would change from one timeperiod to another

19 The test statistic for the differences in proportions for 77/78 and 87/88 is

X2¼8.975, p ¼ 0.03; the 77/78 and 93/94 is X2¼9.136, p ¼ 0.028; and for 87/88and 93/94 is X2¼5.944, p ¼ 0.114

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support for this researchthat was provided by Montana State University and Washington StateUniversity In addition, we would like to thank Rosanne Mohr, TimothyRupert, Debra Sanders, the anonymous reviewers and the Editor, SuzanneLuttman for helpful comments and suggestions on the manuscript

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List of JournalsaAcademy of Management Executive (PN) (1)

Accountancy Ireland (PA) (1)

Accounting and Business Research (AA) (2)

Accounting and Finance (PA) (1)

Accounting Educator’s Journal (ED) (11)

Accounting Enquiries (AA) (4)

Accounting Historians Journal (AA) (2)

Accounting Horizons (AA) (20)

Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal (AA) (3)

Accounting, Organizations and Society (AA) (2)

Advances in Accounting (AA) (12)

Advances in International Accounting (AA) (4)

Advances in Public Interest Accounting (AA) (1)

Advances in Quantitative Analysis of Finance and Accounting (AA) (2)

Advances in Taxation (AT) (25)

Administration and Society (PN) (1)

Akron Business and Economic Review (PN) (2)

American Business Law Journal (PN) (1)

American Business Review (PN) (3)

American Economic Review (AN) (1)

Applied Financial Economics (AN) (3)

Appraisal Journa1 (PN) (2)

Arkansas Business and Economic Review (PN) (1)

Asian Pacific Journal of Management (AN) (1)

Auditing: A Journal of Practice and Theory (AA) (15)

Australian Accountant (PA) (1)

Behavioral Research in Accounting (AA) (3)

Benefits Quarterly (PN) (1)

British Accounting Review (AA) (1)

British Tax Review (PT) (3)

Computers in Accounting (PA) (2)

ANNE L CHRISTENSEN AND CLAIRE K LATHAM30

Contemporary Accounting Research (AA) (15)

Corporate Accounting (PA) (1)

Corporate Controller (PA) (2)

Corporate Tax (PT) (3)

S Corporations: The Journal of Tax, Legal and Business Strategies (PT) (3)CPA Journal (PA) (92)

Decision Sciences (AN) (1)

Economic Journal (AN) (1)

Economic Letters (AN) (1)

Engineering Economist (PN) (1)

Estate Planning (PN) (3)

Financial Accountability and Management (AA) (1)

Financial Analysts Journal (PN) (2)

Financial Management (PN) (2)

Financial Review (AN) (2)

Financial Services Review (AN) (2)

Government Accountants Journal (PA) (2)

Government Finance Review (PN) (2)

Housing Policy Debate (AN) (2)

Internal Auditing (PA) (7)

Internal Auditor (PA) (10)

International Journal of Accounting and Education Research (ED) (9)

International Journal of Forecasting (AN) (1)

International Tax Journal (PT) (14)

Issues in Accounting Education (ED) (8)

Ivey Business Journal (PN) (2)

Journal of Accountancy (PA) (36)

Journal of Accounting & Economics (AA) (19)

Journal of Accounting and Public Policy (AA) (17)

Journal of Accounting Education (ED) (17)

Journal of Accounting Literature (AA) (7)

Journal of Accounting Research (AA) (40)

Journal of Accounting, Auditing and Finance (AA) (14)

Journal of Accounting, Auditing and Taxation (AA) (6)

Journal of Agricultural Taxation and Law (PT) (1)

Journal of American Academy of Business (AN) (1)

Journal of Applied Business Research (AN) (11)

Journal of Applied Economics (AN) (1)

Journal of Asset Protection (PN) (1)

APPENDIX (Continued )

List of Journalsa

Journal of Bank Taxation (PT) (1)

Journal of Business (PN) (3)

Journal of Business and Economic Studies (AN) (1)

Journal of Business Ethics (AN) (6)

Journal of Business Research (AN) (2)

Journal of Business, Finance and Accounting (PA) (18)

Journal of Compensation and Benefits (PN) (3)

Journal of Corporate Accounting and Finance (PN) (20)

Journal of Corporate Taxation (PT) (8)

