Recommended Citation Hoagland, Merideth, "Case Study of an English Program in a Multi-ethnic Chinese Context: Feasibility of Genred Task Instructional Approaches and Implications for Tea
Towards “Genred Task Instruction” (GTI): Harmonizing SLA and Genre
SLA Definitions of Task
Discussions of task-based language teaching typically begin with various compilations of task definitions, in particular those of prominent researchers such as Ellis
Key scholars such as Long (1985), Prabhu (1987), Skehan (1996), Ellis (2003), Kim (2015), and Nunan (2004) have significantly contributed to the field of language acquisition Ellis’s extensive research, particularly from 2003 to 2009, highlights his influential role in advancing English language teaching methodologies His efforts as a researcher affiliated with institutions in China and Australia have notably supported the development of effective English language instruction in the Asia-Pacific region, making his work highly relevant for language educators and researchers aiming to enhance teaching outcomes.
I provide his (2003) definition in full below, noting that it comprehensively synthesizes a number of prior definitions in the literature
A task is a workplan designed to enable learners to process language pragmatically to achieve an outcome that demonstrates the conveyance of correct or appropriate propositional content It emphasizes meaning and encourages learners to utilize their own linguistic resources, although task design may influence the choice of language forms The goal of a task is to produce language use that closely resembles real-world communication, whether directly or indirectly Additionally, tasks can engage various language skills—productive or receptive, oral or written—and involve different cognitive processes, making them a comprehensive tool for language development.
502 Bad GatewayUnable to reach the origin service The service may be down or it may not be responding to traffic from cloudflared
502 Bad GatewayUnable to reach the origin service The service may be down or it may not be responding to traffic from cloudflared
Basturkmen, & Loewen, 2002) These constructs are discussed below in order to develop the study’s operational definition of task as a component of genred task instruction
1.1.1.1 Form-focused instruction Ellis, Basturkmen, and Loewen (2001) observe that a Form-focused instruction (FFI) approach posits that since learners cannot
3 Tasks may include input as well as output tasks (cf Ellis & Shintani, 2013) In line with the focus on production quality in this review, I assume a focus on output tasks
502 Bad GatewayUnable to reach the origin service The service may be down or it may not be responding to traffic from cloudflared
The Noticing Hypothesis (p 409; see also Ellis, 2005; Ellis, Basturkmen, & Loewen, 2002; Muranoi, 2000) emphasizes the importance of conscious awareness in language learning Form-Focused Instruction (FFI) is particularly significant as it addresses concerns that Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) may insufficiently emphasize "discrete" language elements, as discussed by Van den Branden, Bygate, and Norris.
Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) is considered preferable to form-driven approaches because it responds to learners’ demonstrated needs and respects their internal syllabus (Long, 2015) It provides explicit linguistic instruction at optimal moments for acquisition, triggered by learners’ processing difficulties during task performance (Long, 2015; McDonough, 2015; Li, Ellis, & Zhu, 2016).
Form-focused instruction (FFI) in pedagogical practice can occur at any stage of a task, during both planned and incidental episodes, and can be initiated preemptively or reactively by teachers or students, highlighting its flexible nature (Ellis, 2003; Ellis, 2006; Ellis, Basturkmen, & Loewen, 2001; Ellis, Basturkmen, & Loewen, 2002) Some researchers, like Nunan (2004), recommend sequencing FFI before free task performance, while others advocate for more integrated FFI that occurs during meaningful task engagement or in the post-task phase (Ellis, 2003, 2005; Muranoi, 2000; Nunan, 2006; Willis & Wills, 2007) Ellis and Shintani (2013) caution that if FFI is conducted during the pre-task phase, learners might not fully engage in communicative tasks, emphasizing the importance of timing in FFI implementation Planned FFI involves deliberately selecting tasks to target specific language structures, which are then explicitly focused on during the meaning-focused task, ensuring targeted language development.
According to Ortega (1999), form-focused instruction and pre-task planning are closely linked through information-processing models of language use (Ellis, 2003, 2005) She argues that student planning enables learners to focus on grammatical forms, thereby enhancing language acquisition Incorporating pre-task planning into language learning strategies can significantly improve learners’ attention to form, leading to more effective language development.
1.1.1.2 Pre-task planning Several scholars (Ellis, 2005; Robinson & Gilabert,
Research by Tavakoli and Skehan (2005), along with multiple TBLT studies (e.g., Ellis, 2005; Foster, 1996), highlights the significant role of task-implementation planning in language learning This focus is due to its alignment with information-processing theories, specifically the “conceptualization” stage of language use (Ellis, 2005), and its relevance to SFL pedagogy, emphasizing “building field” and “scaffolding” (Martin, 2000; Rose & Martin, 2012) Although conceptualization and field building are recursive and occur across all task phases, this review concentrates on pre-task planning due to its critical influence on effective language performance.
Levelt’s (1989) model of speech production, comprising conceptualization, formulation, and articulation, is a foundational framework in task planning research, aligning well with task-based pedagogy The conceptualization stage involves setting communicative goals and selecting speech acts, forming the "pre-verbal message," while the formulation stage maps this message onto language by retrieving lexis and triggering syntax During articulation, phonological encodings are transferred to articulatory muscles for speech execution Ellis (2005) notes that for first language users, conceptualization is usually controlled, whereas formulation and articulation are automatic; all three processes tend to be controlled in second language users, highlighting the model's relevance in language learning and task design.
Ellis (2005, 2009) identifies two primary types of planning—pre-task and within-task (or online) planning—each with distinct subtypes, including strategic planning and rehearsal Pre-task planning involves learners organizing what they intend to say or write before starting a task, focusing on content, information structure, and language choice (Ellis, 2003) Strategic planning allows learners to decide on the content and language use, while rehearsal provides opportunities to practice the task beforehand (Ellis, 2009b; Ellis, 2005) Conversely, online planning occurs during speech production, where speakers attentively monitor and adjust their formulation through pre-production and post-production checks (Yuan & Ellis, 2003).
1.1.1.3 Pre-task planning conditions and production quality outcomes The fact that pre-task planning has beneficial effects 7 on oral performance versus no planning, most consistently on the fluency of performance, but also fairly clearly on complexity (especially syntactic), is clear from several extensive surveys of planning literature, including the synthetic reviews compiled by Ellis (2005), Ellis (2009), Ortega, (1999),
Pre-task planning, as defined by Ellis (2005), differs from pre-task activities such as modeling the task, activating schemas, and providing vocabulary input, in that it directly contributes to the learners' performance of the actual task (cf Ellis, 2003) Unlike the Teaching-Learning Cycle in Systemic Functional Linguistics, which encourages learners to repeatedly construct similar texts without rehearsing the actual task, pre-task planning focuses on preparing learners to effectively perform the specific task at hand (Rose & Martin).
Strategic planning consistently enhances fluency in language development, while its effects on complexity and accuracy remain inconclusive, indicating a potential tradeoff between the latter two (Ellis, 2009b; Ortega, 1999) Research suggests that careful or online planning methods contribute to improved written accuracy and overall writing quality by increasing both the accuracy and complexity of production (Ellis & Yuan, 2004, 2005) Notably, guided planning tends to be more effective than unguided approaches, with studies showing that more detailed planning significantly boosts production quality (Kim, 2015; Foster &).
