MAP DESIGN: GRAPHIC DESIGN BASICS docx

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Kommission Aus- und Weiterbildung,

Deutsche Gesellschaft für Kartographie

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Contents

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Index

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e.V., Germany 2000

c/o Reinhard Urbanke

Contents

Map design: Graphic design basics 6

1 Perception 6

Outer and Inner Worlds 6

Perception overload 6

Selection 7

Processing 7

2 Communication 7

Communication 8

Code 9

Languages 10

Communication goals 11

3 Design 12

The form 12

Basic forms 13

Graphic elements 14

Variations 15

Design principles 15

4 Optical Illusions 17

Lines 17

Areas 18

Tonal value 20

5 The area 21

Empty space / white space 21

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Contents

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Index

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Locations of effect 22

Effect 22

Associative meanings 24

6 Area aesthetics 25

Size 25

Area subdivision 26

Composition 27

7 Colour 29

Colour psychology 29

Colour dimension (CIELAB-colour system) 30

Colour contrast 31

8 Type aesthetics 33

Evolution of type 33

Geometry 35

Letter spacing 35

9 Type composition 37

Grey value 37

Reading process 37

Type face selection 38

Type face mixture 39

Compositions 39

Typographic errors 40

10 Signs 41

Communication 41

Function 43

Trademarks 43

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Contents

Exercises

Index

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Design 43

To find a shape 44

11 Publications 45

Notepaper and visiting cards 45

Books 46

Dustjacket 47

Magazine 47

Poster 48

Packaging 48

12 Map symbols 49

Symbol system 49

Symbol types 49

Variations 50

Design 51

Map symbols 52

Type 53

13 Map design: Graphic structure 54

Image of nature 54

Purpose of the map 55

55

Legibility 56

Assessment principles 57

14 External map design 58

Principles 58

Map title 59

Scale and linear scale 60

Legend 61

Title page 62

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Contents

Exercises

Index

Search

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15 Exercises 62

Perception 62

Communication 63

Area effect 63

Area composition 64

Type balance 65

Typography 65

Logo 66

Notepaper 67

Poster 68

Symbols 68

Map 69

Travel guide 70

Index 72

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Map design: Graphic design basics

Cartographers and design both use visual human communication In order to discussgraphic design, we have to deal with the topic ofthe communicating human But to understandthe communication process, first of all we have

inter-to speak about human perception

Outer and Inner Worlds

What and how do people perceive?

Well, primarily people perceive their ment - the outer world They see, hear, touch,smell and taste it For that purpose they haveperceptual organs During the perception proc-ess all senses work simultaneously and therefore

environ-it is not easy to decide which sense is decisivefor the occurrence of a reaction in a certain situ-ation

Take supper for example: Is the tasting sensedominating, because the meal is tasting deli-ciously, or the eye, because the table is nicelylaid out, or the ear, because the conversationand the music are pleasing? Humans also per-manently experience themselves, their innerworld The limbs and organs call our attention ifthey are exhausted or diseased The soul, thepsyche plays an important role deciding on thestate of well-being Humans feel, they perceivemoods and instincts and know whether they arewalking or sitting or doing something

Perception overload

People’s inner and outer worlds impact uponthem simultaneously and are perceived in con-junction the perception process is a permanentstate during every situation of life, impossible toswitch off It is impossible also for people to fil-ter out a specific perception, as in addition tothat they have to survey its environment; like-wise they cannot switch off one particular sense.They can only try to concentrate on some specif-

ic aspect

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per-■ First of all people are confronted with a dered general impression

disor-■ Consecutively they select specific information(selection)

■ They try to order them by looking at them sciously (synthesis)

con-■ But simultaneously they discover new stimuli andtry to integrate them in their system as well

■ Finally they receive an ordered whole, an view While analysing it a feedback process isinitiated influenced by many components

per-■ Needs are caused by a shortage and have to besatisfied immediately

■ Interest is controlled by the mind and aims on afield that is not covered by needs

