basic landscape ecology potx

n 1o Basic Landseape Ecology ‘What is Landscape Ecology?. In the mid-1980s, when interest in landscape ecology began o flourish, the curious could begin their journey with Naveh and Leib

BASIC LANDSCAPE ECOLOGY

ROBERT N.COULSON MARIA D TCHAKERIAN

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BASIC LANDSCAPE ECOLOGY

Associate Research Scientist

Knowledge Engineering Laboratory

Department of Entomology

‘Texas A&M University

Copyright © 2010 Knowledge Engineering Laboratory Partners Inc

n 1o Basic Landseape Ecology

‘What is Landscape Ecology?

‘Where Di Landsape Esology Come Fon?

Why ie Landscape Foalnss inpontant

2 Organization of the Knowledge Base for Ecology

Lvl of Bola Igaton

Hearehy Organization of Sysens

Emegeu Propet of Stes

Poology in Landscapes

3 Spatial and Temporal Scale in Landscape Ecology

Spatial and Temporal Bstent

CCartowaphic (Map) Seale

Salen Qoanative Ecology

4, The Ecosystem Concept in Landscape Ecology

5 The Landscape in Ecology

Laniseape and Geography

Landscape and Landscape Architecture

Preface Part Il — The Substance of Landscape Ecology

7 Landscape Structure: Environment, Geometry, and

(ners Model of Landscape Funston

Atribtes of Casa Agens tht nt the Propagation of Esolgial Eek

tes Propagated Across the Landscape Environment

Yootors Responsible for Transmission of Entities i the Lamdseape Envincmment

Consequences of Propagation of Eeological Eee in the Landscape Environment

66

7 T73

10 Landscape Analysis and Synthesis

ane Landscape Ecology

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PREFACE TO BASIC LANDSCAPE ECOLOGY

The landscape ecology enterprise is broad-based A typical International Association for Landscape Ecology (IALE) conference is populated

by scientists, tool developers land-use managers planners designers conservationists, ete, The community consists of ecologists, geographers, landscape architects, foreste and engineers, Interspersed within this mixture are students, Because landseape ecology is an important (opic to such a large and diverse audience the literature on the subject is immense In the mid-1980s, when interest in landscape ecology began (o flourish, the curious could begin their journey with Naveh and Leiberman (1984), Forman and Godron (1986), Zonneveld and Forman (1990), Forman (1995), Farina (2000a and b), and Tumer et al, (2001), In the interim since these titles were issued, the knowledge base in landscape ecology has greatly expanded, Today, the substance of the literature includes scientific discovery in landscape ecology: methodologies for landscape description, analysis, and synthesis: and the application of the science for landscape-use management, planning, and design This literature is dispersed among many texts and a variety of specialty journals,

So where (o begin a study of landscape ecology is not as clear as in the past This text is intended to provide a starting point for the study of landscape ecology The goal is to provide a contemporary synthesis of basic landscape ecological concepts with an applied interpretation, The expected learning outcome is (1) a broad-based knowledge of the basic concepts of landscapes ecology, (2) an understanding of the relationship

_ agronomis

between concepts of landscape ecology and landscape-use management, planning, and design, and (3) an overview of tools and techniques for spatial description, analysis, and synthesis

This text isdivided into two sections (Figure 1) Section | which consists of six chapters, is intended to provide a uniform background for students from various academic disciplines, The subjects treated in this section include Introduction to Basic Landscape Ecology (Chapter 1), Organization of the Knowledge Base for Ecology (Chapter 2), Spatial and Temporal Scale (Chapter 3), The Ecosystem Concept in Landscape Ecology (Chapter 4), the Landscape in Ecology (Chapter 5), and Landscape Ecology in Art, Geography, and Landscape Architecture (Chapter 6) Section I, which consists of four chapters, is intended to provide an examination of the substance of contemporary landscape ecology, The subjects treated in this, section include: Landscape Structure (Chapter 7), Landscape Function

(Chapter 8), Landscape Change (Chapter 9), and Landscape Analysis and Synthesis (Chapter 10)

