Abele-and-Graham-Bilingual-Education-Bibliography-FINAL-MAR-24

“Decentralization of First Nations Education in Canada: Perspectives on Ideals and Realities on Indian Control of Indian Education.” Interchange 33.3 2002: 281 Agbo’s article contends sc

Annotated Bibliography

Bilingual Education Frances Abele and Katherine Graham

March 23, 2010

Agbo, Seth A “Decentralization of First Nations Education in Canada: Perspectives on Ideals and Realities on Indian Control of Indian Education.” Interchange 33.3 (2002): 281

Agbo’s article contends schools for Aboriginal children will remain ‘mediocre’ in quality unless there is devolution that entails the empowerment of First Nations communities to provide education suited to each community In addition, decentralization needs to meet three conditions First, resolution of constraints/contradictions internal to decentralization, second, Aboriginal scholars and First Nations school authorities need to enable change through frameworks of local control, and third, First Nations communities and federal authorities need to identify the key symbolic and structural characteristics of decentralizing First Nations schools Agbo offers a set of interrelated focus points that examine the effects of local control, lack of clarity in devolution procedures, and unclear educational pedagogies within Aboriginal frameworks Agbo posits that local control must empower Aboriginal students by intricately linking school governance with pedagogy (Goddard & Shields, 1997), and that under current practices, devolution does not fully benefit most Aboriginal communities The article offers an overview of policy that led to local control It also offers a concise presentation of the features of decentralization of education, including the importance of parental influence and the school’s responsiveness to student needs He provides a thoughtful analysis on cultures of learning, providing references to additional articles on the importance of culture, language and heritage teachings, and value differences for/of First Nations children, questioning its efficacy in situations where a majority of teachers are non-native teachers of First Nations (Ontario),and concluding that to meet the needs of First Nations, traditional and technological learning should be balanced by examining how communal bonds of Aboriginal identities, shaped by communal language, ethnicity, and culture affect knowledge and learning Agbo analyzes the reality of local control through a review of research – devolution has resulted in a transfer of power, but not a change in orientation of the management of power: most First Nations communities retained the governance, administrative and curricular practices of the federal government Advocates for the politicization of decentralization, Abgo argues, overlooked or undervalued its educational impact on Aboriginal students The lack

of transfer of knowledge, with power, the vulnerability of schools to local politics, the need for accountability and efficiency within the administration of the school, and inconsistency in quality of staff, all have effect on the educational framework, and student success Agbo briefly details policy implications for decentralization; among many recommendations in his conclusion, he argues that if devolution is to benefit teaching and learning, then band councils need a systematic approach to collaborative decision making that allows appropriate participation of parents, teachers and students, that objectives concerning education (curriculum, achievement, standards and policy formulation/implementation) need to be determined by politicians, policy makers and First Nations people

In addition, First Nations com munities should be able to clearly identify their management tasks and be able

to develop a way to relate how resources are distributed to student learning priorities Communities need to be aware of an underlying philosophy of education, and be able to manage control in the context of the expansion of the philosophy

Andersen, Catharyn and Alana Johns “Labrador Inuit: speaking into the Future.” Inuit Studies 29:1-2 (2005)

This paper discusses the issue of language loss in northern Labrador Inuttitut Like many communities across northern Canada, Labrador is facing the possible complete loss of Inuktitut, demonstrated by the

fact that almost no children speak it as a first language any longer In this paper we outline a number of linguistic properties which make Labrador Inuttitut and a related dialect spoken in Rigolet distinct from neighbouring dialects of Inuktitut We also report on a number of initiatives taken up by community organizations, school and individuals in their growing efforts to reverse language shift These include a language survey, dictionaries, youth camps, a language nest, etc

Anonby, S.J “Reversing Language Shift: Can Kwak’wala Be Revived?” Master’s Thesis, University of North Dakota, 1997.