Skehan, 1996; Skehan & Foster, 2005), 2) provides more linguistic input (Kawauchi,
Genre
Genre has been defined in various ways, with definitions in general clustering around a few prominent schools of genre theory (Hyon, 1996; Martin, 2009): as a
“staged[,] goal-oriented social process” (Rose & Martin, 2012, p 1; Martin, 2009); as “a class of communicative events” sharing a purpose across a discourse community, which
This section emphasizes the impact of pre-planning in monologic tasks, highlighting how purpose shapes the schematic structure, content, and style of communicative events (Swales, 1990) It draws from L1 composition studies by viewing language as meaningful and rooted in schemas stored by expert writers (Johns, 2009) While genre-based approaches share with TBLT a focus on meaningful language use, they uniquely emphasize the development of schematic knowledge—understanding entire communicative events—rather than just individual lexicogrammatical items.
Systemic-Functional Linguistic (SFL) approaches to instruction emphasize building content area knowledge through explicit modeling, joint genre construction, and independent production within the Teaching-Learning Cycle These approaches focus on developing learners’ understanding of lexicogrammar tied to the social purpose of pedagogical texts Widely adopted in the Asia-Pacific region, SFL-based frameworks help students grasp the field or content area while ensuring language is used purposefully This method promotes effective literacy development by integrating language with content and social context, aligning with national curricular standards.
In operationalizing context, it is crucial to distinguish between two main orientations to genre: the Systemic-Functional Linguistic (SFL) approach and the ESP (English for Specific Purposes) approach The SFL framework, designed primarily for primary-school literacy, defines authentic contexts based on school subjects, emphasizing the integration of subject-matter content and language skills, such as history knowledge Conversely, the ESP approach views genre contexts as tailored to specific professional or academic purposes, focusing on the specialized language and conventions relevant to particular fields.
Discourse communities, as defined by Swales (1990, pp 24-27), are groups that share specific communicative purposes and genres These communities employ particular lexicogrammar and move-structure stages to effectively achieve their communicative goals, such as in historical narrative genres For example, historical narratives are often realized through nominalization, a linguistic feature discussed by Martin (2000) and Rose & Martin (2012) Understanding these discourse features is essential for analyzing how professional and academic texts communicate within specialized fields.
Genre-TBLT Intersections
Recent research highlights the significant overlap between task and genre in language teaching, particularly in the areas of planning and scaffolding learners’ production Scholars like Byrnes, Crane, Luk, Nunan, and Swales have emphasized the potential for genre-based approaches to complement task-based language teaching (TBLT) These approaches can help practitioners better define and analyze the contextual purposes, text types, and linguistic features relevant to specific target language tasks, thereby enriching the effectiveness of language instruction.
Ellis (2003) highlights the challenge of verifying the authenticity and real-world relevance of tasks, noting the difficulty in establishing their direct or indirect correspondence to real-life contexts He emphasizes that while some tasks may be authentic through their simulation of real-world situations, assessing their true authenticity remains complex.
“interactional authenticity,” e.g., their use of a real-world-like information exchange (p 6; see also Ellis & Shintani, 2013), but there is little indication in Ellis’s (2003) work of
Pre-task planning, as distinguished by Ellis (2005), involves activities that directly contribute to the performance of the actual task, such as schema activation and vocabulary input, setting it apart from pre-task activities like modeling or practicing similar tasks Unlike scaffolding in the SFL teaching-learning cycle (Rose & Martin, 2009), pre-task planning focuses on preparing learners for the specific task they will perform Both learner-directed (SLA) and instructor-directed (SFL) planning aim to enhance language production through deliberate preparation, with an emphasis on achieving authenticity by relating tasks to real-world contexts (Ellis, 2003).
Swales (1990) highlights that Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) is influenced by second language acquisition (SLA) research, yet it often overlooks real-world contextual constraints (2003, p 69) This gap underscores the importance of integrating genre theory into TBLT, ensuring that language instruction aligns more closely with authentic communicative settings Incorporating genre theory enhances TBLT by addressing the contextual demands learners face outside the classroom, making language learning more applicable and effective.
Luk’s (2009) study of an unsuccessful TBLT class in Hong Kong confirms that neglecting genre-specific and discourse features can undermine task effectiveness, as seen in the pre-task debate activities that failed to meet students' and instructors’ expectations despite including form-focused instruction Swales (1990) and Ellis (2003) acknowledge the importance of genre and discourse awareness, emphasizing that successful language tasks require attention to these elements Genre approaches, which focus on the contextual purposes of language use, are particularly well-suited to enhance TBLT tasks by ensuring activities are authentic and aligned with real-world language functions Therefore, integrating genre-based strategies into TBLT can significantly improve task design and outcomes.
Ellis (2003) suggests that a rhetorical syllabus, organized around specific rhetorical modes like narratives and descriptions, as well as language functions such as defining, classifying, and providing examples, offers significant benefits for language acquisition This approach aligns with SLA research, which emphasizes the importance of varied text types in enhancing language learning and proficiency Incorporating diverse rhetorical structures into language teaching can improve students' communicative competence and overall language skills.
The "discourse domain" plays a crucial role in shaping the negotiation of meaning and production quality in language learning A syllabi based on a Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) approach, as advocated by Byrnes, Crane, Maxim, and Sprang (2006), emphasizes structured sequences of genres and their specific lexicogrammatical features Byrnes (2015) highlights that integrating a genre-based approach into Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) enhances its effectiveness by providing clearer guidance on language use across different communicative contexts This approach aligns with the goal of improving pedagogical strategies and fostering more authentic language production.
TBLT is necessary for supplying the “curricular framing” that can ensure its “succeeding in the way it deserves to succeed” (p 194)
Considering the influence of genre theory and related constructs in Asian curricular documents (Cruickshank, 2009; Derewianka, 2003; Hoagland, Barron Serrano, & Geng, in preparation; Lin, 2003), this review highlights the importance of integrating genre focus into Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) studies within the target research setting Genre is recognized as a crucial element of effective task-based language teaching approaches (Byrnes, 2015; Byrnes, Crane, Maxim, & Sprang, 2006), although it is often overlooked in much of SLA literature (Bygate & Samuda, 2005; Plonsky & Kim, 2016).
Operational Definitions: Task, TBLT, and GTI
For this study, a task is defined as a carefully scaffolded and contextually meaningful instructional unit that includes pre-, during-, and post-performance phases During these phases, learners utilize previously learned or new linguistic input provided in the pre-performance stage to effectively convey meaning This operational definition aligns with established scholars like Ellis (2003), Nunan (2004), Rose & Martin (2012), and Swales, emphasizing the importance of structured, meaning-focused language use in task-based learning.
Task-based teaching (TBLT), introduced in 1990, is an instructional approach that emphasizes the use of meaningful tasks to facilitate language learning Genre-informed TBLT (GTI), or "genred task instruction," enhances this method by providing explicit focus and pedagogical support for understanding the interconnected contexts, purposes, and text types essential for proficient language use Incorporating genre awareness into TBLT helps learners develop a deeper grasp of different text genres and their functional contexts, leading to more effective communication skills.