This organizational format is based on our experiences in teaching

an introductory graduate course in landscape ecology at Texas A&M University The course, which was first offered in 1988, is typically populated with a blend of students from various academic programs offered

by the Colleges of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Science, Architecture, Geosciences Liberal Arts, Veterinary Medicine, and Engineering It is also a required course in the University-wide GIS Certificate Program Many of the students do not have a background that includes a foundation

in basic ecology and most have targeted reasons for taking the course e.g the ecologists may be interested in some aspect of species movement the landscape architects in ecological planning and design, the geographers

in biogeography the veterinary students in disease epidemiology etc As many of the students are “visual learners.” this modality is emphasized All the students are beginning their study of landscape ecology

Robert N, Coulson Maria D, Tehakerian College Station TX December 2010

vill | Prefoce to BLE

Landscape Ecology `

Landscape Ecology

Landscape

Knowledge Base for Ecology

Prefice to BLE ix

Acknowledgments

Many individuals contributed to the odyssey that led to the preparation, production, and publication of this text Our partners in the Knowledge Engineering Laboratory (KEL) at Texas A&M University contributed their technical skills, shared their thoughts and ideas on the content, reviewed and critiqued the manuscript of the text, provided figures and images, and participated as subjects in our teaching experiments, In particular,

we acknowledge and thank A, Birt, K Baum, S Bird, A Bunting, D Cairns, $-H Chen, G, Curry, D, Dighe, T Dudek, S, Fargo, R Feldman,

J Fitzgerald, R, Flamm, R, Giardino, S Gupta, S Kim, C, Lafon, D Loh,

C Lovelady, R Megan, L Mussachio, $ O’Keele, A Pinto, S Petty,

M, Saunders, H, Saarenmaa, T Schowalter, E, Takow, J, Waldron, D,

Wunneburger, W Xi, J Yu, and Y, Zeng,

Special thanks are due to Joio Azevedo, D Kulhavy (“Dr Bug”) N Melntire, and J Waldron for their critique and editorial commentary on the manuscript of this text The remaining errors belong to us

We are indebted to and dedicate this book to our families (Frances Coulson, Karah and Mark Dalton, and Amy and Josh Krupa) and (Vatehe and Sebastian Tehakerian)

RNC MDT,

| Prafoce to BLE

The Landscape in Ecology

OVERVIEW

In considering the way’ that the agenda of ecology play’ out in landscapes

we need a basic understanding of how landscapes are structured, how they function, and how they change in space and time This fundamental knowledge forms the foundation for the ecological study of landscapes and provides an entry (o a science-based approach for managing landscapes Accordingly, in this chapter we provide an overview of the scope and bounds of landscape structure, function change, and management Our discussion of structure considers both the geometry of landseapes and how organisms living in the landscape environment respond to and perceive the constituent clements (ecosystems) The discussion of function considers the flux of energy, materials, and information within landscapes The discussion of change is based on mechanism, We examine change from two perspectives: landseape-cover change (alteration of the biophysical attributes of the landscape environment), and landscape-use change (human purpose or intent as applied to the landscape environment), The discussion of management is framed in the context of landscape structure,

function, and change, Our approach is to introduce these subjects and provide a topical overview (Figure 3.1), In Section IT an individual chapter

is devoted to landscape structure, function, and change

The Landscape 1 Ecology | 65

CHAPTERS LANDSCAPE IN ECOLOGY -

landeeape Landscape - Landseape Landscape

Geometry of landscapes Perception of

to its environment) and is a participant-based approach Both perspectives are useful in landscape ecology study

Structure influences the conditions and resources that determine the diversity, distribution, and abundance of living organisms associated with a specific landscape environment, Structure also mediates the flux of energy materials, and information within this environment, and thereby plays

an important role in basic processes associated with landscape function (Wiens 1995), Furthermore, structure influences and is influenced by the mechanisms of landscape change, Landscape ecologists are particularly interested in how living organisms acting as zoogcomorphologists (Butler 1995), ecosystem engineers (Johnston 1995), keystone species, and invasive species change and shape landscape structure

