Handbook of Transportation Policy and Administration doc

A Comprehensive Publication ProgramExecutive Editor JACK RABIN Professor of Public Administration and Public Policy School of Public Affairs The Capital College The Pennsylvania State Un

Handbook of Transportation Policy and Administration

A Comprehensive Publication Program

Executive Editor

JACK RABIN

Professor of Public Administration and Public Policy

School of Public Affairs The Capital College The Pennsylvania State University–Harrisburg

7 Approaches to Planned Change, Robert T Golembiewski

8 Program Evaluation at HEW, edited by James G Abert

9 The States and the Metropolis, Patricia S Florestano

and Vincent L Marando

11 Changing Bureaucracies: Understanding the Organization before Selecting the Approach, William A Medina

12 Handbook on Public Budgeting and Financial Management, edited by Jack Rabin and Thomas D Lynch

15 Handbook on Public Personnel Administration and Labor Relations, edited by Jack Rabin, Thomas Vocino,

W Bartley Hildreth, and Gerald J Miller

19 Handbook of Organization Management, edited by

William B Eddy

22 Politics and Administration: Woodrow Wilson and American Public Administration, edited by Jack Rabin

and James S Bowman

23 Making and Managing Policy: Formulation, Analysis,

Evaluation, edited by G Ronald Gilbert

25 Decision Making in the Public Sector, edited by Lloyd G Nigro

26 Managing Administration, edited by Jack Rabin,

Samuel Humes, and Brian S Morgan

27 Public Personnel Update, edited by Michael Cohen

and Robert T Golembiewski

28 State and Local Government Administration, edited by

Jack Rabin and Don Dodd

29 Public Administration: A Bibliographic Guide to the Literature, Howard E McCurdy

31 Handbook of Information Resource Management, edited by Jack Rabin and Edward M Jackowski

32 Public Administration in Developed Democracies:

A Comparative Study, edited by Donald C Rowat

33 The Politics of Terrorism: Third Edition, edited by Michael Stohl

34 Handbook on Human Services Administration, edited by Jack Rabin and Marcia B Steinhauer

36 Ethics for Bureaucrats: An Essay on Law and Values,

Second Edition, John A Rohr

37 The Guide to the Foundations of Public Administration,

Daniel W Martin

39 Terrorism and Emergency Management: Policy

and Administration, William L Waugh, Jr.