Task-supported teaching (TST) supplements a traditional linguistic or grammar-based syllabus, demonstrating greater effectiveness than task-based language teaching (TBLT) in acquiring specific grammatical features like passive verb constructions (Li, Ellis, & Zhu, 2016) The distinction between TBLT and TST is nuanced, as many practitioners incorporate linguistic content within task-based frameworks, making the boundary between them somewhat blurred (Ellis, 2014) Throughout this article, the broader term TBLT is used to encompass both TBLT and TST, reflecting their shared emphasis on integrating language features relevant to diverse tasks and instructional approaches.
According to Sprang (2006), organizing instruction at the curricular level ensures comprehensive coverage of various text types and their features Genre-based task instruction, a subset of communicative language teaching as highlighted by Nunan (2006), combines task-based teaching methods with a focus on specific text genres to enhance language learning effectiveness.
Generative Transfer of Instruction (GTI) is a complex and multifaceted concept that includes various types of classroom activities Each activity often emphasizes specific aspects, such as conveying information or modeling a target genre, while other elements may be less prominent Overall, GTI encompasses diverse instructional approaches that collectively enhance learning outcomes in language education.
The GTI emphasizes meaningful, context-embedded, and scaffolded communication to promote language development According to Byrnes (2015), language development involves the ability to use an increasingly diverse range of oral and written texts or discourses These text types embody ways of doing, knowing, and being within cultural contexts, highlighting the importance of context-aware language use.
GTI Contextualized
Implementing a task-based syllabus in an Asian context presents unique challenges, as effective classroom implementation often falls short despite top-down policy recommendations for TBLT Research by Butler (2011) and Adams & Newton (2009) highlights the gap between curriculum policies and classroom practices, emphasizing the complexities of applying TBLT in diverse educational settings.
Several factors contribute to the limited success of Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) in Asian classrooms, including traditional teacher roles, misconceptions about communicative language teaching methods, lack of authentic materials, and an exam-driven culture that restricts teaching practices (Deng & Carless, 2010; Adams & Newton, 2009; Butler, 2011) Misunderstandings of TBLT, often conflated with general communicative approaches, further hinder its implementation (Nunan, 2006) Additionally, while some suggest student passivity as a barrier, research indicates this is a stereotype, as many classrooms demonstrate active student engagement contrary to that perception (Butler, 2011) The predominant exam-oriented environment remains a significant obstacle, limiting teachers' ability to adopt more interactive and communicative methods (Adams & Newton, 2009; Carless, 2007, 2012).
Implementing Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) in western China presents unique challenges due to the region's complex trilingual education system, which involves teaching in the indigenous language (L1), Mandarin (L2), and English (L3) This multilingual context, as highlighted by Sunuodula and Cao (2014) and Sunuodula and Feng, adds layers of intricacy to TBLT implementation, requiring tailored instructional strategies to effectively address the diverse linguistic needs of students in this region.
2011), and English oral proficiency rates as measured by the high-stakes CET exam (discussed below) are considerably lower than in the rest of the country (Jin & Yang,
Most research on Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) in China has historically focused on the highly developed eastern regions, such as Hong Kong, leaving a gap in understanding regarding its implementation in other areas of the country Limited studies explore how TBLT is adopted and adapted in less-developed regions, highlighting the need for broader investigation into its regional variations and effectiveness (Carless, 2012).
To effectively address the challenges of teacher roles and the adoption of Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT), Carless (2012) emphasizes the importance of increased investment in teacher development and support, supported by studies from Adams & Newton (2009) and Butler (2011) Additionally, overcoming the lack of authentic materials and natural English contexts can be achieved through a genre/task framework, which organizes tasks around real-world and content-area knowledge, making language learning more relevant and practical (Nunan, 2006; Paltridge, 2001; Swales, 1990; Cruickshank, 2009; Hu, 2013).
Further investigation is necessary to determine whether these modifications are suitable in Chinese educational contexts beyond those typically studied While the intense examination culture is frequently discussed in relation to Chinese education, it is crucial to assess how examinations influence teacher practices and student behaviors, especially in environments with low pass rates Deng and Carless (2010) argue that in “assessment-dominated” and “Confucian-heritage” contexts, exam achievement often becomes the primary goal of schooling, and they suggest that assessments should encourage learners to use language communicatively to promote CLT However, their perspective overlooks the experiences of many Chinese students who do not perform well on standardized tests, raising questions about the appropriateness of an increased examination focus as a modification for TBLT in such cases.
1.1.5.2 Implementing Genre Approaches in Chinese Contexts
Numerous Mandarin-medium publications over the past fifteen years have explored genre in Chinese EFL, primarily in tertiary education settings Liang and Qin (2009) found that ESP genre approaches help students understand the communicative nature of reading and writing while mastering fixed discourse patterns Other studies in Mandarin emphasize implementing genre-based teaching in Chinese contexts and highlight the gap between genre theory and practice in universities (S Wang, 2001; Cai, 2005; Lu, 2008) Research also documents the successful application of these approaches in Chinese universities (Huang & Li, 2012; Zhao, 2004), suggesting a growing acceptance of genre-based methods in Chinese EFL tertiary education While moves analysis is prominent in some studies, there is uncertainty about whether it is employed with careful regard to context and purpose, or simply used as a tool to approximate genre features.
12 Again, for the relationship between TBLT and CLT, see Nunan (2006)
“correct” structure in line with an uncritical “genre-acquisition” orientation (cf Johns,
Research by Chen, Warden, and Chang (2005) and Zheng & Cheng (2008) highlights well-documented washback effects that influence language testing Current approaches often focus narrowly on specific test-oriented text types, which are sometimes linked to limited cultural contexts, as discussed by Byrnes (2015) This suggests that existing methods may have a restricted scope when addressing the broader cultural and pedagogical implications of language assessments.
GTI in the Current Study
This review introduces the concept of genred task instruction (GTI), a combined approach rooted in task-based teaching and genre pedagogy, emphasizing scaffolded, meaning-focused language learning GTI represents an innovative instructional method that integrates key elements of SLA and genre literature to enhance language development The study assesses how stakeholders engage with the components of tasks and genre within the research context, aiming to evaluate the practicality of implementing GTI Ultimately, the research explores the potential of GTI to improve language instruction through a cohesive, genre-informed task-based framework.
SCT-Informed Approaches to Teacher Development in Asian Contexts
An Operational Definition of Teacher Development
Contemporary scholarship views second-language (L2) teacher development as a lifelong, reflective process rooted in teachers' lived experiences as learners and educators, fostering growth through iterative cycles of social interaction and reflection that enhance teachers' capacity for action and broaden their self-concept, understanding of others, and perceptions of the complex, context-dependent nature of language teaching (Bailey, Curtis, & Nunan, 1998; Gu, 2007; Johnson, 2006, 2009; Johnson & Golombek, 2003; Kubanyiova, 2012; Richards & Farrell, 2005; Richards & Lockhart, 1996; Roth & Lee, 2007) Moving away from an initial focus on skills and knowledge transmission within a positivist paradigm, the field has evolved to emphasize improvements in self-awareness, professional identity, socialization, and classroom quality, highlighting L2 teacher development as a process driven by teachers’ agency and internal cognitive engagement, rather than something externally imposed (Allwright, 2003; Barkhuizen, 2009; Cross, 2010; Freeman, 2009; Johnson, 2006, 2009; Kubanyiova, 2012; Borg & Liu, 2013).
