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Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy: Number 21

Concentrating solar power technology

Principles, developments and applications

Edited by Keith Lovegrove and Wes Stein

Oxford Cambridge Philadelphia New Delhi

80 High Street, Sawston, Cambridge CB22 3HJ, UK

First published 2012, Woodhead Publishing Limited

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012; except Chapter 14 which was prepared by

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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2012948529

ISBN 978-1-84569-769-3 (print)

ISBN 978-0-85709-617-3 (online)

ISSN 2044-9364 Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy (print)

ISSN 2044-9372 Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy (online)

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Typeset by Toppan Best-set Premedia Limited

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K LOVEGROVE, IT Power, Australia and W STEIN,

CSIRO Energy Centre, Australia

1.2 Approaches to concentrating solar power (CSP) 61.3 Future growth, cost and value 101.4 Organization of this book 13

2.4 Focal region fl ux distributions 33

2.6 Energy transport and storage 412.7 Power cycles for concentrating solar power (CSP) systems 412.8 Maximizing system effi ciency 462.9 Predicting overall system performance 56

2.12 Sources of further information and advice 65

3 Solar resources for concentrating solar power

concentrating solar power (CSP) plants 863.8 Summary and future trends 88

4 Site selection and feasibility analysis for

concentrating solar power (CSP) systems 91

M SCHLECHT and R MEYER, Suntrace GmbH, Germany

4.2 Overview of the process of site selection and feasibility

analysis 934.3 Main aspects considered during the pre-feasibility and

4.4 Boundary conditions for a concentrating solar power (CSP)

project 1024.5 Detailed analysis of a qualifying project location 1064.6 Summary and future trends 116

5 Socio-economic and environmental assessment

of concentrating solar power (CSP) systems 120

N CALDÉS and Y LECHÓN, CIEMAT – Plataforma Solar de Almería, Spain

Contents viiPart II Technology approaches and potential 151

6 Linear Fresnel refl ector (LFR) technology 153

D R MILLS, formerly Ausra Inc., Australia

6.3 Areva Solar (formerly Ausra, Solar Heat and Power) 163

6.4 Solar Power Group (formerly Solarmundo, Solel Europe) 169

6.5 Industrial Solar (formerly Mirroxx, PSE) 174

6.6 Novatec Solar (formerly Novatec-Biosol, Turmburg

7.2 Commercially available parabolic-trough collectors (PTCs) 203

7.3 Existing parabolic-trough collector (PTC) solar thermal

7.9 Sources of further information and advice 237

7.10 References and further reading 238

8 Central tower concentrating solar power (CSP)

8.7 Variants on the basic central receiver system 2748.8 Field layout and land use 276

and low concentration photovoltaic (LCPV) devices and

10.8 References and further reading 360

11 Thermal energy storage systems for concentrating

W.-D STEINMANN, German Aerospace Center, Germany

11.1 Introduction: relevance of energy storage for concentrating

11.2 Sensible energy storage 366

Contents ix11.3 Latent heat storage concepts 376

11.4 Chemical energy storage 384

11.5 Selecting a storage system for a particular concentrating

12 Hybridization of concentrating solar power (CSP)

with fossil fuel power plants 395

H G JIN and H HONG, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China

12.2 Solar hybridization approaches 396

12.3 Fossil boosting and backup of solar power plants 399

12.4 Solar-aided coal-fi red power plants 402

12.5 Integrated solar combined cycle (ISCC) power plants 407

12.6 Advanced hybridization systems 412

12.7 Conclusions and future trends 418

13 Integrating a Fresnel solar boiler into an existing

coal-fi red power plant: a case study 421

R MILLAN, J DE LALAING, E BAUTISTA, M ROJAS and

F GÖRLICH, Solar Power Group GmbH, Germany

13.2 Description of options considered as variables selected

13.3 Assessment of the solar add-on concept 427

14 The long-term market potential of concentrating

solar power (CSP) systems 437

S J SMITH, Pacifi c Northwest National Laboratory and

University of Maryland, USA

14.5 Sources of further information and advice 462

Part III Optimisation, improvements and applications 467

15 Absorber materials for solar thermal receivers in

concentrating solar power (CSP) systems 469

W PLATZER and C HILDEBRANDT, Fraunhofer Institute

for Solar Energy Systems, Germany

15.2 Characterization of selective absorber surfaces 47515.3 Types of selective absorbers 47715.4 Degradation and lifetime 48615.5 Examples of receivers for linearly concentrating collectors 489

