Heat Transfer Applications for the Practicing Engineer potx

Introductory Comments xvii Part One Introduction History of Chemical Engineering 8 Transport Phenomena vs Unit Operations 10 What is Engineering?. The Log Mean Temperature Difference LMT

Heat Transfer Applications for the Practicing Engineer

Heat Transfer

Applications for the Practicing Engineer

Louis Theodore

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey

Published simultaneously in Canada

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form

or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com Requests to the Publisher for permission should

be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ

07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness

of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for

a particular purpose No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation You should consult with a professional where appropriate Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the United States at (317) 572-3993 or fax (317) 572-4002.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Theodore, Louis.

p cm - - (Essential engineering calculations series; 4)

oBook ISBN: 9780470937228

ePDF ISBN: 9780470937211

ePub ISBN: 9781118002100

To Jack Powers

Introductory Comments xvii

Part One Introduction

History of Chemical Engineering 8

Transport Phenomena vs Unit Operations 10

What is Engineering? 12

References 13

Introduction 15

Units and Dimensional Consistency 16

Key Terms and Definitions 19

Moles and Molecular Weights 22

The Conservation Laws 38

The Conservation Law for Momentum 38

The Conservation Law for Mass 40

The Conservation Law for Energy 45

References 54

Introduction 55

Boyle’s and Charles’ Laws 56

The Ideal Gas Law 57

Standard Conditions 60

Partial Pressure and Partial Volume 63

Non-Ideal Gas Behavior 65

Part Two Principles

Introduction 87

Fourier’s Law 87

Conductivity Resistances 90

Microscopic Approach 99

Heat Transfer Coefficients: Qualitative Information 137

Heat Transfer Coefficients: Quantitative Information 138

Flow Past a Flat Plate 141

Flow in a Circular Tube 146

Liquid Metal Flow in a Circular Tube 147

Convection Across Cylinders 148

12 Condensation and Boiling 201Introduction 201

Insulation and Heat Loss 236

Storage and Transportation 240

Hazards, Risks, and Safety 241

Part Three Heat Transfer Equipment Design Procedures and Applications

Introduction 257

Energy Relationships 258

Heat Exchange Equipment Classification 260

The Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) Driving Force 262 Temperature Profiles 265

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients 268

Fouling Factors 271

The Controlling Resistance 272

Varying Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients 276

The Heat Transfer Equation 278

Calculation of Exit Temperatures 298

Effectiveness Factor and Number of Transfer Units 304

Condensers 401

Dilution with Ambient Air 405

Quenching with Liquids 405

Contact with High Heat Capacity Solids 405

Natural Convection and Radiation 406

General Design Procedures 466

Environmental Management History 493

Environmental Management Topics 495

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and

Liability Act (CERCLA) 506

Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986 (SARA) 507 Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) 508

USEPA’s Risk Management Program (RMP) 509

Hazard Risk Assessment 510

Fabricated Equipment Cost Index 567

Capital Recovery Factor 567

Present Net Worth 568

Perpetual Life 568

Break-Even Point 569

Approximate Rate of Return 569

Exact Rate of Return 569

We should be careful to get out of an experience only the wisdom that is in it—andstop there; lest we be like the cat that sits down on a hot stove-lid She will never

sit down on a hot stove-lid again—and that is well; but also she will never sit down on acold one anymore

Mark Twain (Samuel Langhorne Clemens 1835 – 1910),

Pudd’nhead Wilson, Chapter 19This project was a rather unique undertaking Heat transfer is one of the threebasic tenants of chemical engineering and engineering science, and contains manybasic and practical concepts that are utilized in countless industrial applications.The author therefore considered writing a practical text The text would hopefullyserve as a training tool for those individuals in industry and academia involveddirectly, or indirectly, with heat transfer applications Although the literature isinundated with texts emphasizing theory and theoretical derivations, the goal of thistext is to present the subject of heat transfer from a strictly pragmatic point-of-view.The book is divided into four Parts: Introduction, Principles, Equipment DesignProcedures and Applications, and ABET-related Topics The first Part provides aseries of chapters concerned with introductory topics that are required when solvingmost engineering problems, including those in heat transfer The second Part of thebook is concerned with heat transfer principles Topics that receive treatment includesteady-state heat conduction, unsteady-state heat conduction, forced convection, freeconvection, radiation, boiling and condensation, and cryogenics Part Three—considered by the author to be the “meat” of the book—addresses heat transfer equip-ment design procedures and applications In addition to providing a detailed treatment

of the various types of heat exchangers, this part also examines the impact of entropycalculations on exchanger design, operation, maintenance and inspection (OM&I),plus refractory and insulation effects The concluding Part of the text examinesABET (Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology)-related topics of con-cern, including environmental management, safety and accident management, ethics,numerical methods, economics and finance, and open-ended problems An appendix

is also included An outline of the topics covered can be found in the Table ofContents

