P1: SFK/UKS P2: SFK/UKS QC: SFK/UKS T1: SFK Color: 1C fm BLBK264-Law April 15, 2010 13:41 Trim: 244mm X 172mm Technology of Cheesemaking Second Edition Edited by Barry A. Law R&D Consultant to the Dairy Industry Victoria, Australia and A.Y. Tamime Consultant in Dairy Science and Technology Ayr, UK A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication iii P1: SFK/UKS P2: SFK/UKS QC: SFK/UKS T1: SFK Color: 1C fm BLBK264-Law April 15, 2010 13:41 Trim: 244mm X 172mm iii P1: SFK/UKS P2: SFK/UKS QC: SFK/UKS T1: SFK Color: 1C fm BLBK264-Law April 15, 2010 13:41 Trim: 244mm X 172mm Technology of Cheesemaking Second Edition i P1: SFK/UKS P2: SFK/UKS QC: SFK/UKS T1: SFK Color: 1C fm BLBK264-Law April 15, 2010 13:41 Trim: 244mm X 172mm The Society of Dairy Technology (SDT) has joined with Wiley-Blackwell to produce a series of technical dairy-related handbooks providing an invaluable resource for all those involved in the dairy industry, from practitioners to technologists, working in both traditional and modern large-scale dairy operations. For information regarding the SDT, please contact Maurice Walton, Executive Director, Society of Dairy Technology, P. O. Box 12, Appleby in Westmorland, CA16 6YJ, UK. email: execdirector@sdt.org Other volumes in the Society of Dairy Technology book series: Probiotic Dairy Products (ISBN 978 1 4051 2124 8) Fermented Milks (ISBN 978 0 6320 6458 8) Brined Cheeses (ISBN 978 1 4051 2460 7) Structure of Dairy Products (ISBN 978 1 4051 2975 6) Cleaning-in-Place (ISBN 978 1 4051 5503 8) Milk Processing and Quality Management (ISBN 978 1 4051 4530 5) Dairy Fats (ISBN 978 1 4051 5090 3) Dairy Powders and Concentrated Products (978 1 4051 5764 3) ii P1: SFK/UKS P2: SFK/UKS QC: SFK/UKS T1: SFK Color: 1C fm BLBK264-Law April 15, 2010 13:41 Trim: 244mm X 172mm Technology of Cheesemaking Second Edition Edited by Barry A. Law R&D Consultant to the Dairy Industry Victoria, Australia and A.Y. Tamime Consultant in Dairy Science and Technology Ayr, UK A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication iii P1: SFK/UKS P2: SFK/UKS QC: SFK/UKS T1: SFK Color: 1C fm BLBK264-Law April 15, 2010 13:41 Trim: 244mm X 172mm This edition second published 2010 First edition published 1999 Sheffield Academic Press C  2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell’s publishing programme has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical, and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell. Registered office John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom Editorial offices 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, United Kingdom 2121 State Avenue, Ames, Iowa 50014-8300, USA For detailsof ourglobal editorial offices, forcustomer services andfor informationabout how toapply forpermission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell. The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Technology of cheesemaking / edited by Barry A. Law, A.Y. Tamime. – 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4051-8298-0 (hardback : alk. paper) 1. Cheesemaking. I. Law, Barry A. II. Tamime, A. Y. SF271.T36 2010 637  .3–dc22 2009048133 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Set in 10/12.5pt Times by Aptara R  Inc., New Delhi, India Printed in Singapore 1 2010 iv P1: SFK/UKS P2: SFK/UKS QC: SFK/UKS T1: SFK Color: 1C fm BLBK264-Law April 15, 2010 13:41 Trim: 244mm X 172mm Contents Preface to the Technical Series xvi Preface to the Second Edition xvii Preface to the First Edition xix Contributors xxi 1 The Quality of Milk for Cheese Manufacture 1 T.P. Guinee and B. O’Brien 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Overview of milk composition 2 1.2.1 Casein 3 1.2.2 Whey protein 6 1.2.3 Minerals 7 1.2.4 Milk lipids 8 1.3 Principles of cheese manufacture 9 1.3.1 Rennet-induced gelation 10 1.3.2 Acid-induced gelation 13 1.4 Quality definition of milk 15 1.4.1 Safety/public health (pathogens including Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Brucella spp., toxic residues, and contaminants) 16 1.4.2 Composition (protein, casein, fat, total solids, lactose, and mineral) 18 1.4.3 Microbiology (total bacterial count) 22 1.4.4 Sensory (appearance, colour, smell, and taste) 23 1.4.5 Authenticity (non-adulteration with residues or other milks/milk fractions) 23 1.5 Factors affecting the quality of milk for cheese manufacture 24 1.5.1 Milk composition 24 1.5.2 Microbial activity of milk 31 1.5.3 Somatic cell count 34 1.5.4 Enzymatic activity of milk 36 1.5.5 Chemical residues 43 1.6 Strategy for quality milk production 45 1.7 Conclusions 47 References 50 v P1: SFK/UKS P2: SFK/UKS QC: SFK/UKS T1: SFK Color: 1C fm BLBK264-Law April 15, 2010 13:41 Trim: 244mm X 172mm vi Contents 2 The Origins, Development and Basic