Physique, Fitness, and Performance - Second Edition ppt

Over theyears, research results in this area of interest have well demonstrated this relationship.While physique essentially encompasses the study of body structure, body size, andbody c

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Physique,

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Title Page

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Battinelli, Thomas.

Physique, fitness, and performance / Thomas Battinelli 2nd ed.

p cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 0-8493-9197-0 (alk paper)

1 Exercise Physiological aspects 2 Somatotypes 3 Physical fitness I Title QP301.B364 2007

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com

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To my granddaughter Sofia, the new life in our lives

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Chapter 1 Physique, Fitness, and Performance 3

Introduction 3

Body Build and Body Composition: The Physique Components 3

Conditioning and Training: The Physical Fitness Components 5

General Motor Ability and Specific Motor Ability: The Motor Components 6

Nutrient and Energy Utilization: The Metabolic Components 7

Physical Performance 8

Physique, Exercise, Nutrition, and Heart Disease 9

Summary 9

Glossary 10

References 12

Chapter 2 Body Build and Body Build Indices 15

Introduction 15

Body Types 15

Somatotypes 16

Anthropometric Somatotypes 16

Body Build and Physical Performance 17

Body Size and Body Proportions 22

Factor Types 22

Dysplasia Type Indices 23

Body-Build Indices 24

Body-Build Indices and Biomechanics 24

Body-Build Indices and Physical Performance 27

Summary 27

Glossary 29

References 30

Chapter 3 Body Fat and Fat-Free Composition 35

Introduction 35

Direct and Indirect Methods of Measure 35

Densitometry and Hydrometry 37 9197_C000.fm Page vii Friday, May 18, 2007 9:54 AM

Total Nitrogen and Total Body Potassium 37

Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance 37

Electrical Conductivity and Ultrasound 37

Infrared Interactance and Photon Absorptiometry 38

Air Displacement Plethysmography: Body Pod 39

Anthropometric Methods of Measure 39

Body Composition and Physical Performance 42

Summary 44

Glossary 45

References 46

PART TWO Physical and Physiological Conditioning Chapter 4 Muscular Strength and Muscular Endurance 53

