PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT AND THE IMPLICATIONS ON STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT, MOTIVATION AND STUDENT BEHAVIOR

CHAPTER TWOThe following review of the literature will further examine parentalinvolvement in public schools by focusing on the following issues: studentachievement, motivation, student

PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT AND THE IMPLICATIONS ON STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT, MOTIVATION AND STUDENT BEHAVIOR

ByJayson M St.Croix

A ThesisSubmitted to the Faculty of

Education Department

In Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for theDegreeMasters of Science in Education

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This Thesis entitledParental Involvement and the Implications on Student Achievement,Motivation and Student Behavior

By Jayson M St.CroixHas been approved for the Department of Education

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ABSTRACTThis study is concerned with how parental involvement affects student achievement since parental involvement has implications for student achievement,behavior, and motivation Educators realize there are obstacles that prevent parents from being involved Since there is a direct relationship between parental involvement and academic success, this study examined how to increase parental involvement This can be accomplished through open, consistent, clear, and positive communication with parents, teachers and administrators This

communication helps to establish a positive relationship in which everyone works

as a team to ensure that the best interests of the students are being met

CHAPTER ONEStatement of the ProblemParental involvement positively affects student achievement Educatorsfind that there are obstacles that prevent parents from becoming involved.Effective strategies to involve parents in students’ academic lives are needed

Purpose of the StudyThe purpose of this study will be to examine obstacles to parentalinvolvement, strategies to overcome those obstacles, and how educators canincorporate best practices in the classroom This will be accomplished byexamining already existing research to see if lack of parental involvement is aproblem in other school districts This study will also examine what strategies arebeing used for parental involvement across schools in the United States.Administrators and educators will be interviewed to learn of parental involvement

in the North Country in New York

Research Question(s)The following research question will guide the study:

1 To what extent are parents involved in their children’s

education in North Country secondary public schools?

2 Are there any obstacles that are hindering parents from

being more involved?

RationaleParents are children’s first teachers They have the greatest long-termimpact on their children’s future success in life-long learning Therefore, parentsare inherently involved in their children’s education Whether they are aware of it

or not, parents are role models Increasingly, parents are leaving the brunt of theresponsibility for raising and educating their children to teachers Aside fromcontent, educators are now required to teach behavior and responsibility Fromthe educators’ point of view, parents need to become more involved in theirchildren’s academic progress The goal of this research is to enhance the lives ofchildren in North Country schools through increased parental involvement

AssumptionsThe following assumptions will be made during this study:

1 There is low parental involvement in children’s academic

life

2 There are obstacles that hinder parental involvement

3 Obstacles exist that hinder educators from effectively

encouraging and utilizing parental involvement

4 Educators want to implement parental involvement

5 Parents want to be involved in their children’s academic lives

6 Many educators perceive that parents do not care about their children'sacademic success

7 Many parents perceive teachers/schools as threatening people/places

8 Many educators are not properly trained to effectively engage parents in their children’s lives.

9 Knowledge about how to involve parents is important

Definition of Terms

1 Motivation – For the purposes of this study, motivation will be defined as

the desire for students to want to excel academically This desire ismanifest in the student’s behavior and the effort put forth to achieveacademically

2 North Country – A region of New York that is located north of Watertown

and south of the Canadian border

3 Obstacles – For the purposes of this study, obstacles will be defined as

anything that gets in the way of effective communication between parents and their children and/or their children's teachers Some obstacles

between teachers and parents include: language barriers, perceptions, misconceptions, parent's level of education, type of employment held by the parent, availability of time, cultural barriers, and prior positive or negative parent/teacher interactions

3 Parental involvement – For the purposes of this study, parental

involvement will be defined as the parent’s interest in their children’sacademic lives This can be observed when: parents attend parent-teacherconferences, when parents review homework with their children, whenparents volunteer their time or talents to help their children or otherchildren in the classroom, when a parent offers suggestions on how to

motivate their children, or when a parent is attentive to their children’sprogress and asks teachers for help or researches ways to help theirchildren excel academically.

4 Socioeconomic status – For the purposes of this study, socioeconomic

status is defined as the income bracket in which parents are classified bythe government In this study, we will define the levels as follows: lowincome (poor), middle income (middle-class), and high income (wealthy)

5 Student achievement – For the purposes of this study, student achievement

will be defined according to a children’s ability to meet academicstandards or criteria by producing mastery work When children havedemonstrated at least 80% competence (or a grade of B or 3.0 on a scale of4.0) in a specific subject area, then children have reached mastery.Basically, student achievement is measured by children’s successfulattempt at reaching a level of mastery or better in a particular content area

LimitationsThis study will be limited by the following limitations:

1 Knowledge, skills, and abilities of the researchers

2 Researchers’ biases

3 Time allotted to conduct the study

4 Researchers in this study are not yet permanently certified as

Secondary Education teachers

DelimitationsThis study will be further defined by the following delimitations:

1 Researchers will only focus on parents, teachers, and students

affiliated with 7th through 12th graders

2 Researchers will only focus on schools in the "North Country" of New York State

3 This research will only draw from and examine parents, teachers, and students, in the North Country

SummaryParental involvement has a positive impact on student achievement andattitudes Most schools would like to increase the level of parental involvementbut there are many barriers to achieving that goal This study will focus on grade7-12 schools in the "North Country" of New York State Factors studied willinclude types of barriers to parental involvement and the effect of socio-economicstatus on involvement Approaches that work in increasing parental involvementwill be documented and local "best practices" will be identified

CHAPTER TWOThe following review of the literature will further examine parentalinvolvement in public schools by focusing on the following issues: studentachievement, motivation, student behavior, obstacles, and socio-economic status.

Student AchievementThe positive effect of parental involvement on student achievement seemsintuitively obvious The vast majority of parents want their children to besuccessful in school Many parents do not know how to help their schoolperformance (Epstein, 1986) Educators and parents must be careful in assumingthat all forms of academic involvement by parents positively affect all aspects ofeducation for their children

There exists wide variation just in the definitions of the terms used inthese studies What is parental involvement? Some researchers have focused onattitudinal components of parental involvement by defining it as parentalaspirations or expectations for the child's educational success Other researchershave focused on behavioral aspects of parental involvement, such as helping withhomework or attendance at parent-teacher conferences In other cases, parentalinvolvement was viewed as parenting style (Baker, 1998) "Parental involvementalso includes parents’ roles as decision-makers: parents serving on advisorycouncils, curriculum committees and management teams, participating in jointproblem-solving at every level." (SDCOE, 1997; Cotton, 2001)

Likewise, student achievement needs to be defined In the studies done byEpstein (1995) and Tangrid & Moles (1987) math and reading performance wereanalyzed separately because previous research has shown that parentalinvolvement does not affect all areas equally Other studies have included theeffects of parental involvement on student outcomes other than achievement.These include "attitude toward school or toward particular subject areas, self-concept, classroom behavior, time spent on homework, expectations for theirfuture, absenteeism, motivation and retention." (Cotton, 2001) While these arenot direct student achievements, it is very likely that they all play a role inincreasing overall student achievement.

Some researchers argue that less is known about the effect of parentalinvolvement than is supposed:

A major source of this confusion is the lack of scientific rigor in theresearch informing practice and policy Because of this, less is knownabout parental involvement than commonly was assumed Nonetheless,early studies suggesting the importance of parental involvement aretreated as definitive, regardless of the equivocal nature of the data, and areused to support the position that all types of parental involvement areimportant (Baker & Sodon, 1998)

According to Baker (1998), parents' involvement in their children’s formalschooling is vital for children’s academic success Several factors have shown to

be effective including, but not limited to: the literacy environment of the home,children's language development as stimulated by the parents, a strong parent-

child attachment relationship, early parental involvement such as in preschool,along with specialized early intervention programs Although there has not beenconclusive evidence found in the research, the aforementioned influences haveshown to be effective parental involvement tools for increasing academic success.

The San Diego County Office of Education states in a report issued in2000:

The evidence is now beyond dispute: When schools work together withfamilies to support learning, children tend to succeed not just in school,but throughout life In fact, the most accurate predictor of a student'sachievement in school is not income or social status, but the extent towhich that student's family is able to:

1 Create a home environment that encourages learning:

2 Express high (realistic) expectations for their children’s

achievement and future careers;

3 Become involved in their children’s education at school and in the

community (p.1)

Another report by Cotton & Wikelund (2001) from the NW RegionalEducational Laboratory, states that parental involvement in children's learning ispositively related to achievement The relationship is direct in that, the moreintensively parents are involved in their children's learning, the more beneficialthe achievement effects These positive effects hold true for all types and ages ofstudents, and for all levels of parental involvement According to Warner (2002),families have an important impact on children’s academic achievement Students

who have parents that are involved are more likely to achieve despite familyincome or background Students with involved parents are more apt to: receivehigher grades and test scores, are less likely to fail, are more likely to advance tothe next grade level, have less truancy, and advance their education

While there seems to be agreement on the notion that parentalinvolvement in education positively affects student achievement, the nature of theinvolvement and the mechanisms involved are still being actively researched anddebated Baker (1998) claims that while most practitioners and researcherssupport the policy direction of increased parental involvement, few agree aboutwhat constitutes effective involvement Confusion persists regarding theactivities, goals, and desired outcomes of various parent involvement programsand policies Another researcher states that although the positive impact ofparent–school involvement on achievement is well documented, the mechanismsthrough which this process occurs are less well understood Hill (2003),however, argues that there are strong indications in which the most effectiveforms of parental involvement are those that engage parents in working directlywith their children on learning activities in the home Programs which involveparents working with their children on homework assignments, reading ortutoring their child using materials and instructions provided by teachers, showparticularly impressive results Researchers have also found that the schools withthe most successful parental involvement programs are those which offer avariety of ways parents can participate Recognizing that parents differ greatly in

their willingness, ability, and available time for involvement in school activities,these schools provide myriad options for parental participation (Cotton, 2001).