66| T 1 Landscape tm eology

Landscapes have geometry When one views a landscape from above, the scene will often consist of an aggregation of different types of ecosystems (elements), ¢.g.,a post oak savanna (Figure 5.2 a and b) or deciduous forest landscape (Figure 2.18) could consist of forest stands, pastures, lakes, roads, ete To organize the objects forming the landscape so that they can

be interpreted from an ecological perspective, landscape ecologists use a simple scheme, referred to as the Patch Corridor Matrix model Forman and Godron (1981 and 1986) and Forman (1995) developed and amplified through explanation, the Patch/Corridor/Matrix model of landscape structure, The seemingly simple, but ingenious model defines landscapes

to consist of three elements: patches, corridors, and a matrix A patch is a surface area differing from its surroundings in nature or appearance (Figure

3), This dictionary definition does not carry with it much ecological

insight, nor do the common synonyms: piece scrap bit Notwithstanding

the difficulty in defining this simple and commonly used word, patches represent a pi

variety of attributes (size, shape, kind, configuration, number, etc.) and they

ipal structural component of landscapes Patches have a

igure S24 — Acrial view illustrating the complex geometry of a post eak savanna landscape

‘eeurting in Central Texas (KEL imag,

The Landscape n Beology | 67

YigareS2b— Acrial view ofthe post oak savanna landscape described inthe text where the constituent

‘ecosystems (clements) are labeled, The vocabulary used to identify the individual components is Feom common parlance and, although descriptive, doos not lead t an ecological interpretation ofthe landscape (KEL image)

originate in several ways (e.g as a result of a disturbance, such as a fire

as remnants left in managed landscapes: from regeneration of disturbed sites, etc.) The second structural feature of a landscape is the corridor

A corridor is a narrow strip of land (or water) that differs from the areas adjacent to it on both sides (Figure 5.4) There are several different kinds

of corridors, they originate in a variety of ways, and they have multiple functions in landscapes The third structural feature of a landscape is the matrix The matrix is the background or cover type of a landscape, i.e the backdrop in which patches and corridors are imbedded (Figure 5.5) By analogy the matrix is the dough in a chocolate-chip cookie (the chocolate chips are patches) (Figure 5.6) Generally, the matrix is the most extensive and connected landscape feature One consequence of landscape structure consisting of multiple components is that the elements (patches corridors, and matrix) abut (touch or join at the edge or border) one another The area of abutment creates an additional element of landscape structure, the ecotone An ecotone

transition area occurring at the

interface of two or more distinet

landscape components e.g

different patch types (Figure

5.7), Ecotones are a conspicuous

component of landscapes, they

are sensitive to environmental

change, and they typically are

areas where species interactions

are intense and biodiversity

is high, So technically our

basic organizational scheme of

landscape structure is the Patch

The geometric representation

of the landscape environment

Figure $4— Anintrodused codon anrrow

providesanextremely useful way sip of land (or mater) tht difers from the areas

j fy adjacent to it om both sides (Cheroala Skyway

‘oorganize, classify, observe; and Siem Noch Gavinwessem Teese) (EL

analyze structure An alternative møs)

The Landscape In Beology| 69

approach is to consider how a specific organism perceives and responds

to the landscape environment, ie., the functional heterogeneity of the landscape (Kolasa and Rollo 1991), This approach is participant-based and founded on fundamental knowledge of the life eyele, life history, and behavior of the species of interest (see Figures 2.15 through 2.17), This 70| The Landscape im Ecology

concept is useful in evaluating suitability of a landscape for individual species, it provides a means for evaluating the impact of an organism

on the landscape environment, it facilitates investigations of interaction

‘among multiple taxa within the landscape environment, and it serves as a

guide for knowledge-based modification and manipulation of landscape

structure (i,e management)

LANDSCAPE FUNCTION

Armed with our basic understanding of and vocabulary for describing

landscape structure, we are now in a position to consider landscape

function Landscape function deals with the flux of energy, materials,

and information within and among the component ecosystems (elements) forming the landscape As an integrative science ecology seeks ways

to organize for generality ‘The fundamental question that underpins the

The Landscape in Ecology \71