The author cannot claim sole authorship to all of the problems and material in thistext The present book has evolved from a host of sources, including: notes, homeworkproblems and exam problems prepared by several faculty for a required one-semester,three-credit, “Principles II: Heat Transfer” undergraduate course offered at ManhattanCollege; I Farag and J Reynolds, “Heat Transfer”, A Theodore Tutorial, EastWilliston, N.Y., 1994; J Reynolds, J Jeris, and L Theodore, “Handbook of

xv

Chemical and Environmental Engineering Calculations”, John Wiley & Sons 2004,and J Santoleri, J Reynolds, and L Theodore’s “Introduction to Hazardous WasteIncineration”, 2nd edition, John Wiley & Sons, 2000 Although the bulk of the pro-blems are original and/or taken from sources that the author has been directlyinvolved with, every effort has been made to acknowledge material drawn fromother sources.

It is hoped that this writing will place in the hands of industrial, academic, andgovernment personnel, a book covering the principles and applications of heat transfer

in a thorough and clear manner Upon completion of the text, the reader should haveacquired not only a working knowledge of the principles of heat transfer operations,but also experience in their application; and, the reader should find himself/herselfapproaching advanced texts, engineering literature, and industrial applications (evenunique ones) with more confidence The author strongly believes that, while under-standing the basic concepts is of paramount importance, this knowledge may berendered virtually useless to an engineer if he/she cannot apply these concepts toreal-world situations This is the essence of engineering

Last, but not least, I believe that this modest work will help the majority of viduals working and/or studying in the field of engineering to obtain a more completeunderstanding of heat transfer If you have come this far, and read through most of thePreface, you have more than just a passing interest in this subject I strongly suggestthat you try this text; I think you will like it

indi-My sincere thanks are extended to Dr Jerry Maffia and Karen Tschinkel atManhattan College for their help in solving some of the problems and proofing themanuscript, and to the ever reliable Shannon O’Brien for her valuable assistance

LOUISTHEODORE

Introductory Comments

Prior to undertaking the writing of this text, the author (recently) co-authored a textentitled “Thermodynamics for the Practicing Engineer” It soon became apparent

that some overlap existed between thermodynamic and heat transfer (the subject ofthis text) Even though the former topic is broadly viewed as a science, heat transfer

is one of the unit operations and can justifiably be classified as an engineering subject.But what are the similarities and what are the differences?

The similarities that exist between thermodynamics and heat transfer aregrounded in the three conservation laws: mass, energy, and momentum Both are pri-marily concerned with energy-related subject matter and both, in a very real sense,supplement each other However, thermodynamics deals with the transfer of energyand the conversion of energy into other forms of energy (e.g., heat into work), withconsideration generally limited to systems in equilibrium The topic of heat transferdeals with the transfer of energy in the form of heat; the applications almost exclu-sively occur with heat exchangers that are employed in the chemical, petrochemical,petroleum (refinery), and engineering processes

The aforementioned transfer of heat occurs between a hot and a cold body, mally referred to as the source and receiver, respectively (The only exception is incryogenic applications.) When this transfer occurs in a heat exchanger, some or all

nor-of the following 10 topics/subjects can come into play:

1 The class of heat exchanger

2 The physical surface arrangement of the exchanger

3 The quantity or rate of heat transferred

4 The quantity or rate of heat “lost” in the application

5 The temperature difference between the source and receiver

6 The prime mover(s) required in the application (e.g., pump, fan, etc.)

7 The entropy gain (i.e., the quality energy lost in the application)

8 The cost to design, construct, and start up a new application

9 The cost to operate the exchanger

10 The cost to maintain the exchanger

Each of the above topics receive treatment once or several times in this text

xvii

Part One

Introduction

Part One serves as the introductory section to this book It reviews engineering andscience fundamentals that are an integral part of the field of heat transfer It consists

of six chapters, as noted below:

1 History of Heat Transfer

2 History of Chemical Engineering: Transport Phenomena vs Unit Operations

3 Process Variables

4 Conservation Laws

5 Gas Laws

6 Heat Exchanger Pipes and Tubes

Those individuals with a strong background in the above area(s) may choose to bypassall or some of this Part

1

Before the development of kinetic theory in the middle of the 19th century, thetransfer of heat was explained by the “caloric” theory This theory was introduced

by the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier (1743 – 1794) in 1789 In his paper,Lavoisier proposed that caloric was a tasteless, odorless, massless, and colorlesssubstance that could be transferred from one body to another and that the transfer ofcaloric to a body increased the temperature, and the loss of calorics correspondinglydecreased the temperature Lavoisier also stated that if a body cannot absorb/acceptany additional caloric, then it should be considered saturated and, hence, the idea of

a saturated liquid and vapor was developed.(2)

Lavoisier’s caloric theory was never fully accepted because the theory essentiallystated that heat could not be created or destroyed, even though it was well known thatheat could be generated by the simple act of rubbing hands together In 1798, anAmerican physicist, Benjamin Thompson (1753 – 1814), reported in his paper thatheat was generated by friction, a form of motion, and not by caloric flow Althoughhis idea was also not readily accepted, it did help establish the law of conservation

of energy in the 19th century.(3)

In 1843, the caloric theory was proven wrong by the English physicist James P.Joule (1818 – 1889) His experiments provided the relationship between mechanicalwork and the nature of heat, and led to the development of the first law of thermodyn-amics of the conservation of energy.(4)

The development of kinetic theory in the 19th century put to rest all other theories.Kinetic theory states that energy or heat is created by the random motion of atoms andmolecules The introduction of kinetic theory helped to develop the concept of theconduction of heat.(5)

Heat Transfer Applications for the Practicing Engineer Louis Theodore

# 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

3

The earlier developments in heat transfer helped set the stage for the Frenchmathematician and physicist Joseph Fourier (1768 – 1830) to reconcile Newton’sLaw of Cooling, which in turn led to the development of Fourier’s Law ofConduction Newton’s Law of Cooling suggested that there was a relationshipbetween the temperature difference and the amount of heat transferred Fouriertook Newton’s Law of Cooling and arrived at a convection heat equation.(6)Fourier also developed the concepts of heat flux and temperature gradient Usingthe same process as he used to develop the equation of heat convection, Fourier sub-sequently developed the classic equation for heat conduction that has come to bedefined as Fourier’s law.(7)

Two additional sections complement the historical contents of this chapter.These are:

or cooled.(9)

The movement of the fluids to be heated or cooled was accomplished with primemovers, particularly pumps The first pump can be traced back to 3000B.C., inMesopotamia, where it was used to supply water to the crops in the Nile RiverValley.(10) The pump was a long lever with a weight on one side and a bucket onthe other The use of this first pump became popular in the Middle East and wasused for the next 2000 years At times, a series of pumps would be put in place to pro-vide a constant flow of water to crops far from the source The most famous of theseearly pumps is the Archimedean screw The pump was invented by the famous Greekmathematician and inventor Archimedes (287 – 212B.C.) The pump was made of ametal pipe in which a helix-shaped screw was used to draw water upward as thescrew turned Modern force pumps were adapted from an ancient pump that featured

a cylinder with a piston “at the top that create[d] a vacuum and [drew] water

upward.”(10) The first force pump was designed by Ctesibus (285 – 222B.C.) ofAlexandria, Egypt Leonardo Da Vinci (1452 – 1519) was the first to come up withthe idea of lifting water by means of centrifugal force; however, the operation ofthe centrifugal pump was first described scientifically by the French physicist DenisPapin (1647 – 1714) in 1687.(11)In 1754, Leonhard Euler further developed the prin-ciples on which centrifugal pumps operated; today, the ideal pump performance term,

“Euler head,” is named after him.(12)