Operations of Cheesemaking Technology 68 M. Johnson and B.A. Law 2.1 Introduction 68 2.2 The world market for cheese 68 2.3 The fundamentals of cheese technology 69 2.4 Basic cheese manufacture 70 2.5 The stages of cheesemaking 77 2.5.1 Standardisation of milk 77 2.5.2 Heat treatment of milk 78 2.5.3 Addition of the starter culture 78 2.5.4 Coagulation and cutting 80 2.5.5 Stirring, heating and syneresis (moisture control) 81 2.5.6 Whey removal, hooping and salting 83 2.5.7 Brining and/or dry surface salting 85 2.5.8 Pressing 86 2.6 Cheese ripening/maturation 87 2.6.1 Diversity arising from composition 87 2.6.2 Diversity arising from the starter cultures and the adventitious microflora in cheese 87 2.7 Reduced-fat versions of traditional cheeses 88 2.7.1 Background 88 2.7.2 Manufacture of reduced-fat cheese 89 2.8 Whey technology for cheesemakers 90 2.8.1 The composition of cheese whey 91 2.8.2 Membrane filtration technology 91 2.8.3 Whey pre-treatment 93 2.8.4 Production of WPC 94 2.8.5 Lactose recovery 95 2.9 The role of research and development in the future of cheese technology 95 2.10 Acknowledgements 96 References 96 3 The Production, Action and Application of Rennet and Coagulants 98 M. Harboe, M.L. Broe and K.B. Qvist 3.1 Historical background and nomenclature 98 3.2 Types of rennet and coagulants 99 3.2.1 Animal rennet and coagulants 99 3.2.2 Microbial coagulants 100 3.2.3 Fermentation-produced chymosin 100 3.2.4 Vegetable coagulants 101 3.3 Molecular aspects of the enzymes in rennet and coagulants 101 3.3.1 Introduction 101 3.3.2 Specific molecular aspects 102 P1: SFK/UKS P2: SFK/UKS QC: SFK/UKS T1: SFK Color: 1C fm BLBK264-Law April 15, 2010 13:41 Trim: 244mm X 172mm Contents vii 3.4 Technology of enzymes production 103 3.4.1 General background 103 3.4.2 Production of enzymes 103 3.4.3 Formulation, standardisation and quality control 106 3.5 Analysis of coagulants 107 3.6 Legislation and approvals 110 3.7 Physical chemistry and kinetics of enzymatic coagulation of milk 111 3.7.1 Stability and destabilisation of the casein micelles 111 3.7.2 Kinetics of enzymatic coagulation of milk 112 3.8 Application of rennet and coagulants 115 3.8.1 Trends in use 115 3.8.2 Handling and use of rennet and coagulants 116 3.8.3 Milk quality, treatment and additives 116 3.8.4 Controlling the curd firmness at cutting 119 3.8.5 Performance of different rennet and coagulants available in the market 119 3.8.6 Coagulants and cheese ripening 123 3.8.7 Choice of coagulant 124 3.9 Conclusions 125 References 125 4 The Formation of Cheese Curd 130 T. Janhøj and K.B. Qvist 4.1 Introduction 130 4.2 Chemistry and physics of curd formation 130 4.2.1 Some factors affecting aggregation 130 4.2.2 Formation of a gel 133 4.2.3 Rheological properties of rennet gels 135 4.2.4 Syneresis 138 4.3 Effect of milk composition on curd formation 140 4.3.1 Variations in main components 140 4.3.2 Casein micelle size 141 4.3.3 Genetic polymorphism of milk proteins 141 4.3.4 Lactational variation and somatic cell count 142 4.4 Effects of milk pre-treatment on curd formation 143 4.4.1 Cooling 143 4.4.2 High heat treatment 144 4.4.3 Restoring the rennetability of high heat treated milk 145 4.4.4 pH adjustment by carbon dioxide injection 146 4.4.5 Homogenisation 147 4.4.6 Phopholipase addition 147 4.4.7 Microfiltration and microfiltration combined with heat treatment 148 P1: SFK/UKS P2: SFK/UKS QC: SFK/UKS T1: SFK Color: 1C fm BLBK264-Law April 15, 2010 13:41 Trim: 244mm X 172mm viii Contents 4.5 Factors controlling curd formation in the vat 148 4.5.1 Rennet concentration 149 4.5.2 pH 149 4.5.3 Temperature 150 4.5.4 Cutting time 151 4.5.5 Washing of the curd 151 4.6 On-line measurement of curd firmness and syneresis 152 4.6.1 On-line measurement of curd setting 152 4.6.2 Modelling and controlling gelation and cutting time 152 4.6.3 On-line measurement of syneresis 153 4.7 Cheese with reduced-fat content 154 References 156 5 The Production, Application and Action of Lactic Cheese Starter Cultures 166 E. Høier, T. Janzen, F. Rattray, K. Sørensen, M.W. Børsting, E. Brockmann and E. Johansen 5.1 Introduction 166 5.2 Historical background 166 5.3 Production of starter cultures 167 5.4 Range of LAB used as starter cultures 169 5.4.1 Traditional starter cultures 169 5.4.2 Probiotic starter cultures 170 5.5 Taxonomy of LAB 172 5.5.1 Identification 172 5.5.2 Species important in cheese making 173 5.6 The types of lactic cultures 174 5.6.1 Development of mesophilic cultures 174 5.6.2 Use of DVS cultures 175 5.6.3 Selection of culture strains 177 5.7 Modern approaches to the development of new starter cultures 177 5.7.1 Genomics and traditional bacterial genetics 177 5.7.2 Food-grade GMOs for the dairy industry 178 5.7.3 Use of automated laboratory methods to develop new starter cultures 179 5.8 Biochemistry of acidification by LAB 180 5.8.1 Introduction 180 5.8.2 Sugar metabolism 180 5.9 Proteolysis by LAB 181 5.9.1 Proteases 181 5.9.2 Peptidases of LAB 182 5.9.3 Amino acid catabolism by LAB 183 5.10 Bacteriophage of LAB 183 5.10.1 Phage control during culture preparation 184 [...]