Introduction 53

Muscle Structure and Muscle Contraction 53

Muscle Fiber Types 54

Muscle Strength and Muscle Endurance Determinants 54

Strength Training Principles and Practices 59

Muscular Strength and Muscular Endurance Training Programs 61

Flexibility 63

Effects of Resistance Training Programs 63

Summary 64

Glossary 65

References 67

Chapter 5 Aerobic and Anaerobic Conditioning 71

Introduction 71

Phosphagen or Adenosine Triphosphate–Creatine Phosphate System 71

Fast Glycolytic or Lactic Acid System 71

Slow Glycolytic or Oxidative System 72

Muscle Fiber Types 73

Principles of Training 75

Training Programs 79

Effects of Cardiovascular Training Programs 80

Pre-Entrance Program Considerations 82

Summary 82

Glossary 83

References 85 9197_C000.fm Page viii Friday, May 18, 2007 9:54 AM

PART THREE Motor Learning and Motor Control

Chapter 6 Motor Learning and Motor Control 91

Introduction 91

Generality and Specificity 91

General Motor Ability 91

Specific Motor Ability 94

Motor Control 95

Closed and Open Loop Motor Learning 96

Closed and Open Loop Studies 97

Dynamic and Exploratory Motor Learning Approaches 100

Practice and Motor Learning 100

Motor Ability and Motor Learning 101

Summary 102

Glossary 103

References 104

Chapter 7 Fatigue and Physical Performance 109

Introduction 109

Fatigue and Physical Performance: Past Perspectives 109

Current Physiological Causes of Fatigue 112

Central Nervous System Fatigue 113

Peripheral Neuromuscular Fatigue 115

Fatigue and Motor Learning 116

Summary 117

Glossary 118

References 120

PART FOUR Nutrition and Heart Disease Chapter 8 Exercise and Nutrition 125

Introduction 125

Carbohydrates 125

Fats 125

Proteins 126

Vitamins and Minerals 127

Water 129

Carbohydrate and Fat Utilization in Exercise 129

Protein and Performance 132 9197_C000.fm Page ix Friday, May 18, 2007 9:54 AM

Vitamin and Mineral Utilization in Exercise 133

Water and Exercise 134

Summary 135

Glossary 136

References 137

Chapter 9 Nutrition and Heart Disease 141

Introduction 141

Lipids and Lipoproteins 141

Atherosclerosis and Heart Disease 144

Cholesterol Reduction: Nutritional Intervention 147

Dietary Goals and Dietary Guidelines 149

Cholesterol: Norm Levels and Risk Assessment 151

Major Risk Factors 154

The Metabolic Syndrome 156

Biochemical Risk Factors 157

Summary 157

Glossary 159

References 160

Chapter 10 Obesity and Heart Disease 167

Introduction 167

Obesity Types 167

Causes of Obesity 167

Height-Weight Tables 170

Height-Weight Ratios 171

Frame Size 174

Obesity and Heart Disease 174

Summary 175

Glossary 178

References 178

PART FIVE Appendices Appendix 1 The Heath-Carter Anthropometric Somatotype: Measurement and Assessment 185

References 192

Appendix 2 Dysplasia Types and Subtypes: Measurement and Assessment 193

References 196 9197_C000.fm Page x Friday, May 18, 2007 9:54 AM

Appendix 3 Body Composition: Measurement and Assessment 197References 200

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The relationship of structure to function has been substantially studied Over theyears, research results in this area of interest have well demonstrated this relationship.While physique essentially encompasses the study of body structure, body size, andbody composition, fitness and performance are descriptives of the applied interaction

of morphological, muscular, cardiovascular, motor, and metabolic component ities, abilities, and skills that are developed and acquired through exercise andphysical training programs

capac-This text has been written for undergraduate students in the exercise and sportstudies who major in these fields of interest Part One serves as the basis for thestudy of the structure-function relationships Such study establishes an understanding

of the history and background of the prevalent interrelationships in the study of bodystructure, body size, and body composition relative to fitness and physical perfor-mance Part Two and Part Three present an overview of the quantitative and quali-tative study of physical and physiological conditioning and motor learning and motorcontrol Quantitatively, the physical fitness health- and skill-related components arereviewed relative to training and conditioning Qualitatively, motor ability, motorlearning, and motor control are reviewed relative to the development of motor skillwithin general and specific parameter guidelines Fatigue, the inevitable result ofexercise and performance, provides a further analysis of the physiological andpsychological training processes Part Four provides the fundamental understandings

to the physiological processes that occur during exercise relative to nutrient function.This section also presents coverage on the relationships of nutrition and obesity toheart disease Part Five, the appendix section, includes the pertinent figures, tables,and forms used in evaluation and programming

Thomas Battinelli

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The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance of the following individuals in thepreparation and completion of this textbook: Robert A Foley, M.L.S., Director ofLibrary, Fitchburg State College; Jeremiah E Greene, M.L.S., librarian, FitchburgState College; Bruce Mc Sheehy, M.A., librarian, Fitchburg State College; Jean W.Missud, M.A., librarian, Fitchburg State College; Mary E Leger, Inter Library LoanServices, Fitchburg State College; Paulette M Rameau, secretary, Fitchburg StateCollege; Regina M Pisa, J.D., managing partner, Goodwin Procter Law Firm;Stephen Charkoudian, J.D., partner, Goodwin Proctor Law Firm, Zheng-Yi Chen,Ph.D., assistant professor of neuroscience/researcher, Harvard Medical School andMassachusetts General Hospital; Elisabeth M Battinelli, M.D., Ph D., hematology-oncology clinical fellow, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center