16 Optimisation of concentrating solar power (CSP)

plant designs through integrated techno-economic

modelling 495

G MORIN, Novatec Solar, Germany

16.2 State-of-the-art in simulation and design of concentrating

16.3 Multivariable optimisation of concentrating solar power

16.4 Case study defi nition: optimisation of a parabolic trough

power plant with molten salt storage 504

16.6 Discussion of case study results 51616.7 Conclusions and future trends 531

Contents xi17.4 Category 2: size dependent costs 548

17.5 Category 3: fi xed costs for each heliostat and other costs 555

17.6 Cost analysis as a function of area: the case of the 148 m2

Advanced Thermal Systems (ATS) glass/metal heliostat 557

17.7 Additional considerations in analysis of cost as a function

of area for the 148 m2 Advanced Thermal Systems (ATS)

18 Heat fl ux and temperature measurement

technologies for concentrating solar power (CSP) 577

J BALLESTRÍN, CIEMAT – Plataforma Solar de Almería,

Spain and G BURGESS and J CUMPSTON, Australian

National University, Australia

18.2 Heat fl ux measurement 578

18.3 Flux mapping system case studies 587

18.4 High temperature measurement 593

19 Concentrating solar technologies for industrial

A HÄBERLE, PSE AG, Germany

19.3 Components and system confi guration 606

19.5 Future trends and conclusion 616

19.6 Sources of further information and advice 618

20 Solar fuels and industrial solar chemistry 620

A G KONSTANDOPOULOS, Centre for Research and

Technology Hellas, Greece and Aristotle University,

Greece, C PAGKOURA, Centre for Research and

Technology Hellas, Greece and University of West

Macedonia, Greece and S LORENTZOU, Centre for

Research and Technology Hellas, Greece

20.3 Hydrogen production using solar energy 626

20.4 Solar-thermochemical reactor designs 631

Contributor contact details and author biographies

(* = main contact)

Primary editor and Chapters 1* and 2*

Dr Keith Lovegrove (BSc 1984, PhD 1993) is currently Head – Solar Thermal with the UK-based renewable energy consultancy group, IT Power

He was previously Associate Professor and head of the solar thermal group at the Australian National University where he led the team that designed and built the 500 m2 generation II big dish solar concentrator He has served on the board of the ANZ Solar Energy Society as Chair, Vice Chair and Treasurer For many years he was Australia’s SolarPACES Task

Editor and Chapter 1

Wes Stein is the Solar Energy Program Leader for CSIRO’s Division of Energy Technology He was responsible for establishing the National Solar Energy Centre and has since grown a team of 30 engineers and scientists and a strong portfolio of high temperature CSP research projects He rep-resents Australia on the IEA SolarPACES Executive Committee, and is a member of the Australian Solar Institute Research Advisory Committee

W Stein

CSIRO Energy Centre

Steel River Eco Industrial Park

10 Murray Dwyer Close

Mayfi eld West

R Meyer*, M Schlecht and K Chhatbar

Contributor contact details xvmore than 15 years’ work experience in the power industry, covering fossil-

fi red, concentrating solar thermal and photovoltaic, including international hands-on project development and project implementation

M Schlecht* and R Meyer

Econom-2004, where her work focuses on the socio-economic impact assessment of energy technologies, evaluation of energy policies and energy modelling.Yolanda Lechón has a PhD in Agricultural Engineering She joined CIEMAT in 1997 Her relevant experience involves life cycle assessment and environmental externalities assessment of energy technologies and energy modelling using techno-economic models