Anonby’s thesis is an examination of reversing language shift (language revival) of the Kwak’wala language, which is

a common language between 12 Indigenous tribes in coastal British Columbia Anonby gives an overview of the Kwak’wala history and contact with white settlers; he identifies reasons for language decline: variation in dialect, colonisation and marginalization by English, and perceptions that English offered social mobility and economic opportunities These factors led to linguistic and social suicide as a decision to enable personal survival for their children and themselves He situates the Kwak’wala people in their current reality – many located in urban centres,

as well as in more remote and smaller communities on Vancouver Island and argues that the Kwak’wala are in the midst of a profound social change, including language shift from Kwak’wala to English Anonby focuses on key Kwak’wala communities, and efforts to reverse the effects of language shift, but his research indicates that despite programs of language education, and the perception that it is important for continuation of culture, the language is declining Anonby directs his research toward language projects that were or are similarly positioned to Kwak’wala, and offers some conclusions regarding essential components of language projects Elements to observe when evaluating projects are numbers (increases in number of people who use the language, or are persuaded back to it), expansion of ‘domain’ of use (household, work, religion, government, education), and a combination of

numerical increases and domain, which results in ‘language spread’ (the more using it, the more domains the language will be used in) Anonby provides an interesting and useful examination of a variety of cultures that were experiencing cultural and/or linguistic decline In all cases where their language revival was successful, these cultures shared the features of population (large language/population base), ethnic strength (“we” vs “them”), promoted literacy in the language, provided immersion classes for children, and used the language in the media In addition, notes Anonby, language projects are most successful when they are consistent with the direction in which social forces are guiding language behavior He applies these findings to proposal for the revival of Kwak’wala, and divides the proposal into the categories of community and education, focusing on roles and how to implement the features of population, ethnicity, literacy, immersion, and media He uses stages seven to 4 of Joshua Fishman’s study of reversing language shift (1991) as relevant to the Kwak’wala, and cautions that they need to be

approached in an order and phasing that will allow maximum possibilities of success First, the majority of

Kwak’wala speakers are socially integrated and ethnolinguistically active (and beyond child-bearing age) Second, it

is crucial that youth, family neighbourhood and community are linked Third, the establishment of voluntary Kwak’wala literacy schools Fourth, Kwak’wala in the regular school system To move toward language revitalization, Anonby identifies that the Kwak’wala must have a common vision, which includes clear reasons for reversing language shift (economic, identity, rewards/initiatives) and a clear plan about how to do it He outlines carefully how and in what order the community, families, and schools could work on the 5 essential elements of successful language revival, concluding that:

1) the majority of the Kwakwaka’wakw population must feel a strong sense of ethnicity and solidarity; this must

be a community, not educational, endeavour The work and price necessary to achieve this must be done willingly by the Kwakwaka’wakw families

2) An immersion environment is also community based, and begins by establishing Kwak’wala-only zones (homes, neighbourhood) Only after students have received immersion support in their homes will it be possible to begin immersion in the schools

3) The stabilization of immersion environments will enable schools and literacy groups to focus on immersion as well, creating an environment where reading and writing Kwak’wala can be done regularly The community supports this by continuing to create opportunities for Kwak’wala use in all aspects of daily life

4) Books must be available for the newly literate population to read, and would give Kwak’wala prestige to be in the media The community plays the central role, as it will consume and produce the material; teachers and students would use and produce material in a school setting

Chapter 4 of Anonby’s thesis outlines the implementation of his ideas in a Kwak’wala community (Alert Bay) It is a narrative approach that records community responses, at all levels, to his ideas, and the strategies that the community and education system adopted, or did not adopt, to enable language revival

Auditor General of Canada Chapter 4 in Report to the House of Commons: Indian and Northern Affairs Canada: Elementary and Secondary Education Ottawa: Minister of Public Works and Government

Services Canada, 2000.

The Auditor General’s report addresses three main issues First, that INAC cannot demonstrate it has met its main objectives to assist First Nations individuals on reserve to meet their educational needs and goals As a linked point, there is no assurance that First Nations students are receiving culturally appropriate material, closing the

‘education gap’ of First Nations students has been slow, and parity in educational achievement with other

Canadians set back Second, INAC’s role in education and frameworks of accountability need articulation;

additionally, it needs to take into greater account socioeconomic factors and cultural and special needs of First Nations children as factors that can affect success in education Third, education will be impacted by pressures of technology, population increases on reserves and changes in technology and provincial education programs; INAC needs to address the complexity and urgency of the situation and respond to issues with action

Bainbridge, John Canadian Journal of Education 31(3) 2008: 761-766

Bainbridge comments on Gallagher-Mackay ‘s review of T Berger (2006) arguing that Gallagher-Mackay

took too narrow a view in her piece critiquing Berger’s 2006 report Berger, Bainbridge argues, was

advocating for bilingualism, not as a “facet of a larger school program,” but “because it would inevitably

place the schools in the hands of Inuit and this solution would profoundly change the whole culture of the

education system.” Bainbridge points out that the system is not currently culturally relevant and that by

dropping out students are “voting with their feet.” Bainbridge stresses that Berger built his argument on

previous reports Qulliq Quvvariarlugu and Aajiiqatigiingiq Moreover, the purpose of Berger’s report was

to break down the federal government’s defense that they had no jurisdiction (and thus no responsibility)

over social and education policies in Nunavut and that focusing on bilingualism was a way to do this