40 Organizational Behavior and Public Management:

Second Edition, Michael L Vasu, Debra W Stewart,

and G David Garson

43 Government Financial Management Theory, Gerald J Miller

46 Handbook of Public Budgeting, edited by Jack Rabin

49 Handbook of Court Administration and Management, edited by Steven W Hays and Cole Blease Graham, Jr.

50 Handbook of Comparative Public Budgeting and Financial Management, edited by Thomas D Lynch

and Lawrence L Martin

53 Encyclopedia of Policy Studies: Second Edition, edited by Stuart S Nagel

54 Handbook of Regulation and Administrative Law, edited by David H Rosenbloom and Richard D Schwartz

55 Handbook of Bureaucracy, edited by Ali Farazmand

56 Handbook of Public Sector Labor Relations, edited by

Jack Rabin, Thomas Vocino, W Bartley Hildreth,

and Gerald J Miller

57 Practical Public Management, Robert T Golembiewski

58 Handbook of Public Personnel Administration, edited by Jack Rabin, Thomas Vocino, W Bartley Hildreth,

and Gerald J Miller

60 Handbook of Debt Management, edited by Gerald J Miller

61 Public Administration and Law: Second Edition,

David H Rosenbloom and Rosemary O’Leary

62 Handbook of Local Government Administration, edited by John J Gargan

63 Handbook of Administrative Communication, edited by

James L Garnett and Alexander Kouzmin

67 Handbook of Public Finance, edited by Fred Thompson

and Mark T Green

68 Organizational Behavior and Public Management: Third Edition, Michael L Vasu, Debra W Stewart, and G David Garson

69 Handbook of Economic Development, edited by

Kuotsai Tom Liou

70 Handbook of Health Administration and Policy, edited by Anne Osborne Kilpatrick and James A Johnson

71 Handbook of Research Methods in Public Administration, edited by Gerald J Miller and Marcia L Whicker

72 Handbook on Taxation, edited by W Bartley Hildreth

and James A Richardson

73 Handbook of Comparative Public Administration in the

Asia-Pacific Basin, edited by Hoi-kwok Wong and Hon S Chan

74 Handbook of Global Environmental Policy and Administration, edited by Dennis L Soden and Brent S Steel

75 Handbook of State Government Administration, edited by John J Gargan

76 Handbook of Global Legal Policy, edited by Stuart S Nagel

78 Handbook of Global Economic Policy, edited by Stuart S Nagel

79 Handbook of Strategic Management: Second Edition, edited by Jack Rabin, Gerald J Miller, and W Bartley Hildreth

80 Handbook of Global International Policy, edited by

Stuart S Nagel

81 Handbook of Organizational Consultation: Second Edition, edited by Robert T Golembiewski

82 Handbook of Global Political Policy, edited by Stuart S Nagel

83 Handbook of Global Technology Policy, edited by

Stuart S Nagel

84 Handbook of Criminal Justice Administration, edited by

M A DuPont-Morales, Michael K Hooper, and Judy H Schmidt

85 Labor Relations in the Public Sector: Third Edition, edited by Richard C Kearney

86 Handbook of Administrative Ethics: Second Edition, edited by Terry L Cooper

87 Handbook of Organizational Behavior: Second Edition,

edited by Robert T Golembiewski

88 Handbook of Global Social Policy, edited by Stuart S Nagel and Amy Robb

89 Public Administration: A Comparative Perspective,

Sixth Edition, Ferrel Heady

90 Handbook of Public Quality Management, edited by

Ronald J Stupak and Peter M Leitner

91 Handbook of Public Management Practice and Reform, edited by Kuotsai Tom Liou

92 Personnel Management in Government: Politics and Process, Fifth Edition, Jay M Shafritz, Norma M Riccucci,

David H Rosenbloom, Katherine C Naff, and Albert C Hyde

93 Handbook of Crisis and Emergency Management, edited by Ali Farazmand

94 Handbook of Comparative and Development Public

Administration: Second Edition, edited by Ali Farazmand

95 Financial Planning and Management in Public Organizations, Alan Walter Steiss and Emeka O Cyprian Nwagwu

96 Handbook of International Health Care Systems, edited by Khi V Thai, Edward T Wimberley, and Sharon M McManus

97 Handbook of Monetary Policy, edited by Jack Rabin

and Glenn L Stevens

98 Handbook of Fiscal Policy, edited by Jack Rabin

and Glenn L Stevens

99 Public Administration: An Interdisciplinary Critical Analysis, edited by Eran Vigoda

100 Ironies in Organizational Development: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Robert T Golembiewski

101 Science and Technology of Terrorism and Counterterrorism, edited by Tushar K Ghosh, Mark A Prelas, Dabir S Viswanath, and Sudarshan K Loyalka

102 Strategic Management for Public and Nonprofit Organizations, Alan Walter Steiss

103 Case Studies in Public Budgeting and Financial Management: Second Edition, edited by Aman Khan and W Bartley Hildreth

104 Handbook of Conflict Management, edited by

William J Pammer, Jr and Jerri Killian

105 Chaos Organization and Disaster Management,

Alan Kirschenbaum

106 Handbook of Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender

Administration and Policy, edited by Wallace Swan

107 Public Productivity Handbook: Second Edition, edited by Marc Holzer

108 Handbook of Developmental Policy Studies, edited by

Gedeon M Mudacumura, Desta Mebratu

and M Shamsul Haque

109 Bioterrorism in Medical and Healthcare Administration, Laure Paquette

110 International Public Policy and Management: Policy Learning Beyond Regional, Cultural, and Political Boundaries, edited by David Levi-Faur and Eran Vigoda-Gadot

111 Handbook of Public Information Systems, Second Edition, edited by G David Garson

112 Handbook of Public Sector Economics, edited by

Donijo Robbins

113 Handbook of Public Administration and Policy in the European Union, edited by M Peter van der Hoek

115 Common Ground, Common Future: Moral Agency in Public Administration, Professions, and Citizenship, Charles Garofalo and Dean Geuras

116 Handbook of Organization Theory and Management:

The Philosophical Approach, Second Edition, edited by

Thomas D Lynch and Peter L Cruise

117 International Development Governance, edited by

Ahmed Shafiqul Huque and Habib Zafarullah

118 Sustainable Development Policy and Administration, edited by Gedeon M Mudacumura, Desta Mebratu, and M Shamsul Haque

119 Public Financial Management, edited by Howard A Frank

120 Handbook of Juvenile Justice: Theory and Practice, edited by Barbara Sims and Pamela Preston

121 Emerging Infectious Diseases and the Threat to Occupational Health in the U.S and Canada, edited by William Charney

122 Handbook of Technology Management in Public

Administration, edited by David Greisler and Ronald J Stupak

123 Handbook of Decision Making, edited by Göktu ˘g Morçöl

124 Handbook of Public Administration, Third Edition, edited by Jack Rabin, W Bartley Hildreth, and Gerald J Miller

125 Handbook of Public Policy Analysis: Theory, Politics,

and Methods, edited by Frank Fischer, Gerald J Miller,

and Mara S Sidney

126 Elements of Effective Governance: Measurement,

Accountability and Participation, Kathe Callahan

127 Handbook of Transportation Policy and Administration,

edited by Jeremy Plant

128 Art and Practice of Court Administration, Alexander B Aikman

Available Electronically

Principles and Practices of Public Administration, edited by Jack Rabin, Robert F Munzenrider, and Sherrie M Bartell

Edited by

Jeremy F Plant

The Pennsylvania State University–Harrisburg

Middletown, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

Associate Editor Van R Johnston

University of Denver Denver, Colorado, U.S.A.

Assistant Editor Cristina E Ciocirlan

Elizabethtown College Elizabethtown, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

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Handbook of transportation policy and administration / edited by Jeremy Plant,

Van R Johnston, and Cristina Ciocirlan.

p cm (Public administration and public policy ; 127)

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN-13: 978-1-57444-565-7 (alk paper)

ISBN-10: 1-57444-565-0 (alk paper)

1 Transportation and state I Plant, Jeremy F., 1945- II Johnston, Van R III

Ciocirlan, Cristina IV Title V Series.

To our friends and colleagues in the Section on Transportation Policy and Administration of the American Society for Public Administration.