Another issue is student grade-level and the type of parental involvementthat is beneficial Parental involvement is much more common at the preschoollevel and in the primary grades than at the middle school or secondary level.Consequently, much of the research on parental involvement has been conductedwith young children and their families Indeed, just a few years ago, research onparental involvement in the education of older students was too limited to permitdrawing any conclusions about its effectiveness In recent years, more researchhas been conducted with middle school and secondary students and their families.This research shows that parental involvement remains very beneficial inpromoting positive achievement and affective outcomes with these older students.Researchers have identified various differences in the incidence and types ofparental involvement as students move through the upper elementary andsecondary grades Researchers point out that parents generally become lessinvolved as their children grow older for many reasons: bigger, more distantschools, more sophisticated curriculum, multiple teachers to deal with, parentalemployment, and students are beginning to establish some sense of independencefrom their parents For these reasons, the kinds of parental involvement engaged

in by parents of younger children are no longer necessarily useful The research

on the effectiveness of parental involvement with older students often showsdifferent forms of participation e.g., parents monitoring homework, selectingcourses, parent-school consensus on rewards for achievement and behavioral

improvements as well as some of the "standby" functions, such as regularcommunication about the student's progress and attendance at school-sponsoredactivities Clearly, parental involvement is effective in fostering achievement andaffective gains at all levels, and schools are encouraged to engage and maintainthis involvement throughout the middle school and secondary years Cotton(2001) asserts that although among older children, parental volunteering, contact,and communication with schools was more strongly related to achievement forEuro-Americans than for African Americans (Desimone, 1999; Muller &Kerbow, 1993; Hill, 2003).

It is clearly evident that parental involvement is beneficial to studentachievement According to the research, parental involvement, in general, hasbeen positively correlated to student achievement by most any measure, andshould be encouraged by teachers and administrators The most effective type ofinvolvement may depend on the grade level and perhaps, to a lesser degree, onthe ethnicity of the students involved It is still relevant to ask what types ofinvolvement work best under a variety of situations and how schools canencourage effective parental involvement given the constraints of parentalavailability and capabilities, teacher time and awareness, administrationreceptivity and budget

MotivationGoodwin & King (2002) prove that strong parental involvement inchildren’s education and school environment is essential to their success Parentalinvolvement is an essential ingredient in the children’s educational processes and

outcomes Parental involvement is defined as a “Parents’ role in educating theirchildren at home and in school.” (Deslandes & Bertrand, 2005, p.164) According

to Davis & Karr-Kidwell (2003), when parents are involved, children receive themessage that education is important A school culture also begins to develop thatencompasses children, parents, and community School culture is defined as, “Apowerful, underlying force that shapes the attitudes, activities, and interactions ofthe school community.” (Davis & Karr-Kidwell, 2003, p.2) Culture is the waythings are done and how people relate to each other in the process It is evidenced

in school pride, open communication, productivity, cooperation, and widespreadinvolvement (Davis & Karr-Kidwell) This section takes a look at parentalinvolvement as it relates to motivation It will take a look at key factors such asteachers’ perceptions, parents’ perceptions, barriers, strategies and reasons thatdetermine and influence parental involvement and motivation

According to Deslandes & Bertrand, parental involvement can take ondifferent forms such as discussions about school, help with homework, orvolunteering at school Parental involvement should not be limited to elementaryschool, but should be carried into high school as well Studies have shown thatparent involvement at the high school level appear to have lasting benefits forstudents, such as: higher grades, higher aspirations, and fewer disciplinaryproblems for students Although there are studies that prove parental involvementbenefits adolescents’, research demonstrates that parental involvement typicallydecreases dramatically as children move into secondary school According toDeslandes & Bertrand, some possible reasons for this decline might include

family characteristics, such as: education level, family structure, family size,parent gender, and whether or not parents work outside the home It may alsoinclude child characteristics, such as: age, gender, grade level, and academicperformance Wide-ranging backgrounds of families are key factors indetermining whether or not parents get involved Research has shown thatadolescents from traditional families and well-educated parents report moreaffective support compared to nontraditional families and less educated parents(Deslandes & Bertrand, 2005) This research demonstrated that there are benefitsassociated with parental involvement at the secondary level, but it also showedthat educators still know very little about what factors lead parents to becomeinvolved (or not) with their child’s education.