What Develops? Constructs of Interest in Teacher Development
Contemporary L2 teacher development emphasizes the importance of teachers’ cognition, including their beliefs, knowledge, and thoughts, and how these align or misalign with their actual teaching practices (Borg, 2009; Tasker, Johnson, & Davis, 2010) Key knowledge constructs include language knowledge, understanding of students, pedagogical content knowledge, and personal practical knowledge, all of which are shaped by teachers’ experiences (Bartels, 2009; Johnson, 2009; Chen & Goh, 2014; Golombek, 2009) Recognizing the organization of these knowledge domains is crucial for supporting effective language teaching development.
Golombek (2009) describes teachers' professional knowledge as a conceptual lens formed by their past experiences, shaping how they interpret and respond to current classroom situations This experiential knowledge develops alongside teachers’ practical skills, reflecting the integration of theory and practice known as teacher praxis (Johnson, 2006; Freire, 1970) The primary aim of teacher development is to cultivate adaptive experts—teachers who stay informed about the latest advancements in language education and effectively apply their knowledge to meet the unique demands of their teaching environments.
Conceptual Underpinnings of Teacher Development
A key insight into L2 teacher development over the past decade comes from sociocultural theory (SCT), originally developed by L Vygotsky and expanded by scholars like Leont’ev, Kozulin, and Gal’perin (Roth & Lee, 2007) This theoretical framework offers a comprehensive perspective that emphasizes not only the observable behaviors of idealized teachers but also the agentive thinking and actions of individuals within their social contexts (Cross, 2010; Roth & Lee, 2007; Johnson & Golombek, 2003), highlighting the importance of social and cultural influences on professional growth in language teaching.
This article emphasizes a developmental framework that integrates change over time through a "genetic-analytical orientation" (Cross, 2010, p 439; John-Steiner & Mahn, 1996), enabling a dynamic, videographic approach Unlike static analyses, this method captures the process of growth and transformation along a narrative trajectory, providing a comprehensive understanding of development.
1.2.3.1 An operational definition of SCT As stated above, SCT is a theory of psychological growth that posits above all that social activity furnishes learners (here, teachers as learners of teaching, Johnson, 2009) with tools—in particular, the meaning- making tool of language—which constitute means of understanding action in context, and of constructing "more complex and creative activities" within that context (John-
Social Constructivism (SCT) emphasizes that learners develop their understanding and innovative thinking primarily through social interaction, not just isolated experiences or innate abilities (Steiner & Mahn, 1996; Johnson & Golombek, 2003, p 731; Johnson, 2009) It highlights the importance of social engagement in acquiring language and tools essential for cognitive growth and creative problem-solving.
Vygotsky (1978), as cited in John-Steiner & Mahn (1996), emphasized that focus should be on the process by which higher forms are established rather than just the product of development This perspective makes the framework particularly well-suited for analyzing second language (L2) teacher development By examining the developmental process, educators can better understand how teachers grow and improve their instructional practices over time Applying this approach offers valuable insights into the continuous evolution of L2 teachers' skills and competencies, aligning with key principles of professional development and language education.
Cultural-Historical Activity Theory (CHAT), as described by Roth and Lee (2007), extends and expands upon Sociocultural Theory (SCT), serving as an “integrative roadmap for educational research and practice” rooted in Vygotsky’s ideas Unlike Vygotsky, who emphasized language as a tool for meaning-making, CHAT focuses on “object-related practical activity,” highlighting the human act of engaging with tools within social contexts (Roth & Lee, 2007) Engeström (n.d.) differentiates between everyday notions of activity as individual actions and the theoretical concept of activity as a complex system of agents, mediations, objects, community, division of labor, and rules aimed at specific outcomes.
This system of agent, tools, and other components, has been schematized in the
The "activity theory triangle" is a versatile analytical tool that enables examination of a situation from multiple perspectives within the same context It allows researchers to explore interactions among various subjects, such as administrators and teachers working collaboratively in a school environment This framework provides valuable insights into how different roles influence and shape activity systems under shared rules and objectives, making it essential for understanding complex social and organizational dynamics.
Figure Activity theory triangle (Langemeyer, 2006)
Although typical diagrams are two dimensional, the activity triangle may be best visualized in 3-D, since as Cross (2010) notes, each constituent of the system has its own historical trajectory
Ahn’s (2011) study highlights the application of activity theory in understanding the complex factors influencing teacher development, as demonstrated through Bohee’s attempt to implement curricular reform in Korea By analyzing Bohee’s classroom within Engeström’s activity system model, the study identifies tensions within the system that hinder her ability to achieve her teaching objectives This approach emphasizes the importance of considering the multifaceted interactions between teachers, students, tools, and community context in fostering effective professional growth.
The SCT/CHAT framework of development emphasizes key concepts such as contradiction, externalization, and tool appropriation, which serve as essential steps alongside internalization, ultimately leading to transformation These components facilitate the evolving capabilities of teachers by highlighting how external ideas and tools are internalized and adapted This conceptual framework offers valuable insights into teacher development, illustrating how engaging with contradictions and external tools can promote meaningful growth By understanding these processes, educators can better navigate their professional development within this dynamic and transformative model.
A key aspect of the SCT/CHAT framework is its emphasis on internalization, which involves transforming mental functions through socially available tools rather than merely accumulating knowledge According to John-Steiner and Mahn (1996), following Leont’ev, internalization is the process of carving out conceptual space via these tools, leading to a transformation of mental functioning Johnson and Golombek (2003), building on Vygotsky, describe internalization as a process where individual activity is initially mediated by social and cultural artifacts and gradually becomes controlled by the individual as they incorporate and manage these resources This perspective illustrates the dynamic relationship between tools, mental development, and learning, emphasizing how learners develop by appropriating and controlling tools for their own use.
In the context of a teacher development course, "sequencing" is utilized as a vital tool to enhance lesson planning and instructional strategies By applying sequencing, educators can refine their teaching activities, leading to more structured and effective lessons This process also facilitates the expansion of teachers' conceptual understanding, allowing them to develop more coherent and engaging teaching methods As highlighted by John-Steiner and Mahn (1996), appropriation of tools like sequencing supports continuous professional growth and improves overall instructional quality.
13 This organizational principle (but not the list of components or their descriptions) follows Cross (2010) and Johnson and Golombek (2003) consequent capacity for action In another instance of appropriation, Johnson and
Golombek (2003) illustrate how participants in a study by Ball (2000) take up
“alternative ways of thinking about … literacy instruction” presented in course readings in a teacher development course (cited p 732)
Along with the process of appropriation, the awareness of contradiction within the activity system is thought in SCT/CHAT to facilitate internalization (see Roth & Lee,
Engeström (2007) identifies various types of tension within activity systems, including contradictions within individual components such as self-contradictory beliefs, conflicts between system components like the subject and rules, and tensions between separate systems Poehner (2011) highlights how internal dissonance, as seen in the case of in-service teacher Anna, can serve as a catalyst for professional development by revealing inner contradictions that promote growth These tensions and internal contradictions are essential for understanding the dynamics of developmental processes within educational systems.