Contributors

John A Anderson Ph.D., associate professor, and director of administration and

lead-ership studies research, department of sociology, Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Dixon University Center, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania

Simon P Anderson commonwealth professor, department of economics, University

of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia

Michael T Behney instructor of public affairs, School of Public Affairs, and director,

Institute of State and Regional Affairs, the Pennsylvania State University–Harrisburg, Middletown, Pennsylvania

David Connelly assistant professor, department of political science, Western Illinois

University, Macomb, Illinois

Eric T Donnell assistant professor, department of civil and environmental

engineer-ing, the Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania

Z Andrew Farkas professor, Institute for Transportation, Morgan State University,

Baltimore, Maryland

Mary Beth Farquahr Ph.D candidate, School of Public and International

Affairs,Virginia Polytechnic Institution and State University, Alexandria, Virginia

Patrick Fisher department of political science, Seton Hall University, South Orange,

New Jersey

Johnathan Gerber Ph.D candidate and teaching assistant, department of political

science, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington

Andrew R Goetz professor, department of geography, Intermodal Transportation

Institute, University of Denver, Denver, Colorado

Steve G Green professor, department of management, United States Air Force

Acad-emy, Colorado Springs, Colorado

John J Gruidl professor of agricultural economics, Illinois Institute for Rural Affairs,

Western Illinois University, Macomb, Illinois

R John Hansman professor, department of aeronautics and astronautics,

Massachu-setts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MassachuMassachu-setts

Kevin E Henrickson Ph.D candidate, Gonzaga University, Jepson School of

Busi-ness, Eugene, Oregon

Kurt A Heppard associate professor, department of management, United States Air

Force Academy, Colorado Springs, Colorado

Pannapa Herabat assistant professor, department of construction management and

engineering, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota

Paul Hubler MPA, University of La Verne, La Verne, California

Erik W Johnston Ph.D candidate, School of Information, Center for the Study of

Complex Systems, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan

Van R Johnston professor of public policy and business, Daniels College of ness, University of Denver, Denver, Colorado

Busi-Bassel El-Kasaby instructor, Aviation Institute, School of Public Administration,

University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, Nebraska

Wendell C Lawther associate professor, department of public administration,

Uni-versity of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida

Joanne L Lubart assistant counsel, ofi ce of chief counsel, Pennsylvania Department

of Transportation, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania

Daniel Madar professor, department of political science, Brock University, St

Catharines, Ontario

Sarmistha Rina Majumdar assistant professor, department of political science, Sam

Houston State University, Huntsville, Texas

John M Mason, Jr associate dean and professor, College of Engineering, The

Penn-sylvania State University, University Park, PennPenn-sylvania

Sue McNeil professor, department of civil and environmental engineering, University

of Delaware, Newark, Delaware

Jack W Meek professor, College of Business and Public Management, University of

La Verne, La Verne, California

Christopher D Merrett director and professor of geography, Illinois Institute for

Rural Affairs, Western Illinois University, Macomb, Illinois

Göktu ğ Morçöl associate professor, School of Public Affairs, the Pennsylvania State

University–Harrisburg, Middletown, Pennsylvania

Margaret Morrow business educator, business department, Frederick High School,

Frederick, Colorado

Aleksandra Mozdzanowska Ph.D candidate, School of Engineering, Massachusetts

Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts

David C Nice professor, department of political science, Washington State University,

Pullman, Washington

Patrick D O’Neil graduate assistant, Aviation Institute, School of Public

Administra-tion, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, Nebraska

Sock-Yong Phang associate professor, School of Economics and Social Sciences,

Singapore Management University, Singapore

Jeremy F Plant professor of public administration and public policy, the Pennsylvania

State University–Harrisburg, Middletown, Pennsylvania

Theodore H Poister professor, fepartment of public administration and urban studies,

Andrew Young School of Policy Studies, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia

Willard Price professor of operations and engineering management, Eberhardt School

of Business, University of the Pacii c, Stockton, California

Thomas W Sanchez associate professor, urban affairs and planning program, Virginia

Tech, Alexandria, Virginia

Paul Seidenstat associate professor of economics, Fox School of Business, Temple

University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Aileen Switzer multi-modal planning supervisor, Wisconsin Department of

Trans-portation, Transportation District Ofi ce 2, Madison, Wisconsin

Joseph S Szyliowicz professor, Graduate School of International Studies, Denver

University, Denver, Colorado

Scott E Tarry professor, Aviation Institute, School of Public Administration,

Uni-versity of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, Nebraska

Contributors

Mary M Timney professor, department of public administration, Pace University,

White Plains, New York

François Vaillancourt professor, economics department, Université de Montréal,

Montréal, Québec, Canada

William L Waugh, Jr professor, Andrew Young School of Policy Studies, Georgia

State University, Atlanta, Georgia

Wesley W Wilson professor, department of economics, University of Oregon,

Eu-gene, Oregon

Philippe Wingender Ph.D candidate, University of California, Berkeley, California James Wolf professor, School of Public and International Affairs, Virginia Polytechnic

Institution and State University, Alexandria, Virginia

Richard R Young associate professor of supply chain management, School of

Busi-ness Administration, the Pennsylvania State University–Harrisburg, Middletown, Pennsylvania

Ulf Zimmermann associate professor, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw,

Georgia

Contents

Acknowledgments xixPreface .xxi

Part I Transportation Systems in the Twenty-First Century

Chapter 1

The Big Questions of Transportation Policy and Administration

in the Twenty-First Century 3

Jeremy F Plant

Chapter 2

The U.S Air Transportation System 9

Aleksandra Mozdzanowska and R John Hansman

Chapter 3

Trucking 27

Daniel Madar

Chapter 4

Beyond the Waterfront: Ports as Leaders of Intermodal Trade 43

Paul Hubler and Jack W Meek

Chapter 5

A Description of the Inland Waterway System and Planning Models 53

Kevin E Henrickson and Wesley W Wilson

Patrick Fisher, Johnathan Gerber, and David C Nice

Part II Transportation and Federalism

State Programs to Support Passenger Rail Service 145

Patrick Fisher and David C Nice

Chapter 10

Metropolitan Planning Organizations and Regional Transportation Planning 169

James Wolf, Thomas W Sanchez, and Mary Beth Farquahr

Chapter 11

Transportation Management Associations: Toward a New View of

Public Policy and Administration 189

Göktuğ Morçöl and Ulf Zimmermann

John J Gruidl, Christopher D Merrett, and David Connelly

Part III Transportation Policy

Chapter 15

Spatial Modeling in Transportation 255

Simon P Anderson and Wesley W Wilson

Chapter 16

Decentralization and the Transport Sector: Some Observations 281

François Vaillancourt with Phillippe Wingender

Chapter 17

Context-Sensitive Design for Highways and Streets 305

Eric T Donnell and John M Mason, Jr.