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The Author

Department at Fitchburg State College in Fitchburg, Massachusetts He received hisBachelor of Science degree in physical education from Boston University, his Master

of Education degree in educational administration from Boston College, and hisDoctoral Degree in health and human movement from Boston University Dr Bat-tinelli has presented research papers regionally, nationally, and internationally,authored numerous research studies and articles, and has had two books published.His research areas range from studies on body build and physical performance, tomotor ability and motor learning, philosophy and physical education, exercise andnutrition, and administration and athletics These studies were published in The Journal of Human Biology, The British Journal of Sports Medicine, The International Journal of Physical Education, The Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, The Physical Educator, Athletic Administration, Rivista di Cultura Sportiva, and Annali

He also collaborated as a principal investigator for Fitchburg State College withUniversity of Massachusetts Epidemiological Researchers in studies on Cholesteroland Calcium

During his tenure at Fitchburg State College, Dr Battinelli was a facultymember for 47 years, athletic director for 10 years, and department chair for 30years He has been both college active and community active In reference to collegeactivities, he was chair of the Athletic Council and served as a member of theAcademic Policies, the Department Chairs, the Institutional Wellness, and theHuman Studies Committees As for his community activities, Dr Battinelli hasbeen involved in public school physical education advisory work, served as gov-ernor on the Administrative Board of the Dante Alighieri Cultural Society, andcurrently is an operations volunteer for the Somerville Museum In regard to honorsand awards, Dr Battinelli has been a recipient of an Honor Award from theMassachusetts Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance,received two Distinguished Service Awards, and won the Mara Award for TeachingExcellence from Fitchburg State College

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BODY BUILD AND BODY COMPOSITION: THE

PHYSIQUE COMPONENTS

Physique or body build can be characterized by the interactive sum of its parts, bodystructure, body size, and body composition (Figure 1.1).1,2,3,9

1 Body structure — the distributive component parts of the body

2 Body size — the body mass, volume, length, and surface area of the body

3 Body composition — the fat and fat-free ratio percentage components ofthe body

In relation to measurement and assessment, three major interrelated but what dichotomous classification systems of study have emerged through the years(Table 1.1) The physique rating systems include those of body type, somatotype,and anthropometric somatotype These classification forms of study have focused

some-on the measure of structure, shape, and form through anthroposcopic and metric methods of evaluation The body build index rating systems include those offactor type, body type, dysplasia type, and proportionality assessments These ratingsystems are index oriented and utilize anthropometric length, breadth, and circum-ference methods of assessment to identify and relate body measures to one another

anthropo-in the form of ratios Through the use of statistical computations, body build ments and classifications have been made relative to size, proportionality, and dis-proportionality The last, but probably the most recently utilized systems of study,have been those in the field of body composition Laboratory and field methods of9197_C001.fm Page 3 Friday, May 18, 2007 9:55 AM

assess-4 Physique, Fitness, and Performance, Second Edition

FIGURE 1.1 Physique components (From Bioleau, R.A and T.H Lohman, Orthopedic Clinics of North America, 8, 563–581, 1977 With the permission of the publisher.)

TABLE 1.1 Body Build and Body Composition:

The Physique Components

Composition Structure

Size

The Physique Components

Body Build Body Build Indices Body Composition

Body Types Factor Types Densitometric Somatotypes Dysplasia Types Dilutional Anthropometric Body Size Nitrogen Somatotypes Potassium

X-Ray Ultrasound Anthropometric Computed Tomography Magnetic Resonance Electrical

Conductivity Infrared Interactance Photon

Absorptiometry Air Displacement Plethysmography

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Physique, Fitness, and Performance 5

assessment have generally incorporated densitometric, dilutional, nitrogen, sium, x-ray, ultrasound, anthropometric, computed tomography, magnetic resonance,electrical conductivity, infrared interactance, photon absorptiometry, and air dis-placement plethysmography evaluations to measure fat and fat-free body weight

potas-To date, research in these areas of study have demonstrated the morphological,biomechanical, and physiological influence of structure, size, and composition on per-formance.1,5,7,8,13–22 A summary of these findings generally indicate that:

1 The position of muscular attachments, the structural size of joints, andthe length of bones can either enhance or limit function

2 Body build can set influential limits for performance but does not controlthe capacity for work

3 Proportionality in size and shape can constitute specific prerequisites forsuccessful performance

4 Muscle force is directly related to muscle cross section

5 Structure–function interactions can be interpreted through length, mass, andtime studies, and their derivatives can be expressed in physiological terms