RECENT HISTORY

Heat transfer, as an engineering practice, grew out of thermodynamics at around theturn of the 20th century This arose because of the need to deal with the design ofheat transfer equipment required by emerging and growing industries Early appli-cations included steam generators for locomotives and ships, and condensers forpower generation plants Later, the rapidly developing petroleum and petrochemicalindustries began to require rugged, large-scale heat exchangers for a variety of pro-cesses Between 1920 and 1950, the basic forms of the many heat exchangers usedtoday were developed and refined, as documented by Kern.(13)These heat exchangersstill remain the choice for most process applications Relatively speaking, there hasbeen little since in terms of “new” designs However, there has been a significantamount of activity and development regarding peripheral equipment For example,the 1930s saw the development of a line of open-bucket steam traps, which todayare simply referred to as steam traps (Note: Steam traps are used to remove condensatefrom live steam in heat exchangers The trap is usually attached at the bottom of theexchanger When condensate enters the steam trap, the liquid fills the entire body ofthe trap A small hole in the top of the trap permits trapped air to escape As long

as live steam remains, the outlet remains closed As soon as sufficient condensateenters the trap, liquid is discharged Thus, the trap discharges intermittently duringthe entire time it is in use.)

Starting in the late 1950s, at least three unrelated developments rapidly changedthe heat exchanger industry

1 With respect to heat-exchanger design and sizing, the general availability ofcomputers permitted the use of complex calculational procedures that werenot possible before

2 The development of nuclear energy introduced the need for precise designmethods, especially in boiling heat transfer (see Chapter 12)

3 The energy crisis of the 1970s severely increased the cost of energy, triggering

a demand for more-efficient heat utilization (see Chapter 21).(14)

As a result, heat-transfer technology suddenly became a prime recipient of largeresearch funds, especially during the 1960s and 1980s This elevated the knowledge

of heat-exchanger design principles to where it is today.(15)

Recent History 5

Transfer Division, date and location unknown.

Weinstein, Springer, Berlin, 1884; Ann Chim Phys., 37(2), 291 (1828); Pogg Ann., 13, 327 (1828).

New York City, NY, 2005.

Sons, Hoboken, NJ, 2009.

In a very real sense, the chemical industry dates back to prehistoric times whenpeople first attempted to control and modify their environment The chemical industrydeveloped as any other trade or craft With little knowledge of chemical science and nomeans of chemical analysis, the earliest “chemical engineers” had to rely on previousart and superstition As one would imagine, progress was slow This changed withtime The chemical industry in the world today is a sprawling complex of raw-materialsources, manufacturing plants, and distribution facilities which supplies society withthousands of chemical products, most of which were unknown over a century ago Inthe latter half of the 19th century, an increased demand arose for engineers trained inthe fundamentals of chemical processes This demand was ultimately met by chemicalengineers.

Three sections complement the presentation for this chapter They are:

History of Chemical Engineering

Transport Phenomena vs Unit Operations

What is Engineering?

Heat Transfer Applications for the Practicing Engineer Louis Theodore

# 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

7

HISTORY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

The first attempt to organize the principles of chemical processing and to clarify theprofessional area of chemical engineering was made in England by George E.Davis In 1880, he organized a Society of Chemical Engineers and gave a series oflectures in 1887 which were later expanded and published in 1901 as “A Handbook

of Chemical Engineering.” In 1888, the first course in chemical engineering in theUnited States was organized at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) byLewis M Norton, a professor of industrial chemistry The course applied aspects ofchemistry and mechanical engineering to chemical processes.(1)

Chemical engineering began to gain professional acceptance in the early years ofthe 20th century The American Chemical Society was founded in 1876 and, in 1908,organized a Division of Industrial Chemists and Chemical Engineers while authoriz-ing the publication of the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Also in

1908, a group of prominent chemical engineers met in Philadelphia and foundedthe American Institute of Chemical Engineers.(1)

The mold for what is now called chemical engineering was fashioned at the 1922meeting of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers when A D Little’s commit-tee presented its report on chemical engineering education The 1922 meeting markedthe official endorsement of the unit operations concept and saw the approval of a

“declaration of independence” for the profession.(1)A key component of this reportincluded the following:

Any chemical process, on whatever scale conducted, may be resolved into a coordinated series of what may be termed “unit operations,” as pulverizing, mixing, heating, roasting, absorbing, precipitation, crystallizing, filtering, dissolving, and so on The number of these basic unit operations is not very large and relatively few of them are involved in any par- ticular process An ability to cope broadly and adequately with the demands of this (the chemical engineer’s) profession can be attained only through the analysis of processes into the unit actions as they are carried out on the commercial scale under the conditions imposed by practice.