Poehner (2011) highlights how Anna’s inability to reconcile her perceptions of a student with the student’s behavior prompted her to reconceptualize the situation, reshaping her conceptual understanding through peer mediation This transformation in thinking led to a change in her classroom practice, demonstrating that internalization can drive meaningful pedagogical transformation Anna’s experience exemplifies how moving beyond superficial troubleshooting fosters expanded possibilities for thinking and acting, aligning with research by Roth and Lee (2007).
14 Besides facilitating individual development, contradiction, as Johnson (2009) notes, also functions to illuminate possible sites of intervention for teacher developers (p 82)
Vygotsky’s dialectical method challenges classical binary logic by moving beyond traditional dualisms like individual versus society and speech versus thought, viewing these as interconnected categories This approach sees apparent dichotomies not as opposites but as productive tensions that generate valuable insights through their dynamic interplay Embracing the dialectical process allows for a deeper understanding of complex psychological and social phenomena, highlighting the importance of contradictions in cognitive development and cultural understanding.
1.2.3.2 Affordances of an SCT/CHAT framework for teacher development research As indicated in the foregoing discussion, the benefits of an SCT/CHAT framework consist above all in the analytic and conceptual tools that it furnishes the researcher who wishes to elucidate the nature of teacher development That is,
English-Language Teacher Development (ELTD) in China
Chinese English teachers are increasingly required to meet institutional demands, such as holding advanced degrees, engaging in research, and pursuing ongoing professional development for promotion or tenure, especially at the university level (Borg & Liu, 2013; Gao & Xu, 2014; Wang, 2010; Wu & Wurenbilige, 2012) Educational reforms around the early 2000s have placed greater emphasis on developing communicative competence, putting additional pressure on teachers to enhance their spoken English proficiency (Johnson, 2006) These professional challenges are compounded by teachers’ societal responsibilities, including serving as moral guides and supportive friends to their students (Jin & Cortazzi, 2011).
Teacher development in China occurs within a highly diverse and expansive educational landscape, with approximately 60,000 college English teachers and 600,000 secondary-school teachers practicing language instruction (Borg & Liu, 2013; Gao, 2010) Given the vast scale and variety of English language teaching (ELT) activities, it is challenging to make broad generalizations about teacher development across the country (Carless, 2012) Many studies mistakenly assume a monolithic Chinese context by combining data from urban and rural schools, as well as high- and low-performing students, which overlooks significant differences in student demographics, language backgrounds, resources, and teacher training (Barkhuizen, 2009; Borg & Liu, 2013; Chen & Goh, 2014; Carless, 2012; Gao, 2010; Leibold).
Although research on English Language Teaching Dialogue (ELTD) in China has advanced, the impact of China’s cultural and linguistic diversity on ELTD and Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) remains underexplored in English-medium literature Studies by Carless (2012), Gao & Xu (2014), and others highlight the need for further investigation into how China's diversity influences ELTD practices and effectiveness.
Despite the increasing number of English teachers obtaining higher education degrees and engaging in professional development programs worldwide, ELTD in China remains perceived as inadequate While official policies encourage teacher-conducted research, practitioner research focused on personal or peer development is often undervalued and not recognized as legitimate research Teacher research efforts tend to concentrate on improving students’ oral English skills and implementing communicative language teaching approaches.
Recent research highlights the emphasis on improving students’ oral competence in response to ongoing national reforms (Dong, 2006; Barkhuizen, 2009; Chen & Goh, 2014; Wang, 2010; Cheng, 2011) Despite these efforts, there has been notable progress in fostering more reflective and collaborative teacher-centered approaches to teaching (Barkhuizen, 2009; Dong, 2006; Gu, 2007; Thorne & Qiang, 1996; Wang & Seth, 1998).
1.2.4.1 The need for ELTD Gao (2010) and Gao & Xu (2014) point to the need for ELTD in under-resourced western Chinese regions, in particular, observing that secondary-school teachers are in a paradoxical situation: pressured to pursue master’s degrees and simultaneously restricted from taking time off from their teaching jobs Pursuing professional advancement, thus, means abandoning the schools where they are so sorely needed Retaining excellent teachers under “extremely deprived conditions” requires, Gao and Xu (2014) claim, administrative support that takes teachers’ value systems, including their desire for continuing development, into account Gao & Xu
Fostering professional collaboration through online technology is essential for effective teacher development, especially in under-resourced areas According to Gao and Xu (2014), when teachers in deprived settings are connected through networks or communities of practice, they can overcome feelings of isolation and enhance their professional commitment Such collaborative networks provide vital support, helping teachers strengthen their dedication and effectiveness despite challenging conditions.
1.2.4.2 Obstacles to ELTD Borg and Liu (2013) document college English teacher perceptions of and engagement in research, finding that instrumental orientations toward research (i.e., to get promotions) may have hindered collaboration by fostering competition for advancement through research Further, teachers surveyed felt a discrepancy between the research they were expected to conduct and the institutional support they received for this research Borg & Liu (2013) conclude that compulsory engagement in teacher research, or attempts to implement it without adequate preparation and support, are unlikely to result in the benefits that are (at times, too optimistically) attributed to practitioner research (cf also Wu & Wurenbilige, 2012, who describe increasing pressure on teachers to engage in research)
Chinese ELT teachers participating in a 10-day development program documented their challenges, prompting them to reflect on work-related problems through the lens of teacher development research, thereby fostering professional growth and self-awareness.
Many teachers feel that their research qualifications are insufficient, citing a lack of confidence in conducting research due to limited expertise Time constraints and heavy workloads further hinder their ability to engage in research activities, despite expressing interest in exploring topics like student motivation Addressing these barriers can enhance teachers’ research participation and contribute to improvements in educational practices.
1.2.4.3 Successful ELTD practice The discouraging reports of Borg & Liu
Contrasting with earlier studies by 2013 and Barkhuizen (2009), reports from Dong (2006), Gu (2007), Thorne and Qiang (1996), and Wang and Seth (1998) highlight highly successful university teacher development programs Dong (2006) details a five-year professional development initiative in China, where university leadership prioritized teaching innovations and provided extensive support The program encouraged teachers to engage in collaborative lesson preparation, peer coaching, observation, reflection, team teaching, action research, and mentoring, resulting in participants feeling significantly benefited and developing a stronger sense of professional growth.
Gu’s (2007) and Thorne and Qiang’s (1996) studies highlight the importance of collaborative development efforts between British and Chinese specialists, emphasizing the value of open and honest communication They stress that effective “frank” collaboration fosters trust and bridges the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical implementation These findings underscore the significance of cooperation in narrowing the divide between knowing and doing, ultimately enhancing the success of cross-cultural educational initiatives.