The Disadvantaged Business Enterprise Program and Transportation Policy 431

John A Anderson, Michael T Behney, and Joanne L Lubart

Part IV Managing Transportation Systems

Chapter 23

From Transportation to Logistics to Supply Chain: Evolution in How

Industry Thinks about Moving Goods 447

Richard R Young

Chapter 24

Transportation Asset Management 459

Pannapa Herabat, Sue McNeil, and Aileen Switzer

Transportation Security Policy 525

Van R Johnston, Paul Seidenstat, and Erik W Johnston

Chapter 32

Securing Mass Transit after the Madrid and London Bombings 607

William L Waugh, Jr.

Index 617

Acknowledgments

The idea of developing the Handbook began with discussions I had with my colleagues

from the Section on Transportation Policy and Administration (STPA) of the American Society for Public Administration STPA was formed in 1992, shortly after the pas-sage of the landmark Intermodal Surface Transportation Efi ciency Act (know by its acronym, ISTEA) a short time earlier STPA is an organization dedicated to advancing the knowledge and practice of transportation policy and administration and bringing transportation-related issues to the attention of public administrators and scholars whose primary focus in on general policy and management questions Three current

or former chairs of STPA—Van Johnston, Scott Tarry, and Jeremy Plant—are among the authors represented in the in this volume, along with STPA executive committee members Willard Price and Wendell Lawther

I also wish to thank a number of individuals whose help has been critical in ing the project forward The Associate Editor, Dr Van Johnston of the University of Denver, took the lead in developing the section on Transportation Security and provided overall guidance as the project developed The Assistant Editor, Cristina Ciocirlan of Elizabethtown College, took time away from her young family and doctoral studies

mov-at Penn Stmov-ate Harrisburg to work with authors in developing their chapters and

bring-ing them to closure Dr Jack Rabin, the Handbook series editor and my colleague at

Penn State Harrisburg, supported the idea of the volume and helped answer many of the questions we encountered as the project proceeded Rich O’Hanley at Auerbach Books provided timely encouragement and guidance, and the staff at Taylor & Francis oversaw the i nal production of the volume

It goes without saying that the greatest contribution has been made by the authors

of the chapters; without them, there would be no Handbook of Transportation Policy

and Administration.

Preface

The past three decades have brought sweeping changes to the i eld of transportation

In the United States and other developed nations, deregulation and greater reliance on markets and the private sector has helped to reconi gure the transport industries The rise of intermodal goods movements and global commerce has produced efi ciencies

of operation and a greater interdependence among transport modes The fundamental importance of transportation in the modern society has been examined by rigorous analysis from a variety of disciplines: engineering, economics, geography, political science, information science, and sociology Tradeoffs between competing values such

as mobility, safety, efi ciency, equity, conservation, aesthetics, and historic preservation have helped to heighten our understanding of the critical position transportation—and policies and management guiding transportation—plays in contemporary life In the post-September 11 era, transportation security issues have moved to center stage as we grapple with the challenge of protecting our vast transportation system while maintain-ing its operational efi ciencies and effectiveness

The Handbook of Transportation Policy and Administration represents an

ef-fort to bring together under one cover the work of a number of leading experts in the emerging and interdisciplinary i eld we call “transportation studies.” It is by no means complete—that would require a multi-volume treatment However, it is intended to provide professionals in the i eld of transportation, students, scholars, public ofi cials, and informed citizens knowledge of the basic organization of the transportation i eld, the policies guiding its operations and development, case examples of transportation planning, operations and management, connections between the transportation system and other policy arenas, and a picture of how transportation modes and systems are changing under the pressure to remain safe and secure under new types of threats.The volume has been developed under what might be called an “open-ended” approach The various authors were not expected to test any particular thesis or vision

of transportation, but rather to contribute their best thinking on major aspects of

trans-portation policy and administration The Handbook takes no stand on the contentious

issues that often arise in discussions of transportation: which mode of transport should

be preferred, should the public or private sector take the lead in making fundamental decisions or running transportation operations, or what discipline holds the key to understanding transportation issues The reader is provided a broad range of insights, beginning with overviews of many of the major transportation modes and moving through discussions of transportation policy and transportation management to the i nal section on transportation security Authors include practitioners, current and former,

as well as scholars and policy analysts The focus is primarily on the United States and almost entirely on transportation in the developed world: a weakness, no doubt, and one that we hope will be corrected in a future examination of transportation in other settings

Part I

Transportation Systems

in the Twenty-First Century

3

The Big Questions of

Transportation Policy and Administration in the

• Deregulation or privatization of major modes of transportation and increasing reliance on market forces to produce an effi cient and productive transportation sector Deregulation has affected all modes of transportation and has led to the disestablishment of much of the regulatory regime and shake-ups in the private sectors of the economy providing transportation services along with generally greater choice for consumers and users of transportation services