The key unit operations were ultimately reduced to three: Fluid Flow,(2) HeatTransfer (the subject title of this text), and Mass Transfer.(3)The Little report alsowent on to state that:

Chemical Engineering, as distinguished from the aggregate number of subjects comprised

in courses of that name, is not a composite of chemistry and mechanical and civil eering, but is itself a branch of engineering,

engin-A time line diagram of the history of chemical engineering between theprofession’s founding to the present day is shown in Figure 2.1 As can be seenfrom the time line, the profession has reached a crossroads regarding thefuture education/curriculum for chemical engineers This is highlighted by thedifferences of Transport Phenomena and Unit Operations, a topic that is discussed

in the next section

TRANSPORT PHENOMENA VS UNIT OPERATIONS

As indicated in the previous section, chemical engineering courses were originallybased on the study of unit processes and/or industrial technologies It soon becameapparent that the changes produced in equipment from different industries were similar

in nature (i.e., there was a commonality in the fluid flow operations in the petroleumindustry as with the utility industry) These similar operations became known as theaforementioned Unit Operations This approach to chemical engineering was promul-gated in the Little report, as discussed earlier in the previous section, and to varyingdegrees and emphasis, has dominated the profession to this day

The Unit Operations approach was adopted by the profession soon after its tion During the many years since 1880 that the profession has been in existence as abranch of engineering, society’s needs have changed tremendously and, in turn, so haschemical engineering

incep-The teaching of Unit Operations at the undergraduate level has remained tively static since the publication of several early-to-mid 1900 texts Prominentamong these was one developed as a result of the recommendation of an advisorycommittee of more than a dozen educators and practicing engineers who recognizedthe need for a chemical engineering handbook Dr John H Perry of GrasselliChemical Co was persuaded to undertake this tremendous compilation The firstedition of this classic work was published in 1934; the latest edition (eighth)was published in 2008 (The author of this text has served as an editor and author

rela-of the section on Environment Management for the past three editions) However,

by the middle of the 20th century, there was a slow movement from the unit operationconcept to a more theoretical treatment called transport phenomena The focalpoint of this science was the rigorous mathematical description of all physical rateprocesses in terms of mass, heat, or momentum crossing boundaries This approachtook hold of the education/curriculum of the profession with the publication of thefirst edition of the Bird et al.(5)book Some, including the author of this text, feelthat this concept set the profession back several decades since graduating chemicalengineers, in terms of training, were more applied physicists than traditional chemicalengineers

There has fortunately been a return to the traditional approach of chemical eering in recent years, primarily due to the efforts of the Accreditation Board forEngineering and Technology (ABET) Detractors to this approach argue that thistype of practical education experience provides the answers to ‘what’ and ‘how’ butnot ‘why’ (i.e., a greater understanding of both physical and chemical processes).However, the reality is that nearly all practicing engineers are in no way presentlyinvolved with the ‘why’ questions; material normally covered here has been replaced,

engin-in part, with a new emphasis on solvengin-ing design and open-ended problems Thisapproach is emphasized in this text

One can qualitatively describe the differences between the two approaches cussed above Both deal with the transfer of certain quantities (momentum, energy,and mass) from one point in a system to another Momentum, energy, and mass are

dis-all conserved (see Chapter 4) As such, each quantity obeys the conservation lawwithin a system:

molecu-If one is interested in determining changes occurring at the inlet and outlet of thesystem, the conservation law is applied on a “macroscopic” level to the entire system.The resultant equation describes the overall changes occurring to the system (or equip-ment) This approach is usually applied in the Unit Operation (or its equivalent)courses, an approach which is highlighted in this text The resulting equations arealmost always algebraic

In the microscopic approach, detailed information concerning the behavior within

a system is required and this is occasionally requested of or by the engineer The servation law is then applied to a differential element within the system which is largecompared to an individual molecule, but small compared to the entire system Theresulting equation is usually differential, and is then expanded via an integration todescribe the behavior of the entire system This has been defined as the transportphenomena approach

con-The molecular approach involves the application of the conservation laws to vidual molecules This leads to a study of statistical and quantum mechanics—both of

indi-Fluid out Fluid in

2 1

Figure 2.2 Flow through a cylinder.