N Caldés and Y Lechón*

Energy System Analysis Unit

D R Mills

Australia

Email: davidmills1946@gmail.com

Chapter 7

Eduardo Zarza Moya is an Industrial Engineer with a PhD degree, born in

1958 At present he is the Head of the R&D Unit for Solar Concentrating Systems at the Plataforma Solar de Almería in Spain He has 27 years’ experience with solar concentrating systems, and has been the Director

of national and international R&D projects related to solar energy and parabolic trough collectors He is a member of the Scientifi c and Tech-nical Committee of ESTELA (European Solar Thermal Electricity Association)

E Zarza Moya

CIEMAT – Plataforma Solar de Almería

Carretera de Tabernas a Senés, km 5

Professor Lorin Vant-Hull has been involved in Solar Energy Projects since

1972 He retired as Professor Emeritus from the physics department of the University of Houston in 2001, which he fi rst joined in 1969 Dr Vant-Hull was a Principal Investigator on the earliest US proposal to develop the Solar Central Receiver project epitomized by the Solar One Pilot Plant (10 MWe at Barstow, California) He was program manager for eight years of

a Solar Thermal Advanced Research Center Dr Vant-Hull has been an

Associate Editor for the Journal of Solar Energy for many years, as well as

a member of the Board of Directors of ASES and of ISES

Contributor contact details xviiIndia, Spain, Turkey) After his degree at the University of Hamburg he worked with the German Aerospace Research Establishment in Stuttgart

In 1988 he joined schlaich bergermann und partner and became Managing Director of sbp sonne gmbh in 2009

Thomas Keck, Mechanical Engineer, born in 1959 in Stuttgart, joined ich bergermann und partner in 1988 and works as project manager for Dish/Stirling projects

schla-W Schiel* and T Keck

schlaich bergermann und partner

on solar steam generators and has worked on the simulation and analysis

of the dynamics of thermodynamic systems

W.-D Steinmann

German Aerospace Center

Institute of Technical Thermodynamics

technol-a ptechnol-ast winner of the best ptechnol-aper technol-awtechnol-ard of ASME IGTI – interntechnol-ationtechnol-al

con-ference He is a subject editor for the international journals Applied Energy and Energy.

Dr Hui Hong is associate professor at the Institute of Engineering mophysics in Beijing She works in the fi eld of solar thermochemical processing

Ther-H G Jin* and Ther-H Hong

Institute of Engineering Thermophysics

Chinese Academy of Sciences

as research assistant at Fraunhofer-Institut für Solare Energiesysteme.Count Jacques de Lalaing, founder of Solar Power Group and Managing Director, is one of the pioneers of Fresnel solar power and established the very fi rst large-scale linear Fresnel pilot unit in the world in the 1990s In his former capacity as Chief Technology Offi cer at Solarmundo, Belgium,

Contributor contact details xix

he raised awareness of the great potential of this new technology In 2004,

he founded Solar Power Group

R Millan*, J de Lalaing, E Bautista, M Rojas and F Görlich

Solar Power Group GmbH

socioeco-S J Smith

Joint Global Change Research Institute

Pacifi c Northwest National Laboratory and University of Maryland

5825 University Research Court, Suite 3500

W Platzer* and C Hildebrandt

Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems

Heidenhofstraße 2

79110 Freiburg

Germany

E-mail: werner.platzer@ise.fraunhofer.de

Chapter 16

Gabriel Morin has been working at Novatec Solar GmbH, Karlsruhe, Germany, as a project manager in Research and Development since 2010 From 2001 to 2010, he worked at the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems (ISE) in the fi eld of CSP, including as the coordinator of Solar Thermal Power Plants Gabriel Morin wrote his PhD thesis on techno-economic design optimization of solar thermal power plants

J B Blackmon

Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering

University of Alabama in Huntsville

Greg Burgess is the manager of the Solar Thermal Research Facility at the Australian National University

Contributor contact details xxiJeff Cumpston is a PhD student in the Solar Thermal Group at the Australian National University.