Goodwin & King (2002) have identified additional reasons why parentsare not as involved in their children’s education as one might expect One reasonmight be related to teachers’ misconceptions about parents Many teachers areunder the impression that parents’ absence is due to their lack of caring abouttheir children’s education According to this article, there are many reasons whyparents might not become involved Studies have shown that some parents viewteachers as authority figures According to the article, this may result in parentsbecoming intimidated by teachers Parents may also be working several jobs orthey may be reluctant to get involved because they do not want to hear how theirchild is in trouble or is failing Teachers need to consider other possible reasonswhy parents might not become involved in their children’s education besides alack of caring These perceptions shut down all communication channels between

parents and teachers The authors of this article recommend that teachers try toreach out to parents, regardless of parents’ behavior It is when they least expect itthat a parent might reach back (Goodwin & King, 2002) This study also showsthat parents with diverse cultural backgrounds, beliefs, and values are less likely

to be involved Goodwin & King affirm that this may be due to language barriers,different, few, or no experiences with formal education or immigrants undergoingcultural dissonance and acculturation

Deslandes & Bertrand (2005) provide more reasons why parents are notinvolved in their children’s education They say that the motivation a parent hastoward becoming involved in their children’s education, whether at home or atschool, may be dependent on teachers’ and students’ perceptions and/orexpectations of them If a parent perceives their participation as a requirement ofparenting, they are more likely to get involved If parents believe that they havethe skills and knowledge to help their children, they are more likely to beinvolved If a teacher invites a parent to the school and provides an invitingclimate, then parents are again more likely to be involved Parents will alsobecome involved if they perceive that their adolescents want them to do so.Studies have shown that high achieving students are more inclined to wantparental involvement than low-achieving students According to the same article,the motivation of parental involvement in secondary-level schooling requiresmore investigations in order to better understand what motivates parents tobecome involved in their adolescents’ educational process Differences in parents’motivation also need further examination

In their research with parental involvement, Gbadamosi & Lin (2003)found that parents who were involved in their children’s educational processexperienced greater academic success than uninvolved parents Despite thisconnection it has been reported that parental involvement in schools is relativelylow In this study, the researchers distributed two hundred and eightquestionnaires to twelve teachers The teachers sent home the questionnaires withstudents to have them filled out by their parents One hundred and fourteenquestionnaires were returned and the twelve teachers were interviewed in order toidentify the level of parental involvement in their classrooms The informationwas ranked on a scale of one to five in order to determine the level of parentalinvolvement in their classrooms This research examined three areas: parents’interests, current involvement, and the level of parental involvement Gbadamosi

& Lin (2003) reported that most parents want to become more involved in theirchildren’s education, but many do not know how In their research, they identifiedthree characteristics as contributors: feeling of inadequacy, feelings of illiteracy,and feelings of uncertainty about what to do and how to promote learning In thisstudy they also identified school activities that parents desired to be involved in Itseems that parents are more inclined to get involved if they are able to participate

in activities they enjoy Some activities that interested parents were: having lunchwith their children, attending field trips, visiting or observing the classroom,preparing materials, helping children with homework, attending after schoolactivities, writing grants, joining the PTA, providing merchandise for bake sales,and attending open house activities In this particular study, Gbadamosi & Lin

(2003) suggest that identifying activities parents are interested in will result inparents becoming more involved in their children’s education.

This review of the literature also looked at strategies that could beimplemented in order to increase parental involvement in the educational process.Salend, Duhaney, Anderson, & Gottschalk (2004), demonstrated how using theinternet helped to encourage more parental involvement in students’ homework.The site included homework policies, practices, and specific assignments as well

as a format for individualizing homework assignments and communication Theweb-based internet assignments made homework a more enjoyable, motivating,and meaningful experience for both students and parents Some reasons, as statedearlier of why parents were less involved in their children’s homework had to dowith parents’ feelings of inadequacies as well as feeling as though they lacked theskills and knowledge to get involved (Deslandes & Bertrand, 2005) This articlehas developed a way to get more parents involved in their children’s homework

process, despite feelings of inadequacy, unfamiliarity, or discomfort with a

teacher’s curriculum Embedded within this site is a homework assistance center(HAC) This center offers menu information, resources, and feedback to guidestudents and their families in completing homework successfully Salend et al.,(2004) concluded that parents felt more prepared to assist their children withhomework and frustration in family-child relationships was greatly reduced

According to Goodwin & King (2002), dedicated parental involvementonly exists when there is a system in place to include all parents in the life anddevelopment of the school Studies show that in schools where parental

involvement is considered strong, only some parents are involved Goodwin &King (2002) stated also that only a few parents are invited by the teachers orschool to be involved Studies have shown that this is typical of secondaryeducation According to Davis & Karr-Kidwell (2003), it is important for familiesand schools to form a cohesive partnership with each other This partnership is animportant strategy and will likely increase the chance of school success forstudents They also said that along with this involvement, a school culture isdeveloped