■ Motivation is the conscious and subconsciouscombination of these components

■ Expectation is the more or less clear temporaryobjective we have in mind

■ Memory is a conscious or subconscious feedbackfactor

The designer has to deal with the exchange ofinformation, the communication He must under-stand their functioning, the codes and languag-

es Only then will he be able to define the designgoals

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al language and written language) For that end

he uses codes to transmit his message

effective-ly A picture, for instance, showing the sea, thesun and palm trees, is not only an image of thecoast, but leads the viewer to further associa-tions and can stand for recovery, relaxation,warmth, holidays etc

The cartographer uses codes with his symbols aswell

The symbol ✉ not only stands for a letter, butalso for a post office

The symbol does not only mean severaltrees and rain forest, but also tropics, humid-torrid climate, a certain flora and fauna etc

2a A traffic sign whose meaning is known in

Germa-ny immediately is used in the USA with two atory texts

explan-2b The ships do not understand each other becausethey use different languages Although the viewercannot understand the dialogue he would be able tounderstand the course of events

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Code

The code encodes messages The receiver is able

to understand the content only with knowledgeabout the code (Example: map legend)

Every symbol has a certain meaning the receiverhas to know

The spoken language is a code as well: Someonemay for instance understand German fairly well,French less well and Finnish not at all

It may happen of course that two or more ings exist for one symbol

mean-In maps, for example, the symbol + can standfor a church, a chapel, a graveyard or a rock

Shaking our head is also codified: it means No to

us, in Greece it means Yes

2c Different stars; each of them has its own ing that exceeds its pure geometric form

mean-2d: Someone can only use the pattern sheet if heknows its function and its signs

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under-Information as discoveries, moods, desires ororders could be thus communicated

Since the stone age linguistic signs are recordedpermanently by engraving them in wood orpainting them on stone walls The signs weretaken from nature

In the 5th century BC schematic pictorial signshave been stringed together for the first time,enabling us to visualize trains of thought andcourses of events

Now languages could be developed according tocultural expression and social requirements

Sign-like pictures were combined to form signlanguage (e.g the symbols on maps)

2f: Encoded: signlanguage, musicalnotation, braille,machine language,bar code

2 e : P i c t o r i a l l a n guage: This picturecomprises more thantwo windows, onedoor, two walls, thefloor and a roof slope

-It transmits a certainmood

2g: A possible munication goal: At-tract attention

com-Look here!

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Letters, that are symbols as well, were combined

to form words and finally sentences: the writtenlanguage

Pictures such as photographs, illustrations andpaintings have a pictorial language

Beyond that further languages exist as sign guage, braille, musical notation, etc

A designer must be endowed with the followingpersonal conditions:

■ Sensibility and receptiveness,

■ agility and creativity,

■ ability for abstraction and analysis,

■ ability for synthesis and

■ ability to aesthetical organization

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A form cannot exist without its surroundings

A form has something like a soul that has to befilled with life by the designer

Retiro

Tirso de Molina Ant n Mart n

Atocha Renfe Men ndez Pelayo Atocha

Ibiza

Conde del Casal

Rep blica Cruz del Rayo

er slowenische Philosoph Slavoj Zizek ist mit sei- nen philosophischen Mix- Hitchcocks Leichen und bekanntes enfant terrible phenzirkeln Seine Auf- Rede-Performances mit ungewissem Ausgang.

3a

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in akademischen

Philoso-te sind überwältigende ungewissem Ausgang.

Line(2): A one-dimensional object, a stroke

Area(3): A two-dimensional object, e.g a tangle, a circle, a polygon The area has a form

rec-Volume/Body(4): A three-dimensional objectthat will not be dealt with at this point

The Slovenian philosopher mixtures of Hegel’s logic, Lacan’s empty spaces is a demic philosopher circles His speech-performances with an unknown end.

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in akademischen

Philoso-te sind überwältigende ungewissem Ausgang.

3b

Graphic elements

The elements can be simple, composite or plex (Fig 3b, lower part):

com-Sign(7, 10): A letter, a logo etc

Writing(6, 8): Text in books, newspapers, onposters, in advertisements etc

Graphic (11, 12): A diagram, a map, an tion etc

illustra-Picture (13): A photograph or a detail

Background (9): The background, the ing, has to be included in the design even if it ismerely white

surround-The Slovenian philosopher mixtures of Hegel’s logic, Lacan’s empty spaces is a demic philosopher circles His speech-performances with an unknown end.