Journal of Cost Management (AA) (1)

Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization (AN) (1)

Journal of Economic Issues (AN) (2)

Journal of Economic Psychology (AN) (3)

Journal of Economic Theory (AN) (2)

Journal of Economics and Business (PN) (1)

Journal of Environmental Economics and Management (AN) (1)

Journal of Finance (AN) (4)

Journal of Financial Economics (AN) (5)

Journal of Financial Planning (PN) (4)

Journal of Financial Research (AN) (2)

Journal of Financial Service Professionals (PN) (3)

Journal of Financial Statement Analysis (AN) (1)

Journal of Forecasting (AN) (3)

Journal of General Management (PN) (1)

Journal of Health Economics (AN) (1)

Journal of Housing Economics (AN) (1)

Journal of Housing Research (AN) (1)

Journal of International Business Studies (AN) (2)

Journal of International Taxation (PT) (2)

Journal of Law and Economics (AN) (3)

Journal of Legal Studies (AN) (1)

Journal of Lending and Credit Risk Management (PN) (1)

Journal of Macroeconomics (AN) (1)

Journal of Management Accounting Research (AA) (3)

Journal of Marketing (AN) (1)

Journal of Mathematical Economics (AN) (1)

Journal of Operations Management (AN) (1)

Journal of Organizational Behavior (AN) (2)

Journal of Partnership Taxation (PT) (3)

APPENDIX (Continued )

List of JournalsaANNE L CHRISTENSEN AND CLAIRE K LATHAM32

Journal of Pass Through Entities (PA) (2)

Journal of Pension Planning and Compliance (PN) (1)

Journal of Political Economy (AN) (1)

Journal of Professional Services Marketing (AN) (1)

Journal of Property Management (PN) (2)

Journal of Public Budgeting, Accounting and Financial Management (AA) (1)Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics (AN) (2)

Journal of Real Estate Research (AN) (1)

Journal of Real Estate Taxation (PT) (17)

Journal of Retirement Planning (PN) (1)

Journal of Small Business Management (PN) (1)

Journal of Small Business Research (AN) (2)

Journal of State Taxation (PT) (2)

Journal of Tax Practice and Procedures (PT) (1)

Journal of Taxation (PT) (41)

Journal of Taxation of Corporate Transactions (PT) (2)

Journal of Taxation of Estates and Trusts (PT) (1)

Journal of Taxation of Investments (PT) (19)

Journal of the American Real Estate and Urban Economics Assoc (PN) (1)Journal of the American Society of CLU and CHFC (PN) (3)

Journal of the American Taxation Association (AT) (88)

Journal of the Marketing Research Society (AN) (2)

Journal of Theory Decisions (AN) (1)

Journal of Urban Economics (PN) (1)

Journal of World Trade (PN) (1)

Lecture Notes in Economics and Mathematical Systems (AN) (1)

Local Government Studies (PN) (1)

Long Range Planning (PN) (2)

Louisiana CPA (PA) (1)

Louisiana Law Review (AN) (1)

Management Accounting (PA) (25)

Management Accounting Quarterly (PA) (1)

Management and Decision Economics (AN) (2)

Management International Review (AN) (1)

Management Science (AN) (1)

Managerial Auditing Journal (PA) (9)

Managerial Finance (AN) (4)

Mid-American Journal of Business (AN) (3)

Multinational Business Review (PN) (1)

APPENDIX (Continued )

List of Journalsa

National Public Accountant (PA) (46)

National Tax Journal (AT) (17)

Nonprofit Management and Leadership (PN) (1)

Nonprofit World (PN) (2)

Ohio CPA Journal (PA) (12)

Oil and Gas Tax Quarterly (PT) (5)

Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes (AN) (4)

Plant Engineering (AN) (1)

Practical Accountant (PA) (13)

Practical Tax Strategies (PT) (20)

Production and Inventory Management Journal (AN) (1)

Property Tax Journal (PT) (1)

Psychological Reports (AN) (2)

Public Administration Review (AN) (1)

Public Finance Quarterly (AN) (2)

Public Opinion Quarterly (AN) (2)

Rand Journal of Economics (AN) (1)

Real Estate Accounting and Taxation (PT) (4)

Real Estate Appraiser and Analyst (PN) (1)

Real Estate Law Journal (PN) (18)