In this review of the literature, research has shown how parentalinvolvement in children’s education and school environment is essential to thesuccess of children as well as the school (Goodwin & King, 2002) Effectivestrategies need to be developed and implemented in order to encourage parentalinvolvement Along with this, teachers will need to get rid of their biases andassumptions of parents who are not involved and come up with effectivestrategies to get them involved (Goodwin & King) There also needs to be aconsideration for diverse cultural backgrounds of families as well as social,economic, physical, and economic backgrounds (Deslandes & Bertrand, 2005).Educators need to identify activities that parents are interested in so that the level

of parental involvement increases (Gbadamosi & Lin) It is evident that parentswant to be involved in their children’s education Goodwin & King state that it isthe teachers’ and school’s responsibility to figure out how to welcome parents andget them more involved in the educational process

Stright et al (2001) and Peterson, Derby, Berg, & Horner (2002) statethat parents serve with teachers as young children’s primary instructors Parentsought to teach children “good self-regulatory skills” Parents are with theirchildren for a longer period of time than any teacher their children may encounter.Since this is the case, parents should prepare their children to function properly inthe classroom There are instances in which parents do not adhere to thisincredible responsibility, leaving the teacher with the brunt of the responsibility.

In these cases, teachers are forced to meet the challenge of teaching behavior

Moreover, when children are provided with a solid foundation of qualityinstruction at home, students will behave better and therefore, learn better.Straight et al (2001) argues that children with better metacognition are morelikely to talk about their thinking because they are more aware of it In otherwords, children who have been taught to think carefully about their own thinkingprocesses can better explain their thinking to others These particular children can

be identified as the ones who are actively participating in accountable talk in theclassroom at any given time Children who understand and participate in theaccountable talk can also help other children understand the task at hand Childrenthat are metacognitively inclined, tend to behave well, follow directions, assessone’s own work/behavior, and ask questions The characteristics found inmetacognitively inclined children are similar to those found in children with goodself regulatory skills

Managing Misbehavior

Children that do not possess good self-regulatory skills are easy toidentify These children are often the ones who misbehave in class Strom &Strom (2003) assert that when student deficiency relates to social misconduct,parental guidance is essential According to Strom & Strom, parents areresponsible for teaching the basic lessons that students need, to adopt civilbehavior and a healthy work ethic Parents ought to equip their children with goodself-regulatory skills If children do not have good self regulatory skills in place

by the time a child enters the classroom, then it is most likely because it was nottaught to the child by the child’s parents To reiterate a key concept discussed by

Stright et al (2001), parents serve with teachers as young children’s primaryinstructors Parents are their children’s first teachers It is the parents’responsibility to teach their children how to behave well in all situations,especially in the classroom Parents should not transfer that obligation tosurrogates at school (Strom & Strom).

Parents teach their children the fundamental academic requirements (e.g.alphabet, numbers, name, etc.) Parents usually struggle when it comes to teachingself-control and self-discipline to their children (Strom & Strom) One reason thatsome parents experience difficulty in teaching their children self-control isbecause the parents may not model self-control When the parent has a hard timeexhibiting self-control, then attempting to teach their children to behaveappropriately will become a challenge

Children are apt to pay more attention to their parents’ actions than theirparents’ words, especially if duplicitous messages are being sent to the childthrough the parents’ actions and words According to Strom & Strom, a growingnumber of students lack self-control, as exhibited by their unhealthy reactions indealing with day-to-day challenges Such problems are compounded by similartypes of responses from parents when informed about their children’sunacceptable conduct (Strom & Strom) Students that overreact in regularsituations do so because that is the behavior modeled by their parents Sometimes,when teachers tell parents about their children’s misconduct, the parents alsooverreact Addressing misconduct is more challenging because the parents are

interpreting what was intended as helpful information as an attack on childrenand/or parents (Bobetsky, 2003).

The role of the parent is to ensure that students come to school ready tolearn and prepared to treat others in a civil manner (Strom & Strom, 2003) Whatchildren learn about behavior is influenced by what they are taught by parents athome The children’s behavior at home is often replicated in the school setting.When children have learned to behave at home, they will continue to behave atschool When children can behave, then they are ready to learn Children will beable to learn the knowledge and skills required in the workplace while at school,

if they have first learned to behave

Environment

At times, parents do model good behavior to their children, but theirchildren still choose inappropriate behaviors When this occurs, it is important toevaluate the environmental variables maintaining children’s problem behavior anddesign and implement interventions to improve children’s behavior (Peterson et.al., 2002) Parents ought to be cognizant of their children’s environment Whenchildren misbehave, the parents should examine the factors present Conversely,when children display appropriate behavior, parents should also examine thefactors present Making careful observations regarding the atmosphere can helpparents modify their children’s environments This modification can help childrendevelop the ability to regulate themselves Modifications can be as simple asremoving a sibling from a room when children are misbehaving to eliminatingsuch distractions as televisions, radios, and telephones to help children focus on

the task at hand These modifications and others can improve children’s regulatory skills.