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ob-Tonal value: T he brightness of objects

Colour: Reaches the viewer directly, puts him in

a certain mood, rouses feelings

Size: To emphasize, to cause tension

Position: The position of an object within a position is of substantial importance concerningits effect

com-Design principles

It does not make sense to define rigid designrules because, as described above, graphic de-sign is influenced by changing perceptions,

3c

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changing communication methods and changingdesign goals

But the following principles (Fig 3d) that antee a good and successful design should still

guar-be considered:

Proportion or the relation between single jects and their surroundings Many attemptshave been made to determine the ideal absoluteproportion, but without success Some modelssuch as the golden section are considered as be-ing almost perfect

ob-Harmony: A design is harmonic when it is wellordered and when all internal elements havebeen combined properly according to an aes-thetic sense, which means that nothing disturbs,tips over or drops out

Contrast: Every effect is based on contrast

Contrast creates tension and therewith the tention of the viewer It is created through theuse of contrast pairs: To be activated every ob-ject needs a counter object

at-By the detailed inspection of countless designexamples a designer should try to get a reliableflair for proportions, harmony and good design

3d

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Fig 4b shows that repeatedly subdivided linesseem longer that undivided

In Fig 4c thick narrow set lines appear shorterthan the ones that are further apart For thatreason type faces with thin line gauges seem to

be higher than that with bold ones

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geo-of that it appears calmer and more harmonicnow

Fig 4e shows optical deformations: The circleseems dented and the single line repeatedly bro-ken

Areas

A square optically seems wider than higher

Therefore squares must be exaggerated

vertical-ly (Fig 4f) The same applies to circles

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In Fig 4g the horizontal lineswiden the square area whereasthe vertical ones exaggerate itvertically

In Fig 4h all central squareshave the same size Their apparent size (the

other squares and the white space) is influenced

by their surrounding

In Fig 4i and 4j the bright areas (or letters)seem larger than the dark areas (or letters) of

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im-It is possible to create depth with the help oftonal values: the inner square in the left fieldseems to lie clearly above the surface areawhereas in the most right one the black areaseems to be a window

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Empty space / white space

Some elements need a big area (empty space)

to unfold Empty spaces are fields of force

A composition can appear disharmonious if theempty space is not incorporated A design can

be thrown out of balance or upset optically if therelation between printed and empty areas is dis-turbed Empty space can create tension and dy-namics in connection with design elements Itcan order and emphasize them

Even a completely empty area is not empty forthe viewer: he wanders around with his eyes(Fig 5b, a typical reading loop), projects things

on it and divides it into specific sub-areas (Fig

5c)

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vi-In the same way the left and the right side of thearea have different meanings The reading direc-tion proceeds from left to right People feel amovement mostly directed to the right There-fore the right side is more important than theleft one (Fig 5e)

Effect

As a consequence elements get a certain ing if they are located at a certain spot within

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quiet, at theobjective

restless, ment to the right5f

move-negative5h

passive,left right

active,bottom top

seeminglyendless

positive5g

the empty space Points appear calm and stable

if they lie on lines in Fig, 5c, but restless and namic off them (Fig 5f)

dy-Lines have different qualities as well, depending

on their location (Fig 5g and h)

The effect can be described by adjectives aslight, heavy, floating, unstable, rising, distantetc

Fig 5i shows different black elements on whiteareas with a specific effect in each case

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LEFT:

passivenessreflectionintroversionpast

self

CLIMBING THEVERTICAL:

towerobeliskfountainpowerful

RIGHT:

activitydeedextroversionfutureyou

DESCENDING THEVERTICAL:

plumb lineweightheavyserious

Associative meanings

Empirical investigations have resulted in discerning specific associative meanings:

Now, if one tries to look at the white spaces asnew forms in their own right, that lie before agrey background, a new effect can be realized

The general effect is changed by every new ment within the design

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(base line and height of

a pentagon)

5 : 8 (approxima

6a

2:1

3 :

We have already spoken about the importance ofthe area as the mounting space Now, the pro-portions, distribution and composition will beanalysed

Squares can look interesting as well if they aredivided appropriately

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Depending on the size, the area can be

subdivid-ed according to the following principles, in view

of the design purpose: Proportion, harmony andcontrast This results in a layout Here a squarehas been chosen as the mounting space