• A movement away from narrowly focused transportation programs in favor of more broadly based programs with greater opportunities for stakeholder input and managerial discretion In the United States, a major milestone in this direction was the passage of the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efi ciency Act (ISTEA) in

1991, which broke away from the tradition of specii c, functionally based highway and transit programs in favor of a more comprehensive approach to planning and implementing national surface transportation programs

• A growing tendency to see transportation policy as a clash of competing values—of

“wicked problems” (Harmon and Mayer 1986)—rather than as an exercise in technical expertise Wicked problems, according to Harmon and Mayer, “have

no dei nitive formulation and hence no agreed-upon criteria to tell when a tion has been found; the choice of a dei nition of a problem, in fact, typically determines its ‘solution’” (p 10) Transportation systems according to this view have to be seen not simply as ways to move people and goods, but as contributors

solu-to social values such as equity and access for various groups and individuals in society, historic and cultural preservation, rational land use, energy independence, environmental quality, even aesthetics

• Globalization of the world economy has led to major changes in goods movement and global commerce, but also has increased the risks of terrorist attacks and other threats to transportation systems worldwide Transportation facilities and opera-tions have been major targets of world-wide terrorist activities and will presumably remain inviting opportunities for terrorism into the foreseeable future.

Some see such changes as transformational: in their view, we are witnessing the ning of a new era in transport Some see transformation in the transportation systems and services; others see a sea change in the way we think about transportation, craft transportation policy, and manage transportation operations Others see change as more incremental in nature, moving in a more partial or evolutionary manner from the past to the present The incrementalists point out that we are still an automobile society (and more broadly, a fossil-fuel driven transportation system); that commuting times and distances show a continued preference for suburban living and automobile commut-ing; that air, rail, truck, and water transport seem to have found functions and market niches that are relatively stable; that major policy initiatives in surface transportation policy, beginning with the ISTEA 1991, have not led to wholesale change in roles, processes or outcomes

begin-Regardless of how fundamental the nature of change is perceived to be, all ers of transportation agree that change will continue and will not be simple or without costs One way of focusing attention to the most signii cant issues raised by the chang-ing nature of transportation is to employ an introspective method commonly known as the “big questions” approach In the next section we sketch out the big questions that have informed the organization and content of this volume

observ-BIG QUESTIONS OF TRANSPORTATION POLICY AND

ADMINISTRATION

In recent years, a popular theme of the public policy and administration literature has been identifying the big questions of public management (Behn 1995), public policy, ethics, specii c policy areas, and the like Robert Behn has been a pioneer in establish-ing the big questions approach in the social sciences, and explains it as fundamental

to any academic discipline:

Get any group of scientists from any branch of science together, and they will start talking about the big questions in their i eld, the latest research published about those questions, and how they, through their own research, are attempting to tackle those same big questions Any i eld of science is dei ned by the big questions it asks (p 314)

What are the big questions of transportation policy and administration? Not even the most coni dent pundit would imagine unanimous support for a list derived from introspection and speculation, but perhaps the approach has merit in stimulating thought and discussion In such a loosely coupled i eld as transportation policy, it may be a good

The Big Questions of Transportation Policy and Administration

way to bring experts from a wide variety of backgrounds together to think holistically about transportation matters I offer the following “big questions” as among the most fundamental and signii cant:

• How can transportation systems of different sizes, scope of operations, and means

of delivery be considered as part of an all-encompassing system of transportation, while still understood as having unique characteristics of value? How can we consider both the forest and the trees within the individual modes of transport and the overall system of moving people and goods to which they contribute?

• On what basis, and by whom, should the most important decisions on transportation policy be made? By government, by the private sector, through market preference, public-private collaboration, or command-and-control methods? According to economic logic or crafted through political means? What government roles can

we assign to the different levels of the federal system?

• How best can transportation systems be managed? How is performance dei ned,

made operational, and measured in transportation? What values compete to dei ne good and bad performance—mobility, efi ciency, equity, access, environmental protection, energy conservation, security and safety, and economic stimula-tion—and how are these values weighed?

• How can we deal most effectively with the needs of today’s transportation system while securing transportation systems for the future? What is the nature of the obligation transportation decision makers have to future generations as well as today’s stakeholders to secure and improve transportation systems?

Today’s big questions did not arrive overnight; each, to some degree, is a nation of the constraints and opportunities present today and a pattern of development that stretches well back into history Thus, a strong case can be made that understand-ing the nature of today’s big questions requires knowing the history of transportation policy and administration As Chandler (1977, 1979) has famously pointed out, modern organization and management functions can be dated to the rise of the railroads in the

combi-i rst half of the ncombi-ineteenth century Today’s favored approaches to management bear little resemblance to those of the early railroad companies, steeped as they were in command-and-control orientations, but cannot be understood without a sense of the pat-tern of development that has led through the era of regulation to today’s market-driven and performance-based preferences Federal transportation policy, since the passage

of ISTEA, needs to be seen in light of the devolution of authority from the federal government to the states and the recognition of the need to bring more l exibility into a surface transportation system that was being transformed by the forces of intermodal-ism, competing values in transportation, and the end of a highway-building approach

as the panacea for the federal-state partnership (Dilger 1992; Gage and McDowell 1995) The expanding role of economic logic in policy making and management was stimulated in part by the failure of the regime of regulation to show clearly why it was superior to market-based and rational-actor alternatives The past is still relevant to understanding the present, even when change has apparently washed away the structures and organizations that failed the test of time

The four big questions—how to integrate modes, how and by whom important transportation decisions are made, how best to manage transportation system, and how

to secure transportation from threats—form the basis of the organization of this book Section 1 consists of six chapters that describe and analyze major modes of transporta-tion and components of the contemporary transportation system: trucking, air transport, ports, intelligent transportation systems, inland waterways, and toll roads, in addition

to this introductory chapter on the major issues facing transportation professionals The authors raise issues that are also dealt with in remaining sections and chapters: how can we move from a modal emphasis to a more holistic approach? What policies and management approaches seem most appropriate for specii c modes? How has the new requirement of security from terrorism changed the way we operate transporta-tion systems?