self-In Peterson et al.’s study (2002), parents were asked to identify theenvironmental events that preceded problem behavior, the specific problembehavior that occurred, and the consequences that followed the behavior Withsuch careful and close observations, a parent can recognize patterns Parents cannote that every time their children misbehave, the same event usually happenedprior to the misbehavior With this information, the parent can take steps tocontrol the environment by altering or eliminating the stimulus Carefulobservation empowers parents to make the necessary modifications to improvethe child’s behavior After new modifications are made, parents can observe thechildren’s reactions to those changes If the children’s behavior is improved, thenthe stimulus should be reinforced If the children’s behavior worsens or remainsthe same, then the modification should be noted and altered again The parentshould continue to modify various stimuli until the parent finds a modificationthat works for their children Once an effective modification is in place, childrenwill be able to learn the knowledge and skills required in the workplace (Strom &Strom, 2003) Parents are children’s first teachers and the primary agents foraddressing minor behavior problems (Peterson et al., 2002; Stright et al., 2001)

It is imperative that parents teach children to behave early in order to preventdrastic behavior problems from occurring

Modifying Parents’ Behavior

When parents are trying to change their children’s behavior, it is importantthat they evaluate their own behavior Sometimes, parents need to change theirbehavior before effectively changing their children’s behavior No one, not even aparent, can force a child to behave A parent can, however, encourage theirchildren to behave more appropriately by modeling appropriate behavior.Peterson et al (2002) argue that interventions for severe behavior problemsinvolve having family members monitor and modify their own behavior,particularly the way in which they interact with their children To do this, familymembers must be able to recognize and change the occurrence of their own andtheir child’s behavior across situations (Peterson et al) In other words, parentsand other family members must be willing to change their own behavior first.Then, parents can influence the children to change

One way in which parents can change their behavior is by modifying thedelivery of corrective actions to their children Instead of yelling at a child fordoing the wrong thing, parents can offer supportive feedback when their children

do the right thing The focus and the delivery changed Now, when childrenreceive attention, it will be for good behavior The premise is if the focus is ongood behavior, then it is more likely that this behavior will be repeated becausethat is what is being positively reinforced According to Peterson et al a commonintervention is to have the parents shift from delivering negative social attention(e.g scolding) for problem behavior to providing positive social attention (e.g.praise) for desired, appropriate behaviors

The changes that parents make in their own behavior ought to beconsistent Consistency will strengthen the chances that children’s good behaviorwill endure If reductions in children’s misbehavior are to be maintained overtime, changes in parental behavior must also be sustained over time (Peterson et.al., 2002) If parents want their children to continue to behave, then the parentsshould also continue to behave When parents consistently put in the effort tomaintain their children’s good behavior, then children will be more likely to dothe same.

Implications for Teachers

The commonly held belief is that parental influence is snuffed out by thetime the child reaches the late teenage years Many people assume that teenagersare more prone to peer pressure This is a fallacy According to Wood, Mitchell,Read, & Brand, (2004) parents continue to influence their late adolescents’decisions This statement implies that people should not give up on children.Children can still be molded by parents even in late adolescence If the parentshave taken the time to self-regulate their behavior and their children have donelikewise, then parents can still have a positive impact on their children’s lives.Parents should continue to encourage their older children to behave appropriately

in all situations

Teachers should seek to develop partnerships with parents, especiallysince parents are children’s first teachers (Bobetsky, 2003; Stright et al., 2003; &Peterson et al) When teachers have a partnership with parents it provides thatextra reinforcement at home (Bobetsky) Teachers can ask children to behave in

school When children get home, the parents can give their children the samemessage Children will recognize the consistency They may then chooseappropriate behaviors primarily because of that consistency.

When teachers need to tell parents about their children’s misbehavior,teachers must be careful not to offend parents or their children Oftentimes,parents see their children as an extension of themselves and can interpret acomment about their children’s performance as a critique of their own parentingskills (Bobetsky, 2003) Teachers need to be mindful of not only what they willsay to parents but how they say it It is important that teachers highlight children’spositive attribute before discussing children’s misbehavior More importantly, theteacher should also be prepared with suggestions of how parents can address theissue in the home Bobetsky suggests that teachers ought to begin by sayingsomething positive about their children, when the teacher calls the parents

Oftentimes, parents may be informed about their children’s inappropriatebehavior, but may not know how to modify the behavior When educatorscommunicate tactfully and effectively with parents, the likelihood that the childwill behave better is significantly increased Most importantly, parents are thechildren’s first teachers As such, parents should be mindful of this awesomeresponsibility and act accordingly