Wang and Seth (1998) reported successful implementation of Edge’s (1992) cooperative development framework in a Chinese university, transforming teachers’ negative perceptions of classroom observation by promoting mutually supportive roles as “Speakers” and “Understanders” focused on self-identified growth areas This approach received overwhelmingly positive responses from teachers, enhancing teacher agency and fostering a collaborative, inquiry-driven departmental climate.
These encouraging findings make sense in light of claims (contrasting with Borg
& Liu’s, 2013) that the Chinese professional ELT climate is in many places already conducive to collaborative activity (Wang, 2010; Li & Edwards, 2013).
Teacher Development in the Current Study
This article defines teacher development through the lens of Socio-Cultural Theory and Cultural-Historical Activity Theory, emphasizing the effectiveness of collaborative approaches in promoting growth While these methods are not yet widely adopted in Chinese educational contexts, early successes suggest significant potential for broader implementation The reviewed literature supports the need for further research into teacher-development practices within Chinese schools, highlighting the importance of culturally relevant, collaborative strategies to enhance professional growth.
1.3 GTI and Teacher Development in Western China: A Warrant for the Dissertation Study
Lin, Wang, Akamatsu, and Riazi (2005) noted over ten years ago that
“mainstream TESOL methodologies are still mainly informed by studies and experiences situated in Anglo-societies such as the United States, Canada, Australia, or Britain.” They continue:
This Anglo-centric knowledge base forms the core principles of the discipline and is frequently exported to peripheral countries as pedagogical expertise Local education workers in these regions often adopt and follow these imported standards, shaping their teaching practices accordingly.
While progress is being made, the literature review reveals that implementing Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) in Asian contexts like China still faces significant challenges Despite improvements, Chinese education professionals are often expected to meet standards developed in Anglo-centric environments, leading to inconsistent outcomes Lin et al (2005) highlight that the adoption of TBLT across China remains affected by these contextual mismatches, emphasizing the need for localized adaptations to ensure effective implementation.
This dissertation examines the effectiveness of pedagogical “exports” in a remote area of China, exploring how these methods are received and implemented by local teachers It investigates teachers' perceptions of these pedagogical recommendations and seeks to identify strategies for providing more effective support The study aims to understand how such pedagogical practices can be adapted to better serve educational needs in underserved regions.
Effective English language teaching requires more than simply adopting the most advanced technology; it must also consider the roles of agency, identity, and creative appropriation among local learners As Lin et al (2005) emphasize, understanding how social actors resist or adapt to learning English within their specific contexts is essential for fostering meaningful language acquisition This approach highlights the importance of recognizing the cultural and social dynamics that influence language learning, ensuring teaching strategies are responsive to learners’ unique needs and experiences.
This research aims to provide participants with a platform to engage critically with prevailing discourses in our field By encouraging dialogue, the study seeks to support and challenge existing consensus, thereby expanding the relevance of these discussions within a diverse global community Ultimately, the goal is to foster a space where diverse perspectives can be voiced, promoting inclusivity and enriching the discourse in our field.
Under the rubric of an inductive organizational case study (Mantere & Ketokivi,
2013), this study relied on ethnographic methods, the development of insider categories of focal phenomena through observation and member checking (Duff, 2008; Gobo,
This research utilizes a combination of methodologies including journaling (Casanave, 2011), interviewing (Spradley, 1979; cf Johnson, 2009; Tasker, Johnson, & Davis, 2010), and document analysis, with a primary emphasis on the researcher’s active presence within the research environment (Gobo, 2011) These methods are selected to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the study context and participant experiences, with the researcher’s engagement playing a vital role in gathering in-depth insights.
The researcher’s presence within the research site enables deep insights through participant observation, involving direct interactions with social actors in their natural environment to observe and describe their social actions (Gobo, 2011) As a participant-observer, the researcher engages in everyday rituals and learns social codes to understand the meaning behind actions (Gobo, 2011) In an era transitioning from opinion-based to observation-based data collection, methodologies like video observation are increasingly valuable (Gobo, 2011) Nevertheless, within the interactionist tradition, self-report data such as interviews and questionnaires remain essential for capturing the insiders’ language and perspectives, ensuring findings are presented in their own words (Schwandt, 2000).
Participant observers develop a reflexive orientation, acknowledging that researchers are human agents whose personal history, worldview, and abilities influence the research process and findings (Gobo, 2011; Duff, 2008; Holliday) This sensitivity to the researcher's positioning emphasizes the importance of reflexivity in qualitative research, ensuring greater awareness of how researcher bias and perspective impact data collection and interpretation By adopting a reflexive stance, researchers can produce more authentic and credible insights, recognizing their own influence on the research outcome.
To establish credibility in research, it is essential for researchers to present an account of their own role, which helps users interpret findings considering researcher agency (Hammersley, 2008) Ensuring transparency of methodology and remaining open to unexpected insights foster trustworthiness, allowing the research process to evolve naturally and potentially guide new directions (Holliday, 2010).
This study explores an English program in a Chinese context through ethnographic participant engagement, focusing on teachers’ development in genre and task-based instruction while considering contextual factors influencing this process (Duff, 2008; Miles, Huberman, & Saldaña, 2014) It aims to provide an in-depth description of the program using multiple data collection methods over one year, with formal procedures conducted during a semester The focus on genre and task-based approaches is justified by curriculum guidelines from the Chinese Ministry of Education, which explicitly endorse these methods at secondary levels and support their use at the college level (Hoagland, Barron Serrano, & Geng, in preparation; Adams & Newton, 2009; Song, Yang, & Lei, 2006) This chapter details the research context, instruments, participants, data collection procedures, and data analysis strategies.
Research Context
Participants and recruitment procedures
Administrators in the English program at The Teacher’s College were recruited to participate in the study, with all participants except the researcher’s own students recruited by a colleague to prevent coercion Teacher participants were approached during an existing department meeting, where interested colleagues received consent forms to review privately before follow-up contact Student participants were recruited through classroom permissions obtained from teachers, with consent forms provided for reading in private and collected during initial observation sessions Student interview participants were selected individually based on questionnaire data, ensuring demographic representation, and were offered small tokens of appreciation Teacher participants received a gratitude meal after the final focus group to acknowledge their contribution during data collection.
Research Instruments
The researcher
This study aims to explore the often-overlooked landscape of English education in a specific region of China, with the goal of enhancing learning conditions for local learners Drawing on my two years of experience as an English instructor (waijiao) in China leading up to the Beijing Olympics, I built meaningful relationships with learners from diverse backgrounds, including native Mandarin speakers and students from impoverished as well as privileged circumstances My interactions revealed a wide range of learner experiences, from those traveling days from western China to reach university to others from different socio-economic backgrounds Upon returning to the U.S and pursuing applied linguistics studies, I was motivated by the noticeable lack of research that captures the diversity of Chinese learners’ experiences, highlighting the need for more inclusive and representative studies in this field.