Sections 2 and 3 consider how decisions on transportation policy and tration are, and should be, made Section 2 looks at transportation issues through the lens of American federalism: what is being done by the various levels and units of subnational government The answer, the authors i nd, is a great deal, ranging from the transformation of state transportation agencies from highway departments to full multi-modal, strategic-thinking organizations to the role of metropolitan planning organizations, urban-based transportation management associations; the issues ad-dressed by states and cities range from questions of economic development and urban revitalization to environmental safeguarding, promotion of passenger rail travel, and the needs of rural residents for adequate transportation options

adminis-Section 3 looks at decision making in transportation from a variety of analytical frameworks Through case examples and more theoretical essays we i nd a variety of disciplinary and theory-based approaches that transportation professionals can use to deal with the complex issues of transportation planning and management Authors from the i elds of law, economics, geography, political science, civil engineering, and public administration offer insights into transportation policy issues and the connection

of transportation to other policy domains

Section 4 focuses on the managing of transportation systems and assets The authors of the four chapters that comprise this grouping touch on such critical manage-ment issues as managing supply chains; transportation asset management; performance measurement in transportation agencies; and the development of public-private partner-ships in transportation projects The chapters point to a new reality for transportation professionals regardless of sector or level of government: performance and efi ciency matter, requiring thoughtful innovations based on the best thinking of management theorists and practitioners

Section 5 concludes the volume with six chapters that examine the most recent

of the big questions to emerge: the security and protection of transportation systems that has become so problematic after September 11, 2001 Although some earlier chapters touch on security issues within the context of particular modes or policy do-mains, the chapters in this section combine considerations of the fundamental issues

of transportation security after September 11 with assessments of the role of nance institutions and transportation modes and organizations in pursuit of the goal

The Big Questions of Transportation Policy and Administration

of security while retaining the efi ciency, accountability, and adaptability we value in transportation systems

The Handbook has been undertaken with the belief that there is a new profession of

transportation policy and management that is emerging—or perhaps has emerged—that holds as an article of faith the need to transcend modal thinking, disciplinary boundaries, the artii cial barriers of public and private sector, policy and administration, strategy and implementation It sees transportation as a subject of great importance in and of itself, and even more so as a contributor to the fundamental needs of society: as an agent of economic prosperity, of individual mobility, of global interconnectedness The new transportation professional needs to see transportation in the broadest possible light, asking the big questions that help to dei ne it and proposing answers to improve it It

is in this spirit that we offer this Handbook.

REFERENCES

Behn, Robert 1995 The Big Questions of Public Management Public Administration Review,

55, No 4 (July/August): 313–324.

Chandler, Alfred D 1977 The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business

Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.

Chandler, Alfred D 1979 The Railroads, Pioneers in Modern Management New York: Arno

Press.

Dilger, Robert J 1992 “ISTEA: A New Direction for Transportation Policy,” Publius: The Journal of Federalism 22 (Summer): 67–78.

Gage, Robert W and Bruce D McDowell 1995 “ISTEA and the Role of MPOs in the New

Transportation Environment: A Midterm Assessment,” Publius: The Journal of ism 25 (Summer): 133–154.

Federal-Harmon, Michael M and Mayer, Richard T 1986 Organization Theory for Public tion Burke, VA: Chatelaine Press.

trans-1935 Revenue passenger miles (RPMs) is the number of paying passengers multiplied

by the number of miles traveled and revenue ton miles (RTMs) is the amount of cargo paid to be shipped multiplied by the distance traveled In 2004, the air transportation system handled over 70 thousand l ights and 146 billion pounds of cargo per day [1].The health of the air transportation system and the national economy is highly interdependent Figure 2.2 shows that the gross domestic product (GDP) and the demand for air transportation have been closely coupled for the past 50 years To understand this connection it is necessary to consider the interactions of the air transportation system with the economy, shown in Figure 2.3 The transportation system takes as input the demand for travel and movement of goods and supplies services to meet these demands The ability of the system to meet these demands depends on the development

of capabilities in the transportation infrastructure as well as the i nancial status of the transportation providers (airlines) and their ability to acquire appropriate aircraft Thus, while the air transportation system needs the economy to supply demand and revenue,

a healthy air transportation system is also vital for maintaining economic growth and competing in the global market

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW

The modern air transportation system originates from developments in the post-World War I period that began the commercialization of air transportation The use of aircraft during the war proved the utility and feasibility of l ight, and resulted in technical im-provements and a supply of pilots After the war, these factors combined to produce

a growing desire for the commercialization of air transportation Individuals used surplus planes for jobs like crop dusting, aerial photography, or providing rides at fairs During this time, there was not yet any regulatory body governing commercial and private l ight.