Obstacles to Parental Involvement Parental involvement is one of the strongest predictors of children’ssuccess in school There is a direct link between parental involvement andacademic achievement Epstein (1995) found that “parental involvement in a

child’s education—more than a family’s educational background—can be one ofthe strongest predictors of a child’s academic success.” (Epstein, 1995, p.709)Children will do better in school when they know that a parent is supporting them.There are a variety of obstacles to parental involvement, but it is the teacher whocan be “the glue that holds the home/school partnerships together.” (Patrikakou &Weissberg, 1999, p.36) When parents are involved with their children’seducation, teachers will often have positive feelings Conversely, when workingwith parents that are not involved, teachers may experience frustration,helplessness, and even anger, (Keyes, 2000) There has been a shift fromtraditional two-parent families to two-parent working families, single-parenthouseholds, blended families, and other non-traditional families Tinkler (2002)found that parental involvement leads to academic achievement, increasedattendance, and decreased rates of dropout Parental involvement was a biggerfactor in academic success than race, culture, educational level, or the economicstatus of parents Parents are becoming less involved in their children’s education,and this is particularly so for low-income minority parents.

According to Lesley Farmer (2002), parental involvement is a key factor

in student success Most parents want to be involved in their children’s education,but are not sure of how to get involved It is possible that there are obstacles thatprevent parental involvement Family life is very complex Even parents that carevery much about their children’s education, still have other obligations and uniquecircumstances that need to be considered Many parents are marginally involved

in their children’s education Teachers often hear that there is a problem with the

educational system, but teachers also need to examine plausible parentalparticipation problems that contribute to the educational system’s dilemmas

As more and more teachers are being held to stricter standards, teachersare holding parents more accountable to stricter standards as well Teachers oftenmisinterpret parents lack of involvement with a lack of interest or caring This isnot always the case McCurdy and Daro (2001) found four domains that impactparental involvement: 1) individual characteristics, 2) provider attributes, 3)program characteristics, and 4) neighborhood context For this study theresearchers will categorize parental involvement obstacles into three maincategories There is, of course, overlap within the categories The categories are:personal, familial, and logistical dynamics

There are several personal obstacles that hinder parents from participating

in one’s child’s education Personal attributes include: beliefs, attitudes, andperceptions that influence parental involvement First, some parents simply avoidresponsibility Parents need to be aware that it is their responsibility, but may shyaway from it Parental involvement drops off significantly in teenage years whenmany parents simply back off during the difficult teenage years (Morse, 2001).Some parents are sensitive to their children’s embarrassment regarding parents’participation in the school, so parents simply withdraw

Parents are often from a different class, race, and/or ethnic group from theteacher and the differences associated with this are a hindrance to participation.Different languages, styles of interaction, and values may prove to be a challenge

to effective parental involvement Parents may have different norms for child

rearing than the teacher, due to cultural differences Teachers may not be able toset aside their own cultural values when dealing with parents from a differentculture These may prevent parents from being involved with their children’seducation

According to Keyes (2000), there are four factors that influence openparticipation: cultural beliefs about the authoritative role of the teacher,intimidation by interaction with teachers due to educational level,uncomfortableness with language barriers and differences, and differingsocioeconomic levels that may affect child-rearing practices and values All four

of these factors represent a perceived difference between the parent and theteacher that may affect the parent’s willingness to participate and be involved inone’s child’s education Whether or not parents can effectively performchildrearing responsibilities depends on a number of factors: demands upon theparent, stressors on the parent, and support the parent receives Importantconsideration rests on schedules, child care, health, safety, social services, andavailability of other family members, friends, or neighbors that can assist inparenting responsibilities

Another personal attribute to consider is that parents may have anxietyabout dealing with school based on their own past experiences with schools -either as a student or as a parent This factor influences parents’ futureinvolvement Keyes also found six personal hindrances to parental involvement.First, parents feel powerless, compared to the authority of schools Parents mayhave little choice in selecting a school, little influence in the school, and perhaps

the authority of the school threatens parents Also, parents may feel that therunning of the schools should be left up to experts, and parents, or non-experts,should have little say

Other parents may worry about their family’s privacy should they becometoo involved Others may find the school’s environment and climate toointimidating There may be some confusion about what is expected from parentsand this lack of clarity may cause parents to disengage Finally, some parents mayfeel inadequate in the school setting due to a previous negative experience inschool Cultural differences need to be considered

In the Latino culture, for instance, there is a deep respect for teachers andteachers’ authority If parents were to interfere with this, it may be considereddisrespectful or rude (Tinkler, 2002) Another personal attribute is how the parentperceives the school environment Parents may perceive a teacher’s interactions

as condescending, and thus, feel intimidated Communication barriers due tolanguage also hinder parental participation Parents may not be able tocommunicate within the school about behavior, grades, or homework, but alsomay not be able to help with the homework if it is in English and parents havedifficulty speaking, reading, and/or understanding the English language Theremay also be a disconnection between the home culture and the cultural norms ofthe school