6 Environmental, biomechanical, and morphological constraints on mance can include the factors of spatial and temporal controls, physicallaws and principles, and overall size and form measures

perfor-7 The amount of fat-free and fat weight can be of positive and/or negativevalue in regard to performance

8 Generally, mesomorphs have been found to be stronger and more agile,and to possess more muscular endurance than ectomorphs and endomorphs

CONDITIONING AND TRAINING: THE PHYSICAL

FITNESS COMPONENTS

Physical fitness can be defined as the capacity to do physical work within gradatedlevels of performance quantitatively and qualitatively (Table 1.2) The quantitativetraining parameters are health related and include the components of muscularstrength, muscular endurance, flexibility, and cardiovascular endurance:

1 Muscular strength — the maximal repetitive or sustained exertion of forceagainst resistance

2 Muscular endurance — the submaximal repetitive or sustained exertion

of force against resistance

3 Flexibility — the functional joint movement of the body and limbs through

a range of movement

4 Cardiovascular endurance — the contributive metabolic energy force that

is descriptive of the physiological work capacity of the body relative tothe performance efficiency of the vascular and respiratory heart and lungsover extended periods of time

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6 Physique, Fitness, and Performance, Second Edition

The qualitative training parameters are skill related in nature and include thecomponents of agility, balance, coordination, speed, and power

1 Agility — the ability to change direction quickly and accurately while inmovement

2 Balance — vestibular function and the state of equilibrium during staticand dynamic activity

3 Coordination — the learned execution of movement patterns

4 Speed — the repetitive movement of body limbs related to the coverage

of distance or periods of time as quickly as possible

5 Power — the amount of explosive force exerted as quickly as possibleover a designated bodily range distance

GENERAL MOTOR ABILITY AND SPECIFIC MOTOR

ABILITY: THE MOTOR COMPONENTS

Ability or general motor ability can be defined as the inherited and learned capacitydemonstrated in the performance of fundamental skill activities.11 Components such

as muscular strength, muscular endurance, power, speed, cardiovascular endurance,flexibility, agility, and coordination were established, and tests were developed asmeasures of these factors (Table 1.3) Measures of this type were aimed at thepredictive evaluation of physical performance and the generality and the transfer-ability of skill activities.4,5 Later studies in this field of research, however, disputedsuch general findings Subsequent investigations were more demonstrative of thespecificities in movement parameters (Table 1.3) The later theories were more motorskill and neuromotor centered and considered to be independent and nontransferable

TABLE 1.2 Physical Fitness: The Conditioning and Training Components

Physical Fitness:

The Conditioning and Training Components

Flexibility Coordination Cardiovascular Speed

Endurance Power

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Physique, Fitness, and Performance 7

relative to the performance specificities derived from undertaken physical tasks.9

Subsequent studies in the generality–specificity controversy were demonstrative of

an ability to skill construct.6 This construct model was indicative of the practice andlearning changes that were inherent in the training process Motor abilities formedthe basic general abilities of the initial stages of learning that became more motor-skill specific with practice in the later stages of learning In addition, motor learningand motor control are the interconnected areas of study that provide the coordinativeprocesses and mechanisms underlying the learning and acquiring of motor skills

NUTRIENT AND ENERGY UTILIZATION: THE

METABOLIC COMPONENTS

Nutrition can be defined as the intake, transformation, and utilization of food stances In relation to physical activity, nutrition provides the fundamental under-standings to the physiological processes that occur during exercise relative to nutrientfunction The basic nutrients, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, andwater, are functionally used by the body for energy metabolism during physicalwork Metabolically, the development of aerobic and anaerobic conditioning throughphysical training is significant to overall cardiovascular fitness and function (Table1.4) Aerobic endurance is gained through work in the presence of oxygen, whileanaerobic conditioning is attained through work without the presence of oxygen.Both of these systems work in conjunction with one another, utilizing appropriateaerobic and anaerobic metabolic processes to a greater and/or lesser extent depending

sub-on bodily needs in respsub-onse to exercise The nutrient and energy respsub-onses produced

by these systems contribute to the resulting physiological work capacity of the body

in regard to physical performance

TABLE 1.3 General and Specific Motor Ability: The Motor Components

General and Specific Motor Ability:

The Motor Components General Motor Ability Muscular Strength Muscular Endurance Power

Speed Cardiovascular Endurance Flexibility

Agility Coordination

Specific Motor Ability Specific Motor Skills Related to Designated Physical Activity Movement Parameters

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8 Physique, Fitness, and Performance, Second Edition

PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE

Physical performance can be described as the increased synergistic patterning ofproficiency and competency acquired through the conditioning and training of devel-oped structural and functional capacities, abilities, and skills relative to nutrient andmetabolic utilization that can be demonstrated during the execution of designatedphysical activities (Table 1.5) Physiological and psychological fatigue must also beconsidered in this process as a resultant effect factor relative to work decrement In

TABLE 1.4 Energy Systems and Energy Sources Utilization:

The Metabolic Components

TABLE 1.5 Physical Performance

Energy Systems and Energy Sources Utilization

The Metabolic Components

ANAEROBIC Intense Activities AEROBIC

Slow to Moderate Activities

Greater Utilization

of Oxygen, Fats and Proteins and Lesser Use of Carbohydrates Metabolically

Lesser Utilization

of Oxygen, Fats, and Proteins, and Greater Use of Carbohydrates Metabolically

PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE

Physique Component

Conditioning and Training Components

Motor Components

Metabolic Components

Abilities

Energy Systems and Energy Sources Utilization Body Build

Indices

Health and Skill Related Components

General and Specific Motor Abilities

Body Composition

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Physique, Fitness, and Performance 9

essence, physical performance can be the capstone of these integrative systems thatmust work together in the pursuit of the movement goals sought These goals arequantitative and qualitative in nature and form the basis for the structure–functionrelationships that are indigenous to physique, fitness, and physical performance

PHYSIQUE, EXERCISE, NUTRITION, AND

HEART DISEASE

The relationship of physique, exercise, and nutrition to heart disease must also beconsidered Studies have shown that physique, namely the endomorphic and meso-morphic body builds, can be significantly related to high cholesterol levels and thesubsequent higher risks of heart disease.5 Exercise in this relationship has beengenerally efficacious and has been shown to lower total cholesterol, low-densitylipoprotein, and triglycerides, and to increase high-density lipoprotein.10 Nutritionhas also played a role in this relationship, since healthful and nutritional diets havealso been reported to lower cholesterol levels The subsequent effects of exerciseand diet on physique, blood lipids, and lipoproteins can therefore be beneficial towardthe promotion of overall health and fitness

SUMMARY

The relationship of physique to fitness and performance has been substantiallystudied Over the years, results in this area of interest have well demonstrated thisrelationship A summary of the findings have generally indicated that:

1 Physique or body build can be characterized by the interactive sum of itsparts, body structure, body size, and body composition

2 Physical fitness can be defined as the capacity to do physical work withingradated levels of performance quantitatively and qualitatively

3 The quantitative parameters are health related and include the components

of muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, and cardiovascularendurance

4 The qualitative parameters are skill related and include the components

of agility, balance, coordination, speed, and power

5 Ability or general motor ability can be defined as the inherited and learnedcapacity demonstrated in the performance of fundamental skill activities

6 Later theories were more motor skill and neuromotor centered and sidered to be independent and nontransferable relative to the performancespecificities derived from undertaken physical tasks

con-7 In relation to physical activity, nutrition provides the fundamental standing to the physiological processes that occur during exercise relative

under-to nutrient function

8 The basic nutrients, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, andwater, are functionally used by the body for energy metabolism duringphysical work

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10 Physique, Fitness, and Performance, Second Edition