Research by Beckett & MacPherson (2005), Carless (2012), Feng (2011), Feng & Adamson (2014), and Leibold & Chen (2014) highlights that China’s vast geographic and cultural diversity significantly limits the transferability of research findings between coastal regions and inland areas This underscores the urgent need for on-site investigations into English teaching conditions in ethnolinguistically diverse regions across China Motivated by this, I pursued doctoral studies to conduct such research, which became a central focus of my PhD journey.
Inspired by a personal commitment to research that benefits communities rather than exploits them (Ortega, 2005; Tarone, 2012), I embarked on a project aimed at fostering growth while exploring its nature I believed in research with the potential to transform, but as I experienced during data collection, entrenched institutional realities often resist change, making perceptions and practices difficult to shift Undertaking ethnographic research across borders (Tarone, 2012) proved personally challenging, yet the support of neighbors and colleagues—who welcomed me, shared their knowledge, and guided me—was invaluable Their gracious hospitality helped me gain perspective, especially as I navigated this painful but transformative process of growth beyond my prior experience Tarone’s (2012) reflections encapsulate this reciprocal relationship, highlighting how, during my fieldwork, I not only aimed to contribute to healing but also experienced a profound process of personal healing.
The research process was guided by core personal values, including a commitment to ethical and transparent practices, and a focus on ensuring participants actively participate and influence the research Researchers aimed to approach participants as significant and autonomous human actors, emphasizing self- and other-awareness, patience, and inquiry over prescriptive methods This approach reflects a dedication to cultural humility, fostering genuine understanding within the naturalistic context of the study, which seeks to explore the existing situation rather than offer advice (Duff, 2008; Paltridge & Phakiti, 2010).
Research questions
The research instruments and analytic procedures were carefully designed based on four years of graduate coursework, practical experience, and reflective insights into English education in Chinese contexts These questions were developed through collaboration with colleagues and guidance from dissertation committee members, ensuring they are rooted in both theoretical understanding and real-world applications This rigorous development process aims to provide reliable insights into the research topic, aligning with best practices in academic research and maximizing the study's validity.
1 What is the feasibility of genre-informed, task-supported teaching in the target context? a) What are instructors’ understandings of genre and task? b) (How) are task and genre activities enacted? Where there is limited or no evidence of task- or genre-related instruction, what may account for this?
2 What are considerations for teacher development and support in this context, given this instructional emphasis? a) What are considerations for teacher development and support for local instructors? b) What are considerations for teacher development and support for non-Chinese instructors (waijiao)?
Questionnaires
To gather comprehensive insights, I designed and administered two questionnaires: one for teachers and one for students, focusing on stakeholders' perspectives The teachers’ questionnaire aimed to explore professional support and development within the specific context, informed by existing literature and my own experience as a participant-observer A total of 12 teachers and over 400 students participated, with student questionnaires conducted in Chinese and teacher questionnaires in English to suit their language preferences.
Participants provide demographic information, including ethnicity, educational background, and linguistic profile They also self-assess their language skills in reading, writing, listening, and speaking across the languages they use Additionally, participants describe the typical contexts in which they use each language, offering insights into their language use patterns and proficiency levels.
Teachers additionally report on their professional background and the courses they have taught
Students' motivations for learning English are influenced by various social and cultural factors According to Chen, Warden, and Chang (2005), in China, intense social and family pressure to succeed on exams creates a "Chinese Imperative," encouraging students to adopt memory strategies aimed at exam performance rather than genuine communicative competence This study explores whether this social pressure persists in a different context characterized by multilingualism, geographical remoteness from educational policy centers, and lower English proficiency levels, highlighting potential shifts over the past decade Unlike earlier findings, current participants are affected by a changing economic landscape where exam success is no longer the sole route to social advancement, indicating evolving motivations for English learning.
Li (2015) highlights Premier Li Keqiang’s editorial emphasizing the importance of entrepreneurial spirit in China’s development, reflecting the government's focus on fostering innovation Additionally, a changing geopolitical landscape has prompted China to revise its English education policies to better prepare students for global engagement (Hoagland, Barrón-Serrano, & Geng, in preparation; Pan, 2014) Several years after the extensive nationwide campaign to improve English proficiency ahead of the 2008 Beijing Olympics, China continues to emphasize language education as a key component of its international strategy, aiming to enhance communication in the global arena.
Recent trends indicate a slowdown in U.S and global economic growth, coinciding with a noticeable shift in language education promotion Observers have observed a decrease in official efforts to promote English learning, while Mandarin-language education increasingly expands worldwide through Confucius Institutes (Pan, 2014).
In the second section, students share their perceptions of traditional lecture-based methods versus task-based learning through open-ended responses They evaluate the effectiveness of these approaches in improving English proficiency, their level of interest, and their usefulness for exam success Examples of task-based activities include ordering at a restaurant or choosing a movie collaboratively, which meet Ellis’s (2003) criteria This section highlights students’ attitudes towards different teaching methods and their perceived benefits for language development and exam preparation.
This article assesses students' understanding of different genres by asking them to identify studied text types, list their structural parts, and demonstrate their ability to perform these texts It also explores students' perceptions of the challenges faced by their English teachers Additionally, the report examines students’ personal English study habits and the typical amount of time they dedicate to learning English, providing insights into their learning behaviors and attitudes toward language acquisition.
The second and third sections of the questionnaire focus on teachers' professional development and teaching methods, asking them to define and illustrate their understanding of professional growth and describe their time commitments Teachers are also prompted to explain their knowledge of communicative and task-based approaches, assess their effectiveness at Local College, and suggest necessary modifications to adapt these methods to the local context Additionally, they are asked to describe how they incorporate tasks into their classroom instruction The subsequent questions explore teachers' understanding of genre and genre-based teaching methods, emphasizing their application in language education.
Interviews
English teaching and learning in the context, I conducted interviews with students, teachers, and administrators After reviewing the demographic data of all questionnaires,
I selected a subset of students to recruit for interviews My goal in selecting interview participants was to draw from a diverse group in terms of ethnicity and language background
I conducted 46 student interviews in Mandarin and English, recording them for later analysis, while a multilingual colleague conducted the remaining 4 interviews in Chinese, Uyghur, or English based on student preference These four interviews, with my own students, were later translated by a Chinese-speaking colleague into English to facilitate comprehensive analysis In total, my colleague and I conducted 50 interviews, with interview protocols included for reference.
Building rapport over several months, interviews with students and colleagues were conducted in a conversational style, fostering an open and comfortable environment for discussion (Spradley, 1979) These interviews, held in campus housing and classroom settings, allowed for in-depth exploration of students' opinions on English learning, teaching approaches, and the importance of test success Conversations with teachers and administrators focused on their initial interest in English, professional backgrounds, and insights into key concepts like effective teaching, professional development, and communicative, task-based methods Teachers also provided detailed walkthroughs of their classroom materials, such as textbooks and PowerPoint slides, explaining how these resources are typically utilized in teaching.
During interviews, teachers participated in brief stimulated recall episodes where they viewed or listened to recordings of their own classes and shared their reflections, providing valuable insights into their teaching practices I actively engaged in member checking by paraphrasing interviewees' responses for confirmation and sharing my emerging understandings to gather their feedback This ongoing process of validation enhances the trustworthiness and reliability of the data collected.