The school may not value the home culture of the students Some parentshave limited formal education and this prevents them from participating in theirchildren’s education Parents may experience culture shock, producing feelings of

low self-esteem and anxiety, which are hindrances Parents may simply beoverwhelmed with daily tasks Parents may evade teachers to avoid blame for theproblems with one’s child Some parents lack the skills to help with one’s child’shomework, particularly in certain advanced courses Moreover, parents may notfeel acknowledged or respected by the teacher Some parents are waiting forspecific guidance from the teacher about what is desired Some parents do nothave confidence in their ability to positively impact their children’s education.Parents may not feel educated enough to assist their children Prejudices may play

a role in overcoming obstacles to parental involvement There are several personalattributes that affect a parent’s participation and involvement with their children’seducation

The second category was family dynamics Some parents are not present

in the lives of their children, physically or figuratively Morse (2001) used thephrase “absentee parents’ to describe the epidemic that teachers are encountering.The breakdown of the traditional family needs to be considered The demands on

a low income, single parent household can particularly interfere with parentalinvolvement in the classroom Many parents have to hold multiple jobs to pay thebills Morse found that professional couples in which both parents juggledemanding careers, often view the schools as “subcontractors whom they pay,through hefty taxes, to fill ever more complex roles: as babysitters, coaches, cops,nurses, therapists, and surrogate parents.” (p.2) Parents are simply overextendedand are relying on the schools to pick up the slack Parents may have difficultywith child care or a lack thereof; this causes another hindrance The dynamics of a

single parent home situation also may be a barrier to involvement Some childrenmay not be comfortable with the idea of their parents being closely involved intheir education There may be other children that demand attention, take time, andenergy away from that particular student There may also be elder care that needs

to be taken into consideration Schools need to recognize that students come fromfamilies in which there are factors other than education that may be taking priorityfor the parents and this will affect parents’ participation and involvement in theirchildren’s education

The third category is logistical obstacles For many parents, time andenergy are depleted resources Parents may simply not have enough of either todevote to school involvement For those parents that work during the day, ameeting between the hours of 8am and 3pm are simply not possible Parents maywork long hours; inconvenient hours that do not allow parents time to spend withtheir children There are schedules, timing of events and transportation issues to

be considered Parents do not have the means to get to the school to be involved.Technology also needs to be considered Many parents lack the technology toassist their children Not everyone has access to e-mail, faxes, and telephones.Not all parents can read and write at the level that would be required to assist theirchildren in homework completion (particularly advanced levels) It is important torecognize that there are several logistical barriers that prevent or hinder parentalinvolvement and participation, even if the parent does cares about their children’seducation The teacher cannot assume that a parent simply does not want to beinvolved or does not care enough about their children to become involved in their

children’s education There are several obstacles that may prevent effectiveparental involvement from flourishing.

Solutions

There are several things that schools and teachers can do to increaseparental involvement Keyes (2000) found that first meetings with parents, oftenthe first personal connection that is made, sets the tone for the subsequentrelationship, making it vital to be cognizant of issues concerning cultural styles inconversation, space, and eye contact When teachers invite parents to becomeinvolved in the classroom, the result is increased parental involvement Teachersand parents are then working together for the common interest of children.Communication is essential to this relationship This includes communicationregarding child-rearing, volunteering, decision-making, learning at home, andcollaborating with the community Mendoza (2003) found that the relationshipbetween parent and teacher is essential and that communication is the key Parentsmust be able to understand the information that is communicated to one in orderfor that information to be useful According to Mendoza, “professionals whowork within families are likely to be more effective when they are aware of howaspects of their own communication practices may affect parents’ ability andwillingness to engage with a program in the interests of their children.” (p.1-2)Frequent, open communication between teachers and parents is essential.Information that is effectively communicated in this manner will have a positiveimpact on children’s academic success To encourage communication, teachersmust initiate this interaction in a warm, caring, and receptive environment

(Tinkler, 2002) Teachers can make use of personal communication through homevisits Another way to foster better communication is through the use of a home-school coordinator This person, ideally, would be a member of the predominantcultural group and can help to overcome language and cultural barriers that theteacher may not even be aware of It is important not to overlook fathers inchildren’s academic career “Research suggests that even when fathers havelimited schooling, their involvement in children’s schools and school lives is apowerful factor in children’s academic achievement.” (Gadsden & Ray, 2003,p.3)

Rachel Mathews and Patty Whitfield (2001) found three ways in whichteachers can help to meet the needs of parents: training programs for parents,support groups for parents, and teacher contact with recognition Parentalinvolvement with regards to their children’s education is so important It isessential that teachers make every effort to increase parents’ participation Morse

et al (2001) found five ways in which teachers can encourage parentalinvolvement: offering a lunch, teachers can either meet parents at their place ofwork, or teachers can hold a luncheon, in which the teacher offers free food toencourage parents to attend; giving parents real power to make decisions andchanges; and/or making home visits This gives teachers some understanding oftheir students and makes teachers more sensitive to the unique home life ofchildren; holding parents accountable; and allowing parents to express theiropinions