9 Physical performance can be described as the increased synergistic terning of proficiency and competency acquired through the conditioningand training of developed structural and functional capacities, abilities,and skills relative to nutrient and metabolic utilization that can be dem-onstrated during the execution of designated physical activities

pat-10 Studies have shown that physique, namely the endomorphic and morphic body builds, can be significantly related to high cholesterol levelsand subsequent higher risks of heart disease

meso-GLOSSARY

vol-ume of the body to determine the body composition values of fat and free ratios

measurement classification

similari-ties and/or differences, respectively, in body size and body shape

in polysaccharide, disaccharide, and monosaccharide formations

pro-longed physical activity

a cross-sectional image of the fat and fat-free tissues of the body

unity of singular skills

body density through water volume displacement of weight in air andweight in water

dilutions to estimate water content and body cellular mass

rat-ing relative to given norm ranges

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Physique, Fitness, and Performance 11

measure the electrolyte tissue content and electrical conductivity flowthrough the body

quantified

Fats Compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and are classified

as triglycerides, phospholipids, and cholesterol

move through a range of motion around a joint

relation-ship of height to one or more breadth measures

per-form a number of physical skills

and are the main carriers of cholesterol from body tissues

measure the absorptive and reflective spectrographic chemical properties

of fat, water, and protein

the prime carriers of this sterol to body tissues

cross-sectional image of the fat and fat-free tissues of the body

force against a resistance

effort

ray immersions used to determine the amount of protein in muscle andnonmuscle tissue

body through which the energy differences observed can determine themineral bone mass of the body

performance quantitatively and qualitatively

the body used to determine the cellular mass of muscle and nonmusclecomponents

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12 Physique, Fitness, and Performance, Second Edition

con-structed of linked chains of amino acids

performed

density levels of body tissues

transfor-mation of food into energy

REFERENCES

Human Kinetics Publishers, Champaign, IL, 2005.

in Sport, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Boston, 1994.

3 Bioleau, R.A and T.H Lohman, The measurement of human physique and its effects

Health Consensus Statement, Human Kinetics Publishers, Champaign, IL, 1993.

Cam-bridge University Press, CamCam-bridge, 1990.

6 Fleishman, E.A., On the relation between abilities, learning, and human performance,

9 Houthkouper, L.B and S.B Goring, Body composition: How should it be measured?

Heart Disease, Prima Publishing, Rocklin, CA, 1993.

McGraw-Hill, Dubuque, IA, 2004.

3rd ed., Human Kinetics Publishers, Champaign, IL, 2005.

Publish-ers, Champaign, IL, 2004.

Harper and Brothers, New York, 1940.

288–303, 1995.

16 Sills, F.D and P.W Everett, The relationship of extreme somatotypes to performance

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Physique, Fitness, and Performance 13

Research in Sport and Physical Education, Charles C Thomas, Springfield, IL, 1964.

The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1954.

Wad-sworth, Belmont, CA, 2005.

21 Wilmore, J.H., Design issues and alternatives in assessing physical fitness among

apparently healthy adults in a health examination survey of the general population,

in Assessing Physical Fitness and Physical Activity in Population Based Surveys,

National Center for Health Statistics, Washington, DC, 1990.

Champaign, IL: 2004.

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BODY TYPES

Human morphological measurement can be traced back to the physique classificationestablished by Hippocrates2,74 He designated two main physical types: the phthisichabitus (tall and thin) and the apoplectic habitus (short and thick) After the inception

of this two-pole system, subsequent formulations also designated disparate typesand established distinct extreme categories, within which intermediate physical typeswere sometimes classified Such evaluations were subjective in nature and based onthe anthroposcopic (visual) study of bodily features and form The physique typesestablished by Hippocrates remained as a standard measure of the human form, andfew advances were made until 1797, when Gall and Spurzheim developed a three-pole system that included the type digestif (digestive), type musculaire (muscular),and type cerebral (cerebral).78

The advent of the science of anthropometry (quantitative measures of selectedhuman body landmarks) furthered the cause of human morphological measurement