Berger’s strategy, Bainbridge suggests, was to show that the Government of Canada had a moral

responsibility to support bilingual education like it did for the French majority in Quebec Bainbridge

agrees with Gallagher-Mackay that the GN lacks the political will to address the core problems in the

education system; the Department of Education’s biggest failure, he argues, is that it has opposed

community involvement in education – “local control…is at least as important as the language of

instruction in transforming the culture of the schools.” The author also stresses that while poverty may be

a factor affecting student success, we should not underestimate the power of a strong sense of self-worth

and goals for the future in this regard Increasing the number of Inuit teachers will help to improve

students’ sense of self worth The necessary increase in Inuit teachers to achieve the objectives of

bilingual education will require changes to the current training system, including changing the leadership

in the training organizations and associated bodies

Barnhardt, Ray “Creating a Place for Indigenous Knowledge in Education: The Alaska Native

Knowledge Network.” in David A Gruenwald and Gregory A Smith, eds Place-Based Education in the Global Age: Local Diversity New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2008.

Barnhardt examines the reintegration of Native knowledge systems into the school curriculum as a way to link student’s school learning with life learning out of school The intention has been to restore a ‘traditional sense of

place’ while deepening the educational experience for all students What has been developed is a ‘pedagogy of place’ that teaches through culture, rather than about culture; students learn about the immediate places they inhabit, and their connection to the larger world The Alaskan Rural Systemic Initiative is a long term educational restoration initiative developed by Alaska Federation of Natives, in collaboration with the University of Alaska Fairbanks and with funding from the National Science Foundation Its aim is to document, through initiatives, the Indigenous knowledge systems of Alaska Native people, and develop curriculum and pedagogy that appropriately uses local knowledge and ways of knowing for incorporation into the formal education system The central

component of AKRSI has been to find common ground and connection between interdependent and disparate systems: the Indigenous knowledge systems (local) and the formal education system (imported) The overall goal is

to use the strengths of each system to boost the quality of education and improve the academic performance of students Barndhart offers a list of initiatives that have bolstered student success, and details the development of the Alaska Native Knowledge Network as a necessary addition to, and key element of, the AKRSI program It acts as

a framework for documentation, analysis, dissemination and application of information about Indigenous

knowledge systems and their relevance in the contemporary world It consists of a curriculum database, an extensive web site and listserv, and a publication production and distribution facility Barnhardt describes various initiatives of the ANKN, including science camps and fairs, a clearinghouse and database of curriculum resources applicable to Indigenous settings, and cultural atlases and training toward implementing a cultural atlas The training involves a CD-ROM/web site development project in which students research any aspect of their

culture/community/region and assemble the information in a multimedia format through the use of technology) Barnhardt discusses, in relation to AKRSI, the emphasis and importance of creating stability and continuity in school professionals and personnel He describes how this has been done – in part through the preparation of qualified Alaska Native teachers and administrators, and engaging local, Native, expertise in the educational process He

outlines how this has led to capacity building, and the development of Alaska Standards for Culturally Responsive

Schools, which includes standards for students, educators, curriculum, schools and communities, and which guides

schools and communities in appropriately integrating indigenous knowledge across all areas It emphasizes student experiences in and out of school by offering opportunities for students to engage in in-depth experiential learning

in real world contexts

Berger, Paul “Some Thoughts on Qallunaat Teacher Caring in Nunavut.” Journal of Teaching and Learning 4.2 (2007).

The article is predicated on defining what constitutes ‘caring’ behavior of Qallunaat teachers in the context of working with Inuit, and given differences in ‘caring’ across cultures Berger contends that ‘true caring’ can only occur when the education system is informed by Inuit, and the teacher is committed to, and an advocate for, Inuit Author posits a move from a colonial, Qallunaat-based education system to an education system controlled by Inuit, and offers some historical perspective on the imposition of Qallunaat schooling, replacing Inuit traditional ways, negative social and community effects, and attempts to reform the educational system to include Inuit values (IQ), culture, language, and community input Berger argues that in the current context, true caring is impossible;

he offers some ideas for teachers to be ‘caring’, and that true caring will occur after systemic change His ideas include: advocating for the values of Inuit (becoming un-neutral) as a way of de-colonizing, questioning curriculum and designing materials that enable the expression of Inuit values/culture/language (breaking rules), understanding cultural values that are tied to teaching methods, and adopting (after observation and consideration) more Inuit-centred teaching approaches (accepting learning role in different cultural environment), and studying Inuktitut and learning about Inuit culture and how it is demonstrated in the classroom These ideas are offered also as policy directions for change at a systemic level

Berger, Paul “Urgent Need for More Inuktitut Instruction in Nunavut Schools.” Proceedings of the 15 th

Inuit Studies Conference, Orality (Paris 2006).