Transport Phenomena vs Unit Operations 11

which are beyond the scope of this text In any case, the description of individual ticles at the molecular level is of little value to the practicing engineer However, thestatistical averaging of molecular quantities in either a differential or finite elementwithin a system can lead to a more meaningful description of the behavior of a system.Both the microscopic and molecular approaches shed light on the physicalreasons for the observed macroscopic phenomena Ultimately, however, for the practi-cing engineer, these approaches may be valid but are akin to killing a fly with amachine gun Developing and solving these equations (in spite of the advent of com-puter software packages) is typically not worth the trouble.

par-Traditionally, the applied mathematician has developed the differential equationsdescribing the detailed behavior of systems by applying the appropriate conservationlaw to a differential element or shell within the system Equations were derivedwith each new application The engineer later removed the need for these tediousand error-prone derivations by developing a general set of equations that could beused to describe systems These are referred to as the transport equations In recentyears, the trend toward expressing these equations in vector form has also gainedmomentum (no pun intended) However, the shell-balance approach has been retained

in most texts, where the equations are presented in componential form—in three ticular coordinate systems—rectangular, cylindrical, and spherical The componentialterms can be “lumped” together to produce a more concise equation in vector form.The vector equation can in turn, be re-expanded into other coordinate systems Thisinformation is available in the literature.(5,6)

par-WHAT IS ENGINEERING?

A discussion on chemical engineering is again warranted before proceeding to the heattransfer material presented in this text A reasonable question to ask is: What isChemical Engineering? An outdated but once official definition provided by theAmerican Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) is:

Chemical Engineering is that branch of engineering concerned with the development and application of manufacturing processes in which chemical or certain physical changes are involved These processes may usually be resolved into a coordinated series of unit phys- ical operation and chemical processes The work of the chemical engineer is concerned pri- marily with the design, construction, and operation of equipment and plants in which these unit operations and processes are applied Chemistry, physics, and mathematics are the underlying sciences of chemical engineering, and economics is its guide in practice.The above definition has been appropriate up until a few decades ago since theprofession grew out of the chemical industry Today, that definition has changed.Although it is still based on chemical fundamentals and physical principles, these prin-ciples have been de-emphasized in order to allow the expansion of the profession toother areas (biotechnology, semiconductors, fuel cells, environment, etc.) Theseareas include environmental management, health and safety, computer applications,and economics and finance This has led to many new definitions of chemical

engineering, several of which are either too specific or too vague A definition posed by the author is simply “chemical engineers solve problems.” This definitioncan be extended to all engineers and thus “engineers solve problems.”

pro-Obviously, the direction of the engineering profession, and chemical engineering

in particular, has been a moving target over the past 75 years For example, a guished AIChE panel in 1952 gave answers to the question: “Whither, chemicalengineering as a science?” The panel concluded that the profession must avoid freez-ing concepts into a rigid discipline that leaves no room for growth and development.The very fluidity of chemical engineering must continue to be one of its mostdistinguishing aspects In 1964, J Hedrick of Cornell University (at an AIChETri-Section Symposium in Newark, NJ) posed the question “Will there still be adistinct profession of chemical engineering twenty years from now?” The dilemmahas surfaced repeatedly in the past 50 years More recently Theodore(7) addressedthe issue; here is part of his comments:

distin-One of my goals is to keep in touch with students following graduation What I have learned from graduates in the workforce is surprising—approximately 75% of them use little to nothing of what was taught in class Stoichiometry? Sometimes Unit operations? Sometimes Kinetics? Not often Thermodynamics? Rarely Transport Phenomena? Forget about it It is hard to deny that the chemical engineering curriculum is due for an overhaul The traditional chemical engineers who can design a heat exchanger, predict the per- formance of an adsorber, specify a pump, etc., have become a dying breed What really hurts is that I consider myself in this category Fortunately (or perhaps unfortunately), I’m in the twilight of my career.

Change won’t come easy Although several universities in the U.S are pioneering new programs and course changes aimed at the chemical engineer of the furture, approval

by the academic community is not unanimous Rest assured that most educators will do everything in their power to protect their “turf”.