In 1909 Viola became the first anthropologist to present a comprehensive systemfor the external measurement of the body.72 His formulations were based on tenmeasures of trunk volume and extremity lengths, compared to established normvalues, and placed on a linearity/nonlinearity scale continuum His physique classi-fication included the following types: macrosplanchnic (large heavy trunk and shortlimbs), normosplanchnic (medium trunk and medium limbs), and microsplanchnic(small trunk and long limbs) The next noted classification system based on poletypes was devised by Kretschmer.20,44,63,67 He became the first psychologist to relatemorphological body build to mental characteristics His three types, similar to thoseproposed earlier by others, were different in that they were more representative of9197_book.fm Page 15 Tuesday, May 1, 2007 2:30 PM

16 Physique, Fitness, and Performance, Second Edition

extreme combinations of variables within an established continuum His tion system included the following types: pyknic (corpulent), athletic (stocky), andasthenic (slender)

classifica-SOMATOTYPES

Probably the most advanced classification system of the mid-twentieth century wasthat proposed by Sheldon.4,5,10,11,28,63 Having been influenced by the works of Violaand Kretschmer, he developed a somatotype rating system that was based on com-ponent variables instead of types His somatotype was derived from the endodermal,mesodermal, and ectodermal embryonic tissue layers and formed what he termedthe endomorphic (roundness and softness), mesomorphic (squareness and hardness),and ectomorphic (linearity and fragility) components of body build These compo-nent variables were quantitative in nature, in that equal minimal to maximal intervallevels were established to provide a diverse, but yet to some degree continuous,system Photographs were taken and, through utilization of both anthroposcopic andanthropometric methods of measurement, scaled to size (Figure 2.2).76 Endomorphic,mesomorphic, and ectomorphic evaluations were derived from measures of the headand neck, upper and lower trunks, and arm and leg body landmark regions

ANTHROPOMETRIC SOMATOTYPES

Further advances in morphological rating systems were made by Parnell.55 Whilehis physique rating component classification was similar to that established bySheldon, Parnell utilized live body measurements (skinfold, bone, circumference,height, and weight) to obtain what was termed an anthropometric somatotype Hiscomponent designations were fat, muscularity, and linearity, set within intervalranges of one through seven A physique deviation chart was used to enter theselected measurements, and processes were established to obtain an objective rating

Body Build Indices

Body Build and Body Build Indices 17

Although a number of somatotype modification systems have been developed

in recent years, the most prominent, practical, and utilized anthropometric type classification has probably been that established by Heath and Carter.10,11,18,33,34

somato-Similar in component designations endomorphy, mesomorphy, and ectomorphy tothose incorporated by Sheldon, and similar to the live-body measurement processesdeveloped by Parnell, the Heath–Carter system was nevertheless different in that itpresented a descriptive somatotype rating not related to genetic tendencies relative

to age and not restricted to established interval ranges Quantitative skinfold, breadth,circumference, height, and weight measures are taken and then entered on a soma-totype rating form (Appendix 1).18 Assessment procedures were calculative in pro-cess with endomorphic fatness, mesomorphic muscularity, and ectomorphic bodysize levels incorporated into an anthropometric somatogram description of the soma-totype ratings obtained (Figure 2.3).18

Further advances in somatotype anthropometry will probably be related to odological development The use of computerized axial tomography and magneticresonance imaging will provide additional information relative to the internal masses

meth-of the body.11,19 The incorporation of this data into that of present systems in usetoday will enhance the quantifiable assessment of the structure, size, and composition

of the body.13

BODY BUILD AND PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE

Somatotype and anthropometric somatotype assessments in the study of physicalperformance have been designed to measure the general and/or specific physique,size, shape, and form indigenous to the athletes and the activities being studied Inthe past, research-oriented assessments were subjective in nature, with photometrictechniques utilized relative to body-build evaluations projected from picture form

to live body representations.73 Recent research developments, however, have enabledinvestigators to use live body anthropometric measures of assessment.35

Studies on the somatotypes of athletes, elite athletes, and Olympic athletes havegenerally shown that (Tables 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3):3,4,5,10,11,17,22–24,35,38,49,52,53,56–58,65,66,70,73,80–84

FIGURE 2.2 Extreme somatotypes (From Van Huss, et al., Physical Activity in Modern Living,

2nd ed., Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1969 Allyn and Bacon, 1969 Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education.)