Using observations from 2 years teaching in a community on Baffin Island, time observing in schools and research that involved interviewing a range of individuals representing a cross-section of the community about what they liked about schooling and what they’d like to see changed, (74 participants), Berger argues for stronger Inuktitut

instruction in Nunavut schools, as well as greater emphasis on Inuit culture and way of being (IQ) to foster

substantial bilingualism His findings indicate that community members fear the loss of Inuktitut and Inuit culture and are observing this loss in the education of a younger generation who are taught primarily in English (after Gr 5), or speak a ‘mix’ of English and Inuktitut, or who have incomplete knowledge of traditional Inuit ‘ways’ Tied to the community’s concerns, however, is the fact that English is valuable for success in educational endeavours and a professional life; its ubiquity is accepted but at the expense of strong foundational knowledge of Inuktitut and Inuit ways The article offers some counter perspectives such as increased English instruction in early grades, initial English instruction that leads to a greater emphasis on Inuktitut in high school, teachers who speak Inuktitut who can bridge language differences, and the inclusion of elders in school to teach language through traditional skills as

a way of connecting youth with elders and preventing the loss of specific Inuktitut words that are directly related to Inuit ways (relationship to land and other core experiential/cultural activities) Berger argues for implementing the Bilingual Education Strategy (2004), early and greater exposure to English as a Second Language program, moving Inuktitut instruction into high school, and improving bilingual curriculum and resources, thus positively affecting teacher support and training

Berger, Thomas Conciliator’s Final Report March 1, 2006 ‘The Nunavut Project’: Nunavut

Vancouver: Craig E Jones, Counsel to the Concilliator, 2006.

Motivated by long-standing disagreements over the implementation of the Nunavut land claim, the parties

to the claim appointed Thomas Berger to:

1 Review the background, current status and outstanding issues related to the update of the

Contract; and

2 Make recommendations to the parties on possible approaches, which could be taken to

resolve the current impasse

The stalled negotiations created particular uncertainty around two issues: funding levels for the

Institutions of Public Government, and Canada’s responsibility with respect to Article 23, relating to Inuit

levels of employment in the territorial public service Berger and his staffs met and consulted with a wide

variety of stakeholders across Nunavut, in Ottawa and elsewhere in the country Berger’s interim report

focused mainly on the issue of funding; the Implementation Panel’s final decisions were in line with the

interim report and the issues of funding for IPGs has been resolved

The final report focuses on the second issue – Inuit employment as per Article 23 of the land claim Berger

notes that even though it may be “remarkable” that in only six years, 45% of public service employees are

Inuit, this number falls far short of the 85% goal; and, he argues, the current figures are misleading If

employment, by ethnicity, is broken down by position it is possible to see that Inuit hold the majority of

administrative support positions, a large number of senior management positions and about half the

executive positions; however, there are very few (about 25%) in the “professional” positions – the ones

which inform policy making The report opens with a tailored overview of Eastern Arctic history, stressing

the rapid changes and continued colonization experienced in the region during the post-war period

leading up to the 1970s when “Inuit nationalism” sparked the journey toward the Nunavut Land Claims

Agreement (NLCA) Berger also provides a brief summary of the NLCA process, highlighting in particular

the roles and responsibilities of the parties to the claim, as determined by the Agreement Berger outlines

the clauses of Article 23, noting the international attention they received, concluding that in essence the

Article is “an equity clause for a majority.” Achieving a fully representative public service in Nunavut has

proven to be a challenge Berger offers a demographic profile of Nunavut, touching on some of the major

socio-economic challenges, including housing, health, the mixed economy, and education Notably, Berger

ties the commitment in Article 23 to the issue of language and education, stating that:

Achieving the objective of Article 23 means that the Inuit must over time occupy 85 per cent of the positions in all occupational groupings and at all grade levels in the public service, and this necessarily implies that Inuktitut must be the principal language of the workplace and that government services must be provided in Inuktitut