... First Edition Cheesemaking remains an art even today, when many of the once-variable stages of the process have been smoothed out by technology The purpose of this book was to present the state of the art, to show where and how technology enhances the art, and to point the way towards further improvements in cheesemaking technology, which are achievable through exploitation of the basic science and technology. .. P1: SFK/UKS fm P2: SFK/UKS BLBK264-Law QC: SFK/UKS April 15, 2010 13:41 T1: SFK Color: 1C Trim: 244mm X 172mm Preface to the Second Edition The first edition of Technology of Cheesemaking aimed to assess critically the pool of scientific knowledge, which was then available to the cheesemaking industry as a tool for process and product innovation, quality improvement and safety I had also hoped to provide... source of information for practicing dairy scientists and technologists, covering the range from small enterprises to modern large-scale operation This ninth volume in the series, the second edition of Technology of Cheesemaking under the joint editorship of Barry Law and Adnan Tamime, provides a timely and comprehensive update on the principles and practices involved in cheese production This new edition. .. firmly believe that cheese technology supports one of the most advanced food manufacturing industries in the world, having overcome most of the problems of milk variability, microbiological control and culture failure that used to cause so much wastage and potential hazard for consumers In this volume, we firstly describe and discuss cheesemaking technology from the point of view of cheesemakers Authors... is about cheesemaking technology, and I hope that the reader will be able to feel the excitement of uncertainty band the satisfaction of success-through-understanding that cheesemakers experience when the product of their combined know-how and machinery emerges just as they say, the sellers of the cheeses and consumer would have liked It is not my intention to develop a complacent view of cheesemaking. .. SFK Color: 1C Trim: 244mm X 172mm Preface to the Second Edition also fortunate to have a number of new contributors, and we hope they will be as exciting by the results of their efforts as we are, in that this updated volume reflects another decade of progress in the industry and its base of science and technology Whilst reflecting on the satisfaction of delivering this volume, we must also pay special... how the universal elements of milk-conversion technology can be varied by process design and culture technology to yield so many wonderful and individual varieties of cheeses The book is unique in this respect, and it will add to existing range of books and review articles by viewing cheese technology as the product of tradition, pragmatic development and the application of front-line science Having... formation of ␬-casein/␤-Lg aggregates either at the surface of the casein micelle or in the serum phase or both (cf Chapter 8) The size and location (serum/micelle surface) of these aggregates are affected by severity of heat treatment of milk, pH at heating, ionic strength, calcium level and casein-to-whey protein ratio The degree of interaction and size/location of aggregates have a profound effect... more than 60 years, the Society of Dairy Technology (SDT) has sought to provide education and training in the dairy field, disseminating knowledge and fostering personal development through symposia, conferences, residential courses, publications, and its journal, the International Journal of Dairy Technology (previously published as the Journal of the Society of Dairy Technology) In recent years, there... Prediction of Quality Characteristics in the Manufacture and Ripening of Cheese T.P Guinee and D.J O’Callaghan 260 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Principles of cheese manufacture 8.3 Cheese quality characteristics 8.3.1 Definition of cheese quality 8.3.2 Assessment of cheese quality 8.3.3 Sensory tests 8.3.4 Rheology and texture of cheese 8.3.5 Colorimetry 8.3.6 Image analysis 8.4 Cheese quality: influence of chemical . 244mm X 172mm Preface to the Second Edition The first edition of Technology of Cheesemaking aimed to assess critically the pool of scientific knowledge, which. operation. This ninth volume in the series, the second edition of Technology of Cheesemaking under the joint editorship of Barry Law and Adnan Tamime, provides