Endomorphy Mesomorphy Ectomorphy

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18 Physique, Fitness, and Performance, Second Edition

1 Strength- and speed-dependent athletes tended to be basically mesomorphic

2 Distance-dependent athletes were found to be more ectomorphic, withlimited amounts of mesomorphic muscularity

3 Male athletes were more mesomorphic, but less endomorphic and morphic, than their female counterparts

ecto-4 In reference to the male athletes, weight lifters were more endomorphic andmesomorphic, but less ectomorphic, than were the boxers and judo com-petitors Gymnasts and canoeists were more mesomorphic and less endo-morphic than were the fencers, field hockey players, cyclists, and rowers

5 In reference to the somatotypes of female athletes, gymnasts and trackand field athletes were less endomorphic than were the canoeists, rowers,and swimmers

6 Decathlon and pentathlon athletes were more mesomorphic and less morphic than were the jumpers and throwers

7 Mesomorphs were found to be superior to their endomorphic and morphic counterparts in terms of strength, speed, and agility

ecto-FIGURE 2.3 Somatochart (From Carter, J.E.L., and B.H Heath, Somatotyping-Development Applications, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1990 Reprinted with the permission of Cambridge University Press.)

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Body Build and Body Build Indices 19

8 The somatotypes of athletes within given sports activities, although ilar, were dissimilar relative to size and proportions within given eventsand positional play

sim-9 The somatotypes of champion athletes were progressively more similarrelative to size and proportions as competitive levels increased in regard

to given sports activities and to given events and positional play

Height (cm)

Weight (kg)

Somatotype

Reference Endo Meso Ecto

Track and Field:

Source: From Wilmore, J.H., C.H Brown, and J.A Davis, Annals of the New York Academy of Science,

301, 764–776, 1977 Permission granted by the Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

Height (cm)

Weight (kg)

Somatotype Endo Meso Ecto Reference

Runners:

Track and Field:

Source: From Wilmore, J.H., C.H Brown, and J.A Davis, Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 301, 764–776, 1977 Permission granted by the Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

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20 Physique, Fitness, and Performance, Second Edition

TABLE 2.3 Somatotypes of High-Level Sportsmen and Sportswomen

Sport Males Females Racquet sports

Track, field and cycling

Set field sports

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Body Build and Body Build Indices 21

In regard to athlete variability in size and proportional build within given sportsactivities, Leake and Carter45 found female triathletes to be generally heavier, moremesomorphic, and less ectomorphic than elite runners Foley et al.27 also found thatcyclists differed structurally relative to their event specializations Sprinters weremore mesomorphic and shorter, while time tourists were more ectomorphic andtaller These results were corroborated by Orvanova54 in her study on weight lifters.She found that, while those in the lighter weight classes were classified as ectomor-phic or balanced mesomorphs, those in the heavier weight classes were found to beendomorphic mesomorphs In reference to elite volleyball players, Gualdi-Russoand Zaccagni30 reported that the physique of these athletes was high in ectomorphyand low in endomorphy and mesomorphy

Somatotype adaptations due to physical training and competitive participationover the seasonal course of play have also been studied Carter and Phillips21 reported

an endomorphic decrease for males in an exercise program over a two-year period.Carter and Rahe,20 in a four-month study on underwater demolition training partic-ipants, found decreases in all three endomorphic, mesomorphic, and ectomorphiccomponents during that period of time A similar study on football players over thecourse of a season conducted by Bolonchuk and Lukaski14 arrived at dissimilarresults There was a decrease in endomorphy, an increase in mesomorphy, and no

* More mature gymnastis 3.0–4.0–3.0.

† Most specialist 100 m sprinters score at least 5.5 on mesomorphy.

Source: From Bloomfield, J., T.R Ackland, and B.C Elliott, Applied Anatomy and Biomechanics in Sport, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Boston, 1994 Permis- sion granted by Blackwell Science Asia P/L.

Somatotypes of High-Level Sportsmen and Sportswomen

Sport Males Females

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