The parties to the claim, therefore, cannot fulfill their obligations as set out in the claim, without also

addressing the broader issues of language and education A new approach to implementation by the

parties is necessary, according to Berger Berger’s recommendation is clear: a long-term plan to enhance

bilingual education, as a way toward fulfilling Article 23, must be supported by the parties

Bilingual Education

Both English and Inuktitut are essential for Nunavut Inuit and to attaining the objectives of Article 23 In

the case of English, as noted earlier, few Inuit occupy the professional positions on the government since most of these positions require post-secondary education Berger argues first that Nunavut needs a

generation of professionals and it is unlikely that Inuit will receive this kind of education in the territory

Secondly, given the scientific and technical nature of these positions, contact with other governments and with other professionals across Canada and elsewhere will be important Both of these realities

necessitate proficiency in English In the case of Inuktitut, Berger stresses the importance of a strong first language foundation for academic success, including learning a second language Morover, since a

segment of the population in Nunavut is unilingual, it is vital that the government offer services in

Inuktitut as well as English Finally, language remains an important part of the preservation of Inuit

culture; English, although viewed as important for working, is still viewed by some as the language of

colonialism

The Government of Nunavut’s 2000 Bathurst Mandate confirms its commitment to a bilingual society in

Nunavut Berger summarizes several previous studies in bilingualism in Nunavut, namely Martin’s

discussion paper on education, which criticizes the transition from Inuktitut to English as the language of instruction at the Grade 4 level (the so-called “early exit immersion” model) stunting a child’s ability to

master either language This model Berger argues is outdated and was inherited from the NWT Berger

proposes two new models:

1 Students are taught in both languages all the way through (the common European model)

2 The immersion model, in which students are taught almost exclusively in their second language for a substantial period of time

At present, the human resources and curriculum requirements of either of these models do not exist

Ultimately, Berger suggests that gradual introduction of English and longer retention of Inuktitut is

necessary for strong bilingual education A commitment to bilingual education must exist at all levels

starting in daycare and preschool all the way up to adult education Critical to the success of a new system

is an increase in Inuit (and bilingual) teachers A commitment must also be made by families and

communities to use Inuktitut at home

Binda, K P and Calliou, Sharilyn Aboriginal Education in Canada Mississagua: Canadian Educators’

Press 2001.

The purpose of this volume is to provide an introductory discussion of determination, devolution, self-representation and decolonization in education (of First Nations people) within a broader contemporary discourse about residential school and human rights The editor notes that First Nations people are

experiencing a transformative journey from “schooling as temporary foreign imprisonment to schooling as self-liberation” Each chapter examines different elements of the decolonization process drawing

extensively on historical (although, she cautions not “researched”) events Calliou differentiates between

decolonization theory and practice: theory is the “researched deconstruction of the institutionalized

ideologies and structures… that sustain the unequal relationship between indigenous and non-indigenous

peoples”; practice is the “researching, restaging and reclaiming of uniquely indigenous protocols,

philosophies, ceremonies, ways of life ” recognizing that these are fluid and contextualized

Chapter 1 presents a historical overview of colonization the associated forces and structures predicated on the belief that liberation from these structures is not possible if one cannot “identify, name, and discuss” them The author questions whether and how to generate authentic indigenous education within existing

“foreign” government frameworks and institutions

Chapter 2 argues for a locally controlled education system for First Nations people, recognizing that

community-based decision-making has shown to be most successful and is critical for sustained positive

outcomes As evidence, the author looks at traditional models of governance in indigenous communities

Chapter 3 focuses on the funding arrangements for First Nations schools in Canada and the asymmetrical

power relations built into the fiscal relationship between First Nations governments and the Government

of Canada Calls for more autonomy from government, yet more federal funding at the same time

Chapter 4 challenges the Eurocentric curricular foundation and proposes instead an holistic framework;

recognizes that this will require major reform as the Euro and indigenous approaches are vastly different

i.e Indigenous circular model (built on Medicine Wheel) does not fit with the European linear model

Offers five recommendations to guide curricular reform: infuse curriculum with spirituality; recognize time

and space; emphasize emotional growth; study relational dynamics; explore material and spiritual worlds

Chapter 5 focuses on language preservation as a basis for decolonization: “the public, active practice of

languages is necessary for decolonization.” Must counteract the attack on Aboriginal languages and

linguistic culture from residential school by improving language curriculum in today’s schools