Air mail was the i rst real and steady non-war use for air transportation The i rst mail was carried by aircraft in 1911, but routine service did not start until end of the war in 1918 In 1925 the Air Mail Act was passed allowing the post master general to contract with private corporations and pilots to transport mail Once private corpora-tions received contracts to carry mail, passenger transport also become a reality The money from carrying mail provided the steady income that airlines needed to form regular schedules and expand service

FIGURE 2.1 Growth in number of revenue-passenger-miles and freight ton miles fl own in

the United States since 1935 [2]

FIGURE 2.2 Annual percentage change in GDP and scheduled domestic revenue traffi c,

1954–2000 with economic recession [3]

The U.S Air Transportation System

After the Air Mail Act was passed, the need for government regulation in aviation received more attention As trafi c increased, fears over aviation safety began to grow, resulting in an effort to develop infrastructure and regulations aimed toward improv-ing safety A federal commission investigated the state of the industry and produced recommendations for the extent and form of government involvement This investi-gation resulted in the passage of the Air Commerce Act, which became law on May

20, 1926 The act designated responsibility for promoting the growth of the aviation industry to the Secretary of Commerce In particular, the act tasked the secretary with safely growing air transportation through the development of airways and navigation aids, regulation when necessary, and increasing public awareness of air transportation

as a safe mode of transportation These developments began with lighted beacons to improve night time safety but soon advanced to using radio and other technologies that would allow safer operation during inclement weather

Recognizing the importance of nurturing the growing industry, the federal ment took an active role in managing the airlines and their growth The government established routes which were bid for by or given to specii c airlines Cross-subsidies were established so that major routes could help less-proi table ones This regulation allowed for the expansion of service to more places and prevented excessive competi-tion from killing the young industry

govern-World War II spurred signii cant additional improvements in terms of capability and infrastructure, as well as pilot training In the years following the war, these in-novations and the additional labor force were absorbed by the air transportation indus-try—international l ights were offered, aided by the introduction of the jet engine The introduction of “coach class” helped make air travel an increasingly common mode of transportation, soon overtaking trains in popularity To sustain this growth, however, reliability and safety needed to improve

In the 1950s, air trafi c control started taking more responsibility for collision and terrain avoidance in high trafi c airspace This was enabled by improvements in

FIGURE 2.3 Schematic diagram of connection between air transportation and the economy

[3]

technology and motivated by an increasing number of collisions In some cases, large accidents provided the impetus for specii c changes: the widespread deployment of radar tracking was catalyzed by the 1956 mid-air collision over the Grand Canyon.

As the air transportation system grew in the 1950s and 1960s, more technology

to aid controllers and pilots was implemented In addition, safety and security lations were increased and changed to deal with the new jet aircraft, the increase in trafi c (and accidents), and a wave of aircraft hijackings that stared in the mid-1960s The efforts to improve safety have continued until the present day Improvements of regulations, procedures and technology have led to a signii cant increase in the safety

regu-of commercial operations, as can be seen in Figure 2.4

In 1973 Federal Express began operations, hoping to solve the problem of how

to reliably deliver time-sensitive air freight Federal Express succeeded By 1983 the company was earning US$1 billion in revenues Because of FedEx and its competitors, businesses are now able to ship packages around the globe in 24 hours, an ability that has enabled the growth of Internet companies and on-demand inventory delivery The 1970s also saw one of the most important changes in aviation history: the market deregulation of the air transportation system which, in 1978, opened up the system to additional market competition Deregulation meant that airlines could now choose their routes and compete with each other for passengers Airlines moved to streamline route structures and developed the hub and spoke airline networks The network structures of many current operators were shaped during this time period

OUTLINE OF THE AIR TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM

The air transportation system is comprised of operators and a supporting infrastructure Operators use aircraft to transport people and cargo within the system The supporting infrastructure includes airport facilities, air trafi c control, communication, navigation, and surveillance technologies, as well as weather tracking and prediction systems

FIGURE 2.4 Commercial aircraft accident rate since 1959 [4]

The U.S Air Transportation System

The many different operators and their l ights interact with each other and the support infrastructure in a well-dei ned manner in order to operate successfully in the same airspace Integrating these different l ights is a challenge since they require dif-ferent degrees of support and planning Thus, in order to operate safely and efi ciently, operators must follow agreed upon regulations and standards In the United States, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) provides regulatory oversight of aviation

In addition, the Federal Code contains the Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs) that govern the operation of aircraft in the air transportation system The FARs have evolved over time and regulate many aspects of air transportation These include air worthi-ness requirements, standards for pilot schools, certii cation standards for equipment, emission and noise requirements, as well as specii c regulations for the operation of different types of carriers and vehicles

OPERATORS

SCHEDULED PASSENGER OPERATIONS

Scheduled operations are those that l y according to a regular predetermined schedule

A majority of passengers and cargo in the United States are carried via scheduled tions, which are governed by the rules outlined in Part 121 of the FARs Carriers who conduct scheduled operations can be subdivided into the major carriers, the national carriers, and the regional carriers

opera-The major airlines are characterized by a large number of heavily connected operations, the availability of international service, and in most cases have existed since before deregulation For this reason, they are also called traditional and legacy carriers In 2005, these airlines included United, American, Delta, Continental, and

US Airways To expand the reach of their networks, these airlines l y hub and spoke operations and often dominate one or more hub airports By consolidating l ights at hubs, majors can provide access to smaller cities that do not offer enough demand to

i ll a large aircraft These carriers have large varied l eets, ranging from small to large aircraft The different types of aircraft allow them to serve various markets For ex-ample, international markets and l ights connecting major cities require larger aircraft than l ights servicing small out of the way locations

The national carriers are very similar to the major carriers but do not provide international service and tend to be younger The networks of these carriers are not as extensive as those of the majors but still provide service throughout the United States Some of the major carriers are also referred to as low cost carriers because of their lower cost of operations Examples of national airlines in 2005 included America West, Southwest, Alaska Air, JetBlue, and AirTran