In Fig 6b the area is subdivided by two ous intersecting lines

continu-In Fig 6c the subdivision is realised by three ferent shapes that vary in size and tonal value

dif-Moreover the shapes are arranged vertically andhorizontally This example shows the white area

as an independent shape as well

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The necessary tension (contrast) is achieved by:

(Fig 6d, upper row, from left to right)

■ different shapes

■ different sizes

■ position within the area

(Fig 6d, lower row, from left to right)

■ negative – positive

■ tonal value (brightness)

Fig 6e shows a dynamic composition in whichthe elements are arranged in first slice, i.e theyextend beyond the format They are cut at themargin and now obtain another interesting out-line Their real form can be reconstructed orrather surmised The viewers complete the partsindicated or missing in their imagination

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Now the composition is more complex, it bines different shapes, tonal values and sizes

com-In Fig 6g pages containing text are simulated

The different elements can be column titles,headings, initials, graphics and pictures withinthe layout of a map catalogue

Classical newspapers (Fig 6h) are a good ple of area aesthetics because they have tomanage with few design elements: Text and pic-tures are the principal design elements Apartfrom them, lines and boxes are applied Everypage of a newspaper comes alive through the in-terplay between the text areas and the blankspaces: The reader needs to be able "to breathe"

exam-while reading

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YELLOW:

expansioncommunicationreason

BLUE:

introversionabsorptionintellectGREEN:

immobilitycontentmentsensuality

RED:

vivacitypowerimaginationORANGE:

healthfull of drivepleasureVIOLET:

illnessirresolute-nessmelancholia

BLACK:

hopelessnessdarknessdeathWHITE:

all possibilitiesglaring bright-ness

Colour psychology

The following characteristics are associated withcertain colours:

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7cColour brightness: 15% – 25% – 40% – 65% –100%

7dColour saturation: 0% – 25% – 50% – 75% – 100%

Of course this table is not universally valid Anessential factor is the personal colour sensitivity

of the viewer: colours remind us of sensory pressions, put someone into a mood

im-Gender and gender-specific roles of the viewersare just as important as cultural influences, e.g

fashion (fashion colours)

Therefore colours should be carefully selectedand the colour experience of the target groupshould be taken into account

Colour dimension (CIELAB-colour system)

A colour tint can be varied by the two factorsbrightness (Fig 7c) and saturation (addition ofwhite, black or grey; Fig 7d)

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col-■ Complementary contrast

Colours which face each other in the colour circleare termed complementary Each colour has itscomplementary colour with which it is balancedand even can increase to the highest luminosity(Fig 7e)

■ Simultaneous contrast

Simultaneous contrast appears where a rich our stands without its complementary colour (inwhich case the eye will generate this comple-mentary colour), through which phenomenon itstonal value is optically changed (Fig 7f)

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Quantity contrast arises from the confrontation

of differently sized colour areas (Fig 7h)

Here the intensity, the strength of a colour’sbrightness is of importance, e.g yellow has amuch bigger optical impact than violet The or-der reads: yellow, orange, red, green, blue andviolet

■ Cold-warm-contrast

The opposition between the red-orange andblue-green pair has the biggest effect on thecontrast (Fig 7i)

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ele-Evolution of type

Pictographic system: Letters have been created

by imitating natural shapes The symbol to theleft in Fig 8a was developed in Egypt approxi-mately 3000 BC

Letters: The pictorial symbols became more andmore abstract in the course of time and finallybecame letters: Fig 8b Phoenician alphabet, ap-proximately 1300 BC

Capital letters and serifs (Serifen): The letters inFig 8c are derived from the Greek /Roman al-phabet between 200 BC and 300 AD Special at-tention has been paid to aesthetics and propor-tions Only capital letters existed The Greeksdid not use spaces between word or sentences

8a

8b

8c

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The Romans invented serifs (Serifen) for thetic reasons

aes-Lower case letters: Fig 8d shows further opment in the Middle Ages With the "KarolingerMinuskel" lower case letters were first devel-oped Later on letters became narrow, heavyand angular (Gothic type)

devel-Roman type: At the rediscovery of classical tiquity the roman type originated around 1450,e.g Garamond (Fig 8e, left) The alternationbetween capital and lower case letters resulted

an-in a better readability, because now several ters, so-called word images, could be registeredsimultaneously

let-Grotesque: At the end of the 19th century ically reduced type faces have been developed

graph-e.g Akzidenz-Grotesque (Fig 8f, left)