Chapter 6 offers an argument for the reconsideration of the role of teachers as agents of dominant cultural

reproduction and thus mutation of local knowledge Looks at different teaching programs over time and

their relative successes and challenges Lessons for both indigenous and non-indigenous educators

Chapter 7 provides a description of Euro-western counseling models and their impact on some First

Nations clients Argues that counseling must be holistic rather than rooted in the Euro-western health

dichotomy Offers 4 areas for decolonizing counseling

Chapter 8 focuses on early childhood education and early intervention for decolonization of the next

generation A strong cultural and linguistic foundation is fundamental ECE must be rooted in indigenous

philosophies, cultural practices and protocols or else this will be simply a repeat of residential schools

Chapter 9 suggests that there is a role for parents in evolving the reform of schooling in their communities

The concept of parental involvement is strange because for many years parents were completely excluded

from the education of their children (at school) Uses a case study of a Cree community and school

Suggest adult education about the decolonization of schools may be useful for parents to understand the

potential of schools and education for the next generations

Chapter 10 classifies education services as current, emergent and needed Describes the transitional

decolonization process and the associated process of the devolution of education to First Nations peoples

using examples of services along this continuum Makes recommendations for next steps

Chapter 11 explores the devolution and decolonization process through the lens of the urban Aboriginal

experience in which there are fewer resources, more racism/discrimination and a smaller community of

support

Chapter 12 lessons for graduate students (indigenous and non-) about decolonizing research

Blair, Heather A., and Billy Joe Laboucan “The Alberta Language Initiative and the Implication for Indigenous Languages.” Canadian Journal of Native Education 29.2 (2006): 206

Blair and Laboucan question a 2003 policy directive implementing a 6 year compulsory 2nd language program in Alberta schools with respect to what it means in the context of Indigenous languages, teachers and their needs, students and language development, and the revitalization of Indigenous languages in Alberta They identify significant risk for language loss/death among those languages that are already endangered; most of the languages are not spoken at home They argue for language planning to occur alongside language policy development and implementation, and present an overview of what language planning entails The article presents the findings of a one-day symposium organized by an ad hoc group, interested in expressing needs and issues in response to language loss and the 2003 policy directive

Blesse, Diann S “Aboriginal Teacher’s Perceptions of Classroom Learning Environments.” Master’s thesis, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, 1997.

Blesse’s study of Aboriginal teacher’s experiences in the classroom (Northwest Territories) finds that they integrate traditional cultural values learned through their primary socialization experiences with their development of classroom learning environments The classroom environment reflects their culture and compliments community

interactions Their goal is to draw compatibilities between classroom learning and the life learning outside of it Her study is based on 3 questions:

1) Are there traditional Aboriginal socialization practices that influence

Aboriginal teachers' perceptions, attitudes, and choices when developing their

classroom learning environments?

2 Is there a connection between Aboriginal teachers' articulated values and

traditional teachings?

3 Which aspects of Aboriginal teachers' classroom learning environments and

the accompanying value-based rationales would they recommend be included in

both Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal teachers' training?

Corson, D “Norway's Sámi Language Act: Emancipatory implications for the world's aboriginal

peoples.” Language in Society, 24, pp.493-514, 1995

The article discusses the effect of the 1992 Sámi Language Act in Norway in revitalizing the Sámi culture

The Act legitimized the native language in government operations, including the education system Using

various ethnographic methodologies, the paper discusses: 1) The organizational structure of Sámi and

regular schools to allow aboriginal languages 2) The influence of Sami cultural groups in Sámi and regular

schools and 3) the balance of language used in instructional practices for Sámi students in the bilingual

and bicultural context The author contents that the Act provided the necessary foundation for Sámi

nation to become “agents of their own emancipation” In essence, language legitimization by the Act

established a recognized political voice Second, localization of the Sámi language in six local districts

enhanced local control of cultural conditions and circumstances The non-partisan Sámi Education council

provides valuable supports to the local districts by mediating discords between Sámi and Norwegian

culture as well as devising acceptable solution for Sámi nation Churchill asserts that the Norwegian

experience is “no extraordinary concession for governments to governments to be making to groups of

their citizens; devolving social policy decision-making in this way is no more than consistent with modern

notions of social justice p.511” The Sámi model offers hope for cultural revitalization for other Aboriginal

cultures subject to assimilation by a dominant culture

Crago, Martha B “Communicative Interaction and Second Language Acquisition: An Inuit Example.” TESOL Quarterly 26.3 (1992): 487-505.