Real Estate Review (PN) (7)

Regional Science and Urban Economics (AN) (1)

Research in Accounting Ethics (AA) (4)

Research in Accounting Regulation (AA) (4)

Review of Accounting Studies (AA) (5)

Review of Business and Economic Research (AN) (1)

Review of Financial Economics (AN) (2)

Review of Financial Studies (AN) (2)

Review of Taxation of Individuals (PT) (9)

Small Business Controller (AN) (2)

Small Business Taxation (PT) (1)

Social Science Quarterly (PN) (1)

Socio Economic Planning Science (AN) (1)

South Dakota Business Review (PN) (2)

Southern Economic Journal (PN) (1)

Spectrum (AN) (1)

SRA Journal (PN) (1)

Strategic Financeb(PA) (5)

Systems: The Journal of State Government (AN) (1)

APPENDIX (Continued )

List of JournalsaANNE L CHRISTENSEN AND CLAIRE K LATHAM34

Tax Advisor (PT) (130)

Tax Executive (PT) (4)

Tax Notes (PT) (20)

Tax Notes International (PT) (2)

Taxation for Accountants (PT) (79)

Taxation for Lawyers (PT) (1)

Taxes (PT) (103)

The Accounting Review (AA) (52)

The Oxford Economic Papers: New Series (AN) (1)

Total Quality Management (AN) (1)

Transportation Journal (AN) (1)

Trusts and Estates (PN) (3)

Woman CPA (PA) (5)

World Bank Economic Review (AN) (1)

a

Code: AA (Academic Accounting), AN (Academic Non-Accounting), AT (Academic Tax),

ED (Education), PA, (Professional Accounting), PN (Professional Non-Accounting, Non-Tax),

PT (Professional Tax) Number in parentheses is number of articles published by sample scholars.

TAX PLANNING FOR THE

INTRODUCTION

The IRC Section 6033 proxy tax, commonly known as the lobby tax, sets up

a unique situation in which a tax-exempt association that engages in

Advances in Taxation, Volume 17, 37–63

Copyright r 2007 by Elsevier Ltd.

All rights of reproduction in any form reserved

ISSN: 1058-7497/doi:10.1016/S1058-7497(06)17002-7

37

lobbying activities can choose whether to pay a tax on those activities or topass the incidence of the tax on to its members by making their dues a non-deductible expense Even if one argues that the incidence of the tax ulti-mately falls on the members either way, the organization’s choice influencesthe rate at which the tax is paid – 35% if paid by the association, andanywhere from 0% to 50%, depending on the marginal tax bracket, ifpassed along to the members in the form of a disallowed deduction.1Thisarticle explores the factors that influence the association’s choice of whether

to notify members as to the non-deductibility of their dues or to pay thelobby tax Specifically, it looks for evidence that trade, labor, and agricul-tural associations (hereafter referred to simply as associations) consider themarginal tax rates of their members to insure that the party with the lowestmarginal rate pays the lobby tax This is the first research study to examineempirically the lobby tax issue

The pay-or-notify decision is modeled using a binomial logistic regression.Data is obtained from the IRS Statistics of Income (SOI) Division and issupplemented by a mail survey of associations with lobbying activity Theevidence suggests that associations do not necessarily seek to minimize thetotal tax cost associated with the lobby tax Non-tax considerations seem todrive the decision, but it is not clear that associations always make theoptimal choice for their members This study identifies a situation where non-profit firms might ignore the ‘‘all parties, all taxes, all costs’’ tax-planningapproach (Scholes et al., 2005) and where the absence of a competitive mar-ket allows this inefficiency to persist The paper proceeds as follows The nextsection describes the lobby tax and develops the primary research proposi-tion The third and fourth sections discuss the research method and the data,while the final sections present the results and conclusions

BACKGROUND AND HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT

The Taxation of Lobbying

In the United States, lobbying has become an accepted and ever-present part

of the political system Many large corporations, labor unions, professionalassociations, educational groups, medical interests, farm alliances, and var-ious public interest and social issue groups maintain permanent lobbies inWashington, DC and in state capitals to promote and protect their interests(‘‘Lobbying,’’ 2001–2004; see alsohttp://www.opensecrets.org) Trade andprofessional associations, labor unions, agricultural associations, and other

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