But change really does need to come Our profession owes it to the students.The main thrust of these comments can be applied to other engineering andscience disciples

New York City, NY, 2008.

is surveyed Though these topics are widely divergent and covered with varyingdegrees of thoroughness, all of them will find use later in this text If additional infor-mation of these review topics is needed, the reader is directed to the literature in thereference section of this chapter.

Three additional sections complement the presentation for this chapter They are:Units and Dimensional Consistency

Key Terms and Definitions

Determination of Dimensionless Groups

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE 3.1

Discuss the traditional difference between chemical and physical properties.

SOLUTION: Every compound has a unique set of properties that allows one to recognize and distinguish it from other compounds These properties can be grouped into two main

Heat Transfer Applications for the Practicing Engineer Louis Theodore

# 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

15

categories: physical and chemical Physical properties are defined as those that can be measured without changing the identity and composition of the substance Key physical properties include viscosity, density, surface tension, melting point, boiling point, and so on Chemical properties are defined as those that may be altered via reaction to form other compounds or substances Key chemical properties include upper and lower flammability limits, enthalpy of reaction, autoigni- tion temperature, and so on.

These properties may be further divided into two categories—intensive and extensive Intensive properties are not a function of the quantity of the substance, while extensive proper-

UNITS AND DIMENSIONAL CONSISTENCY

Almost all process variables are dimensional (as opposed to dimensionless) and thereare units associated with these terms It is for this reason that a section on units anddimensional consistency has been included with this chapter The units used in thetext are consistent with those adopted by the engineering profession in the UnitedStates One usually refers to them as the English or engineering units Since engineersare often concerned with units and conversion of units, both the English and SI system

of units are used throughout this book All quantities, including physical and chemicalproperties, are expressed using either of these two systems

Equations are generally dimensional and involve several terms For the equality tohold, each term in the equation must have the same dimensions (i.e., the equation must

be dimensionally homogeneous or consistent) This condition can be easily proved.Throughout the text, great care is exercised in maintaining the dimensional formulas

of all terms and the dimensional consistency of each equation The approach employedwill often develop equations and terms in equations by first examining each in specificunits (e.g., feet rather than length), primarily for the English system Hopefully, thisapproach will aid the reader and will attach more physical significance to each termand equation

Consider the example of calculating the perimeter, P, of a rectangle with length, L,and height, H Mathematically, this may be expressed as P¼ 2L þ 2H This is about

as simple as a mathematical equation can be However, it only applies when P, L, and

H are expressed in the same units

A conversion constant/factor is a term that is used to obtain units in a moreconvenient form All conversion constants have magnitude and units in the term,but can also be shown to be equal to 1.0 (unity) with no units An often used conver-sion constant is

12 inches=footThis term is obtained from the following defining equation:

12 in ¼ 1:0 ft

If both sides of this equation are divided by 1 ft, one obtains

12 in=ft ¼ 1:0

Note that this conversion constant, like all others, is also equal to unity without anyunits Another defining equation (Newton’s Law) is

The conversion factors needed include:

60 min h

60 s min

5280 ft mile

¼ 2:0 lb=ft 3

B Units and Dimensional Consistency 17

Terms in equations must also be constructed from a “magnitude” viewpoint.Differential terms cannot be equated with finite or integral terms Care should also

be exercised in solving differential equations In order to solve differential equations

to obtain a description of the pressure, temperature, composition, etc., of a system, it

is necessary to specify boundary and/or initial conditions for the system This mation arises from a description of the problem or the physical situation The number

infor-of boundary conditions (BC) that must be specified is the sum infor-of the highest-orderderivative for each independent differential position term A value of the solution

on the boundary of the system is one type of boundary condition The number of initialconditions (IC) that must be specified is the highest-order time derivative appearing inthe differential equation The value for the solution at time equal to zero constitutes aninitial condition For example, the equation

requires 1 IC and 2 BCs (in terms of y)