Regional carriers operate on a smaller scale In 2005 examples of regional ers included: American Eagle, Mesa, Mesaba, ExpressJet, Horizon, and many more Regional carriers tend to l y regional jets and turbo prop aircraft These aircraft are small and can seat between 30 and 80 passengers Regional carriers do not operate the large aircraft that appear in the l eets of major carriers These smaller planes are

carri-ideal for allowing the carriers to serve smaller areas of the United States and to feed passengers to the larger networks of the national and major carriers Regional carriers can be categorized also by their relationship to the major and national carriers Some regional carriers are independent companies; they often feed airports that are hubs for larger airlines However, some major and national airlines have subsidiary airlines that feed only their own hubs An example of such an airline is American Eagle, which is

a subsidiary of American Airlines

The density map in Figure 2.5 shows the coverage of l ights by scheduled carriers

It can be seen that most of the United States is covered with l ights and that there is a large concentration of l ights in the northeastern part of the United States and along both coasts of the country

NON-SCHEDULED PASSENGER OPERATIONS

The system also supports non-scheduled passenger l ights Charter operators l y paying customers to a specii ed destination at a time of the customer’s choosing In addition, businesses and companies own planes that can be l own for meetings or events Finally, general aviation (GA) includes all l ights not l own for compensation These operations are regulated by Part 135 of the FARs In addition, Part 91 applies to all non-scheduled

l ights that are not carrying passengers or freight

Operators providing non-scheduled service typically l y to smaller airports and often provide access to destinations that are not served by scheduled l ights Business aircraft are usually jet aircraft and GA aircraft are usually propeller aircraft; propel-ler aircraft are typically smaller than jet aircraft and l y at lower altitudes and slower speeds

FIGURE 2.5 Density map of 24 hours of scheduled fl ights over the United States [5]

Part 121 of the FARs applies to air carriers, such as major airlines and cargo ers that l y large transport aircraft In 2005, the major examples of cargo carriers were FedEx, UPS, and DHL, all of which provide scheduled mail and cargo operations However there are also small non-scheduled cargo operators that provide on demand service for urgent shipments that cannot wait for an overnight l ight Specialized cargo carriers, such as air ambulances, also provide on demand service

haul-INFRASTRUCTURE

AIRPORTS

The United States is served by a rich network of over 19,000 airports, of which over 5,000 are open to the public FAA divides airports into four categories The commercial service airports service at least 2,500 revenue passenger boardings a year and must have scheduled passenger service Commercial service airports can be further subdi-vided into primary and non-primary airports The primary airports have over 10,000 revenue boardings a year, and the non-primary airports have revenue boardings ranging between 2,500 and 10,000 Cargo service airports, in addition to other trafi c, service aircraft that carry only cargo and receive over 100 million pounds of cargo each year Reliever airports are designated by the FAA to relieve congestion at commercial service airports The last category does not have an ofi cial name, but contains those private airports that do not i t in the above three categories In most cases, these airports are called “general aviation airports.”

The distribution of traffi c to airports is highly uneven: in fact, most of the traffi c in the United States occurs at a small fraction of the total airports as shown in Figure 2.6 Population centers typically determine the placement of airports A large population center can provide the demand needed to support a large commercial service airport Figures 2.7 and 2.8 show how areas of dense airports correspond to areas of dense population This naturally results in a high density of fl ights near these cities, as shown

in the density map in Figure 2.5 The density of fl ights tends to be correlated with the size of the population center; however, the amount of traffi c at a particular airport is also related to the size of the airport and the capabilities it offers in terms of runways and instrumentation

Different categories of airports support different classes of aircraft Larger aircraft require stronger and longer runways that can support the weight of the aircraft and provide enough space for acceleration and deceleration during take-off and landing These aircraft also require different support services such as fueling equipment or gates This means that larger aircraft are restricted in their choice of airports As a result, the

FIGURE 2.6 Airport utilization [6]

FIGURE 2.7 Locations of airports in the United States [7]

The U.S Air Transportation System

operators that own large aircraft must l y to airports that can support them, typically the commercial service airports Operators with smaller aircraft have greater l exibility

in terms of airports from which to operate

The large airports where most of the trafi c in the United States is concentrated are also the limiting point in allowing trafi c growth Some of these key airports receive more

l ights than they can handle resulting in delays and disruptions in service Some plans exist to add additional runway space to alleviate this problem, but building runways

is a long process Furthermore, many of the congested airports are located so close to cities that all the land around them is used and there is no space available for expansion The problem of congestion is an important issue that will need to be dealt with in the coming years if air transportation is to continue growing and providing services

AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL

The purpose of air trafi c control (ATC) is to ensure that aircraft are separated from each other and local terrain By issuing instructions to pilots, controllers maintain a safe and orderly l ow of trafi c

Pilots can operate under two different rules that affect how they are handled by air trafi c control Under visual l ight rules (VFR), pilots are responsible for maintaining separation and are not managed by ATC However, VFR is only allowed under weather conditions that provide appropriate visibility and below 18,000 feet In contrast, under instrument l ight rules (IFR), controllers have responsibility for maintaining separation Pilots l ying under IFR must i le a l ight plan and accept instructions from controllers during l ight However, because aircraft l ying IFR may have to share airspace with VFR aircraft not controlled by ATC, IFR pilots must be alert and maintain clearance from VRF l ights Transponders are installed in all major aircraft and broadcast their

FIGURE 2.8 United States population density [8]