Design fonts: Today good readability is now andthen opposed by trendy type face creations (Fig

8g)

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Geometry

Around 1920 characters have been reduced tothe basic geometric forms rectangle, circle andtriangle (Fig 8h, Futura) However, since abso-lute geometry impairs readability, small modifi-cations have been made

Letter spacing

Over 2000 years ago Greeks and Romans ready dealt with the aesthetics of lettersstringed together They discovered that not onlythe shape of every single letter should be takeninto account in order to obtain a good typeface,but also the blank space between the words

al-The optic weight of the blank space between theletters must correspond to the inner space of theletter

In Fig 8i the blank spaces and the inner spaces

of the letters are made clear through geometricforms

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In line 4 positive and negative forms have beenbalanced according to aesthetic considerations

The result is an in itself well proportioned word(Fig 8k)

The harmonic balance of the letter spacing has

to be considered especially when using graphic

or big type faces

To get a correct spacing no measurable valuescan be provided The recognition of the size ofblank spaces and the weight balance of wordshas to be practised in order to acquire an aes-thetic competence

It can be helpful to turn a word upside down, inorder to recognize the forms and spaces unhin-dered (Fig 8l) By the way, this method may beuseful for each kind of design task

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Grauwert: Aus einigem Abstand als Bild, als graue Fläche; sie steht sie umgebenden Weißraum Um die ten, soll der Grauwert nicht zu dun- die Seite sonst löchrig wirkt Er wird

te, den Wort- und den stand betrachtet, wirkt Text auf einer steht bekanntermaßen in Bezie- Weißraum Um die

Zeilenab-Grauwert: Aus einigem Abstand Bild, als graue Fläche; sie steht sie umgebenden Weißraum Um die ten, soll der Grauwert nicht zu dun- die Seite sonst löchrig wirkt Er wird weite, den Wort- und den Zeilenab- stand be

Grauwert: Aus einigem Abstand trachtet, wirkt Text auf einer Seite als Bild, als graue Fläche; sie steht bekanntermaßen in Beziehung zum sie umgebenden Weißraum Um die Lesehemmschwelle gering zu halten, soll der Grauwert nicht zu dun- kel sein, aber auch nicht zu hell, da die Seite

be-Grauwert: Aus einigem Abstand betrachtet, wirkt Text auf meiner Seite als Bild, als graue Fläche; sie steht bekanntermaßen in Be- ziehung zum sie umgebenden Weißraum Um die Lesehemm- schwelle gering zu halten, soll der Grauwert nicht zu dun

Grauwert: Aus einigem Abstand Seite als Bild, als graue Fläche;

ziehung zum sie umenden

Weiß-le gering zu halten, soll der aber auch nicht zu hell, da die

Er wird durch die Schriftstärke, Zeilen

Grauwert: Aus einigem Abstand Seite als Bild, als graue Fläche;

ziehung zum sie umenden

Weiß-le gering zu halten, soll der aber auch nicht zu hell, da die

Er wird durch die Schriftstärke, Zeilenabstand bestimmt Aus ei- der auf einer Seite als Bild, als kanntermaßen

9a

Following the analysis of letters and single wordsthis section deals with the characteristics oftypefaces in printed texts

Grey value

When viewed from a distance a text block looks

to be an image, a grey area (Fig 9), related to aknown degree to the surrounding blank space

To keep the reading inhibition threshold small,the grey value of the text block should not betoo dark, but also not too bright, because thenthe page would look to be full of holes The greyvalue is determined by the line gauge, the letterspacing, the word spacing and the line spacing

10 words) The longer the line, the bigger the

Tiêu đề	Map Design: Graphic Design Basics
Trường học	Deutsche Gesellschaft für Kartographie e.V.
Chuyên ngành	Cartography
Thể loại	sách hướng dẫn
Năm xuất bản	2000
Thành phố	Germany

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Số trang	74
Dung lượng	4,58 MB