Problems are frequently encountered in heat transfer and other engineering workthat involve several variables Engineers are generally interested in developing func-tional relationships (equations) between these variables When these variables can begrouped together in such a manner that they can be used to predict the performance ofsimilar pieces of equipment, independent of the scale or size of the operations, some-thing very valuable has been accomplished More details on this topic are provided

in the last section

Consider, for example, the problem of establishing a method of calculating thepower requirements for heating liquids in open tanks The obvious variables would

be the depth of liquid in the tank, the density and viscosity of the liquid, the speed

of the agitator, the geometry of the agitator, and the diameter of the tank There aretherefore six variables that affect the power, or a total of seven terms that must be con-sidered To generate a general equation to describe power variation with these vari-ables, a series of tanks having different diameters would have to be set up in order

to gather data for various values of each variable Assuming that ten differentvalues of each of the six variables were imposed on the process, 106runs would berequired Obviously, a mathematical method for handling several variables that

requires considerably less than one million runs to establish a design method must beavailable In fact, such a method is available and it is defined as dimensionalanalysis.(1)

Dimensional analysis is a powerful tool that is employed in planning experiments,presenting data compactly, and making practical predictions from models withoutdetailed mathematical analysis The first step in an analysis of this nature is to writedown the units of each variable The end result of a dimensional analysis is a list ofpertinent dimensionless numbers,(1)details of which are presented in the last section.Dimensional analysis is a relatively “compact” technique for reducing the numberand the complexity of the variables affecting a given phenomenon, process or calcu-lation It can help obtain not only the most out of experimental data but also scale-updata from a model to a prototype To do this, one must achieve similarity between theprototype and the model This similarity may be achieved through dimensional analy-sis by determining the important aforementioned dimensionless numbers, and thendesigning the model and prototype such that the important dimensionless numbersare the same in both.(1)

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

This section is concerned with key terms and definitions in heat transfer Since heattransfer is an important subject that finds wide application in engineering, the under-standing of heat transfer jargon is therefore important to the practicing engineer Itshould also be noted that the same substance in its different phases may have variousproperties that have different orders of magnitude As an example, heat capacity valuesare low for solids, high for liquids, and usually intermediate for gases

Fluids

For the purpose of this text, a fluid may be defined as a substance that does not nently resist distortion An attempt to change the shape of a mass of fluid will result inlayers of fluid sliding over one another until a new shape is attained During the change

perma-in shape, shear stresses (forces parallel to a surface) will result, the magnitude of whichdepends upon the viscosity (to be discussed shortly) of the fluid and the rate of sliding.However, when a final shape is reached, all shear stresses will have disappeared Thus,

a fluid at equilibrium is free from shear stresses This definition applies for both liquidsand gases

Temperature

Whether in a gaseous, liquid, or solid state, all molecules possess some degree ofkinetic energy, i.e., they are in constant motion—vibrating, rotating, or translating.The kinetic energies of individual molecules cannot be measured, but the combined

Key Terms and Definitions 19

effect of these energies in a very large number of molecules can This measurablequantity is known as temperature; it is a macroscopic concept only and as suchdoes not exist at the molecular level.

Temperature can be measured in many ways; the most traditional method makesuse of the expansion of mercury (usually encased inside a glass capillary tube) withincreasing temperature (However, thermocouples or thermistors are more commonlyemployed in industry.) The two most commonly used temperature scales are theCelsius (or Centigrade) and Fahrenheit scales The Celsius scale is based on the boil-ing and freezing points of water at 1-atm pressure; to the former, a value of 1008C

is assigned, and to the latter, a value of 08C On the older Fahrenheit scale, thesetemperatures correspond to 2128F and 328F, respectively Equations (3.4) and (3.5)illustrate the conversion from one scale to the other:

of 0.3663% or (1/273) of the initial volume is experienced for every temperaturedrop of 18C These experiments were not extended to very low temperatures,but if the linear relationship were extrapolated, the volume of the gas would theo-retically be zero at a temperature of approximately22738C or 24608F This tempera-ture has become known as absolute zero and is the basis for the definition of twoabsolute temperature scales (An absolute scale is one that does not allow negativequantities.) These absolute temperature scales are the Kelvin (K) and Rankine (8R)scales; the former is defined by shifting the Celsius scale by 2738C so that 0 K isequal to22738C The Rankine scale is defined by shifting the Fahrenheit scale by

4608 Equation (3.6) shows this relationship for both absolute temperatures:

measure-or 33.91 ft of water, measure-or 29.92 in of mercury