Observations, performance data and document collection
This study involved observing participating colleagues' classrooms to document teaching practices through field notes, audio/video recordings, and photographs (Heath, Hindmarsh, & Luff, 2010) I visited each classroom up to three times per semester, focusing on colleagues employing task and genre approaches, and selected two classes at different proficiency levels for in-depth observation Over two months, I conducted 15 classroom observations, collecting audio and video data from students performing various tasks To systematically record classroom activities, I utilized an observation rubric developed with input from my dissertation committee and maintained a researcher’s journal containing reflections and observations in both written and audio formats.
Focus group
I conducted a focus group with participating teachers to gather feedback on my preliminary research findings, primarily through member checking Using a subset (about 10%) of translated questionnaire data and guided by my recent experiences as an interviewer, observer, and teacher, I developed a focus group protocol approved by the IRB as an amendment, with additional written permissions obtained from the department chair and campus publicity office During the session, nine of eleven teachers attended to review and discuss my initial findings, with opportunities for them to interrupt and provide input throughout the presentation I specifically asked for their perceptions at the end of the presentation and facilitated small group discussions to deepen insights All procedures were audio recorded, and a colleague took notes to ensure a comprehensive record of the meeting for future analysis.
Data Analysis
Document analysis
This study examined the courses through the lens of focal constructs, genre, and task-based approaches, analyzing how these methods are integrated into English teaching Key excerpts from China’s Ministry of Education curricular documents were translated to assess official endorsements of task- and genre-informed teaching strategies By identifying references within these documents, the research determined the extent to which these pedagogical approaches are promoted at the national level Additionally, materials provided by participating instructors and online listening resources were utilized to simulate a College English Test Band 4 under real test conditions, followed by detailed memos analyzing each test section—writing, listening, and reading—to evaluate their alignment with targeted teaching methods.
Interview and observation analysis
During the collection period, I adopted an ethnographic approach by refining my interview protocol through ongoing questions related to my broad research questions I engaged teacher participants by exploring their classroom choices, incorporated their comments into subsequent interviews, and held informal conversations to check emerging understandings These insights were systematically recorded in my researcher’s journal, aligning with best practices in qualitative research (Miles, Huberman, & Saldaũa, 2014).
As a first step in formal analysis, I selected, reviewed, and transcribed interview data, capturing participants’ words while eliminating fillers and noting meaningful pauses I used the transcription process as an opportunity to reflect on participants' thoughts and start synthesizing them through memoing Additionally, I created narrative partial transcriptions of classroom observations based on video data and field notes, describing classroom activities and enhancing the narratives with video screenshots.
To gain insight into each teacher’s overall approach, I conducted sequential classroom observations of individual participants I transcribed and coded interviews with each focal teacher, creating memos to synthesize their responses and practices By analyzing interview data alongside classroom observations, I developed comprehensive narrative reports for each teacher, allowing for a detailed understanding of their teaching styles before moving on to the next participant This systematic approach ensures a thorough and coherent examination of diverse teaching methodologies within different classroom contexts.
Performance data
This study involved analyzing demonstration, picture narration, and news report tasks by reviewing classroom video and audio recordings I created detailed narratives and partial transcriptions of the class sessions where these tasks were performed, focusing on students’ genred task performances Through an iterative review process, I examined both the transcriptions and class narratives to assess how these performances aligned with genred task instruction, using my focal construct as a guiding framework.
Focus group data
To deepen my understanding of my second main research question on teacher development, I conducted an analysis period using audio recordings and handwritten notes taken during a two-hour session I summarized the session and created partial transcriptions to capture key insights, ensuring a comprehensive overview that supports SEO by emphasizing the importance of detailed analysis and data collection methods in teacher development research.
Summary
The data collected for the current study are displayed in summary form in the table below
50 semi-structured interviews conducted in English/Chinese/Uyghur
40+ hours of observation completed (up to 3x/semester for each of 11 participating classrooms; focal participant observed 15 times over 10 weeks)
Syllabi, textbooks, PowerPoints, and other class-related material collected
Students’ homework and in-class work collected and recorded
2-hour session conducted with 9 teacher participants
The process of analyzing the data involved a form of distillation, as I developed a tentative understanding of local dynamics affecting English teaching and learning through 11 months of participation in the research context Returning to my data after leaving the site helped clarify, challenge, expand, and problematize these understandings, with NVivo coding facilitating focused analysis related to my research questions However, the most productive aspect of my analysis was writing memos in response to coding sessions, which enabled me to consolidate insights, draw connections across participants and classrooms, and develop a broader understanding Memoing served as a crucial step to step back from detailed coding, helping me interpret my data in relation to my research objectives and generate meaningful insights.
3 FINDINGS: TEACHER PERCEPTIONS AND PRACTICES
According to M Bakhtin, the most vibrant and productive moments of culture occur at the intersections of different disciplines, rather than within isolated, specialized fields Cultural innovation thrives on the boundaries where diverse areas converge, fostering creativity and new perspectives Embracing interdisciplinary interactions is essential for dynamic cultural development, highlighting the importance of crossing traditional boundaries Understanding that the intersection of varied disciplines fuels cultural evolution can lead to more enriched and innovative artistic expression.
Ethnographic case studies prioritize ethical research through prolonged engagement, fostering mutually respectful and understanding relationships between researchers and participants (Duff, 2008; Ortega, 2005; Starfield, 2010; Tarone, 2012) This meaningful interaction over time allows participants to assess the researcher’s integrity and comprehend the study’s objectives, enabling them to give truly informed consent.
Over the course of a year, I built meaningful collegial relationships with teachers and administrators, especially with my focal participant, Meg, which enhanced trust and engagement These relationships sparked my potential participants’ curiosity about my research questions while guiding me to tailor my study’s design and instruments to their specific contexts and concerns Grounded in the social environment I aimed to explore, I officially began formal data collection halfway through my year of on-site participant observation Through this process, involving 11 colleagues and over 400 students, I deepened my understanding of their perceptions and practices related to English teaching and learning, enriching the quality and relevance of my research.
This article explores perceptions and practices within the English department at Oasis City Normal College in Xinjiang, China The primary aim is to develop a detailed, descriptive report that enables both researchers and readers to assess the feasibility of genred task approaches in this context The study begins with an overview of the research site, followed by an in-depth case study of a College English classroom, focusing on teacher participant Adelina This case study provides insights into her perceptions and practices, interpreted through a theoretical model outlined later Further, the article presents additional accounts of three other teachers implementing different teaching strategies, contributing to a comprehensive understanding of the overall teaching environment.
This article explores the dynamics of traditional instructional methods within college English programs by analyzing perspectives from both administrators and teachers It highlights contrasting case studies, including insights from “Meg,” an English major instructor, to illustrate specific teaching practices and student engagement The study examines students’ perceptions and interactions with genre-based activities through performance assessments and interview statements, offering a comprehensive understanding of student experiences Additionally, the article synthesizes survey and interview data to provide an overall view of students’ perceptions of the College English program It concludes with an analysis of teacher support and professional development, drawing on interview, observation, and focus group data to highlight the importance of effective instructional support in enhancing teaching quality.