The article focuses on the role of cultural context in the interactions between Inuit children, their families, and non-Inuit teachers Crago looks at non-Inuit culture’s ways of using and learning languages, and argues that teaching strategies for 2nd language needs to be based on knowledge of cultural membership for Inuit children and that how language is taught and learned is central to communicating culturally Non-Inuit teachers need to be aware of ethnicism in their teaching (denial of a person’s cultural ways) Research focused on Inuit in the communities of Kangirsuk and Quaqtaq (Ungava Bay, Northern (arctic) Quebec) In Northern Quebec, all schools offer three languages: Inuktitut, English and French In the communities of Kangirsuk and Quaqtaq, Inuit culture and Inuktitut

is taught from kindergarten until Gr 2, and from Gr 3 until the end of high school courses are in English and taught primarily by Qallunaat However, Inuit culture is taught through some core courses, in Inuktitut, until the end of high school, comprising about a quarter of a student’s time in the beginning of high school to a fifth of a student’s time by the end of high school The article, through interview segments, outlines disparities between Inuit cultural norms and their expression in 2nd language situations, as well as generational differences within Inuit culture as expressed by children/grandchildren in social situations Value judgements by Qallunaat teachers, and expectations

of behaviour based on Qallunaat norms are also revealed Crago outlines important differences that impact 2nd

language learning and teaching Differences between Inuit culture and French/English cultures, the status of the child, and social structures of child-caring, methods of teaching and learning, and application of knowledge have an affect on learning a 2nd language The author suggests that culturally aware/congruent methods of teaching might include comprehension-based 2nd language learning programs (learning by listening), and cooperative, peer

interactive activities (language learning from peers), but that they would need to be tested to maximize learning and minimize cultural loss Other ideas include using competencies gained in 1st language learning to learn the 2nd

language, 1st language teachers teaching the 2nd language and using culturally relevant material to enable less of an adjustment to the 2nd language

Davis, L.R Gaywish, and C VanEvery-Albert “Section One Editorial: Indigenous Methodologies.” Canadian Journal of Native Education 31.1 (2008): 9.

Very brief introduction to how Aboriginal academics use cultural knowledge to find teaching and research

methodologies that respect and affirm their identities as First Nations people

Dorais, L.J “Bilingualism and Diglossia in the Canadian Eastern Arctic.” Arctic 42 (1989): 199-207.

Dorais suggests that in the Eastern Arctic, the process of colonization is demonstrated by language loss and diglossia (uneven status between languages), as a symptom of language conflict While agreeing that, at a local level, some communities are immersed in Inuktitut and Inuit culture, and that since the 70’s there has been efforts

to halt the domination of English/French over Inuktitut and Inuit culture, Dorais points to understanding diglossia

on a macro-social level, and understanding diglossia as part of a process of dependence and inequality He cites Prattis and Chartrand (1984: 46-47), as offering a blueprint for bolstering Inuktitut and Inuit culture at the macro (government) and micro (community) levels and enabling decentralization as a way of ensuring community input

on education, language, media and culture, however, the pervasiveness of southern bureaucratic and educational structures and investment, discourage and disable the use of Inuktitut over generations, as evidenced by code-switching, use of English between Inuktitut speakers, and use of English within Inuktitut speaking families among younger generations (under 40) Using historical examples, references to local studies and an overview of policy development with respect to bilingualism (and what led to it), Dorais ultimately argues that what exists in the Eastern Arctic is a ‘subtractive bilingualism’ whereby languages do not complement each other, but result in uneven valuing and, eventually, replacement

Fuzessy, Christopher “Biculturalism in Postsecondary Inuit Education.” Canadian Journal of Native Education 22.2 (1998): 201-9.

Fuzessy follows 5 Inuit students from Nunavik, QC, enrolled in their first year of post-secondary school In theory, following other studies, these students would have gained bicultural and bilingual ‘competencies’ enabled by primary cultural and linguistic immersion, Kativik School Board’s mandate to enable strong 2nd language and cultural learning as a consequence of strong primary cultural teachings and relevant pedagogy/curriculum, and generational changes in accepting mainstream influences and developing a 2 way bicultural and bilingual

framework between community and school Fuzessy’s main focus is whether the self-reported cultural identities of these students reflect mainstream, bicultural, or traditional Inuit identities The result of the study was that most of the students who were followed have a bicultural cultural identity; Fuzessy encourages the examination of the rate

of transition from primary to secondary culture in Inuit students, and accompanying factors, to enable the

development of relevant curriculum and pedagogy to support stages of students’ bicultural development

Gallagher-Mackay, Kelly “Review Essay: Concilliator’s Final Report: “The Nunavut Project.” Canadian Journal of Education 30.4 (2007)

This article is a review of Thomas Berger’s 2006 Conciliator’s Final Report: “The Nunavut Project,” that the goal to

improve Inuit representation in the territorial government could be met through the expansion of bilingual education

While Gallagher-Mackey supports Berger’s recommendation, she argues that he has not considered the “equally

serious challenges of improving overall educational quality and directly tackling issues of socio-economic

disadvantage,” which are also at the core of the issues facing the Nunavut education system The author provides a

brief overview of Article 23 and motivations for appointing Berger to conduct such a review: namely, the realization

that Inuit employment is “crucially important for equity in the territory.” Berger’s report stresses that rather than continue to focus on increasing demand for Inuit employees in the public sector (the strategy to-date), the interested parties should provide the resources necessary to increase the supply of Inuit employees, turning the focus to education (with the federal government providing the bulk of the funding and the GN delivering the services) Making use of available literature, Gallagher-Mackay further asserts that Berger has oversimplified and overstated his case in

the report The literature is clear that the loss of Inuktitut skills both negatively impacts individual achievement and

undermines the collective identity of students Berger states in his report that the existing “early exit immersion” whereby students transition from Inuktitut classes to English classes after grade 3 is contributing to negative

educational outcomes The loss of primary language skills that results from this “too-sudden” transition is damaging to their future academic achievements Gallagher-Mackay argues that Berger’s assertions lack evidence; quoting existing literature, the author suggests that in fact socio-economic status and educational achievement of children’s parents are also important determining factors in a child’s success in either/both languages Other factors affecting success, particularly in Nunavut, include:

that in other places, this transition between languages takes place much earlier, with much fewer problems);

community-based schools with Inuit teachers;

hands-on learning rather than on reading and writing (skills that are necessary for public sector employment); Notably, Gallagher-Mackay agrees with Berger that expanding bilingual education will likely lead to an increase in the number of Inuit teachers and thus the development of a bicultural education system in Nunavut, which “may be less alienating” for students and communities Ultimately, however, there must be political will to expand bilingual (and bicultural) education By focusing solely on bilingual education though, it allows the system to “avoid looking inward to the multitude of ways in which students are not having their needs met…” [and] “it defers accountability for results because it is contingent on training significant numbers of Inuit teachers.”

Goldbach, Ib "Greenland: Education and Society between Tradition and Innovation."

Intercultural Education 11.3 (2000): 259-71.

While the ultimate purpose of this article is to describe the evolution of education policy in Greenland

over the last 50-60 years and the challenge of finding a balance between tradition and innovation,

Goldbach provides a comprehensive account of Greenlandic political and social history and relationship, characterized by periods of friction and periods of collaboration, between the indigenous Greelanders and their Danish colonizers Goldbach divides Greenland’s history into four periods: the precolonial period (up until the early 18th century); the colonial period (between the 1700s-1953 when Greenland became a Danish county); the industrialization period (1953-1979 during which time Greenland looked the most like Denmark); and finally the Home Rule period, starting in 1979 Over the course of these periods, and the latter two in particular, policies regarding education and language have taken both extremes and neither extreme has shown to be successful In 1953, as a Danish county, Greenland was expected to standardize its education system but it lacked the capacity to do so; thus necessitating an influx of Danish teachers (with their language and culture) to Greenland In 1979, Greenlandic was re-established as the primary language of Greenland but recruiting Greelandic speaking teachers has proven to be a challenge

Greenland’s solution to this problem has been the opposite of other developing countries Rather than attempting to educate as many native-speaking teachers as possible, the Home Rule government has chosen a longer-term strategy to provide high quality education to relatively few Greelander teachers The second part of the article uses the different levels of education (from elementary to tertiary) to illustrate the struggle to find a balance between tradition and innovation At the elementary and high school levels, education is delivered at the municipal level and there are schools in all communities (this has been the most expensive solution to a previously centralized – and thus residential – school system but one that has helped to maintain social and cultural customs) Drop out rates are incredibly high, especially in the “academic branch” that seeks to prepare students for university in Europe (as opposed to the vocational school branch) The school system is a hybrid of the European model with unique

Greenlandic characteristics The goal of the curriculum is to provide an education that is of high quality