G Burgess and J Cumpston

Research School of Engineering

in Mechanical (Dipl ME, AUTH, 1985; MSc ME Michigan Tech, 1987) and Chemical Engineering (MSc, MPhil, PhD, Yale University, 1991) and received the 2006 Descartes Laureate

Chrysa Pagkoura is a Research Engineer at Aerosol and Particle ogy Laboratory of CPERI/CERTH and member of the HYDROSOL research team.

Technol-Dr Souzana Lorentzou is an Affi liate Researcher at Aerosol and Particle Technology Laboratory of CPERI/CERTH and member of the HYDRO-SOL research team

A G Konstandopoulos*

Aerosol and Particle Technology Laboratory

Centre for Research and Technology Hellas

Aerosol and Particle Technology Laboratory

Centre for Research and Technology Hellas

Department of Mechanical Engineering

University of West Macedonia

Kozani 50100

Greece

S Lorentzou

Aerosol and Particle Technology Laboratory

Centre for Research and Technology Hellas

6th km Harillaou-Thermi Road

57001 Thermi-Thessaloniki

Greece

E-mail: souzana@cperi.certh.gr

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During this century the human race will have to address the challenge of deeply transforming the world energy system to make it much more sustain-able and environmentally friendly than the one we currently have To achieve this, it will have to substantially increase the market penetration of all types of renewable energy technologies, and especially of solar technolo-gies, since these technologies will be called upon to be the main pillars of the new world energy system, because of the vast quantities and the high quality of the solar energy reaching the Earth at every instant

The shift towards a much greener world energy system requires an extraordinary mobilization of technological and economic resources The good news is that this mobilization is starting to happen According to the

US Department of Energy, in 2011, for the fi rst time in history, worldwide investment in renewable electricity generation capacity exceeded the worldwide investment in conventional systems

To enable the required large-scale development and deployment of renewable energy systems worldwide, it is essential to ensure that the renewable energy industry has access to affordable fi nance and to the nec-essary renewable energy expertise and know-how

This book represents an important contribution to disseminate the knowledge and expertise that its authors have in the fi eld of concentrating solar power (CSP) The diversity of countries, institutions and fi elds of expertise represented by the contributors to this book, and the quality of their contributions also constitute an example in itself of the rapid but solid expansion that the CSP international community has undergone over recent decades

In addition to congratulating the editors and the authors for delivering this excellent book, I would like to end this foreword by pointing out the fact that many of the contributors to this book and their institutions are active participants in the activities of SolarPACES, the Implementing Agreement of the International Energy Agency for ‘Solar Power and

Chemical Energy Systems’ This is not by chance; the rapid expansion that the CSP industry is experiencing worldwide since 2003 owes much to the unfaltering work of SolarPACES over the last 30 years.

Manuel J Blanco, PhD Dr Ing Chair, SolarPACES Executive Committee

Introduction to concentrating solar power

(CSP) technology

K L O V E G R O V E, IT Power, Australia and

W S T E I N, CSIRO Energy Centre, Australia

Abstract: This introductory chapter begins by defi ning ‘concentrating

solar power’ (CSP) and outlining the role of the book It then introduces some of the historical background to the development of CSP systems and the present day context of a period of industry growth amid major changes to the world’s energy systems It describes the key approaches

of parabolic trough, central receiver, linear Fresnel, Fresnel lens and paraboloidal dish concentrator systems The prospects for continued deployment growth and parallel cost reductions are discussed Finally the organization of the overall book is outlined.

Key words: concentrating solar power, concentrating photovoltaics, dish,

trough, tower, Fresnel lens, linear Fresnel refl ector, history, approaches to concentration, cost reduction, growth in deployment.

1.1 Introduction

Concentrating solar power (CSP) systems use combinations of mirrors or lenses to concentrate direct beam solar radiation to produce forms of useful energy such as heat, electricity or fuels by various downstream technologies The term ‘concentrating solar power’ is often used synonymously with

‘concentrating solar thermal power’ In this book the term is used in a more general sense to include both concentrating solar thermal (CST) and con-centrating photovoltaic (CPV) energy conversion

Whilst the primary commercial attention today and the emphasis in this book is on systems designed for generation of electric power, there are individual chapters that review the important market segment of process heat and also the concept of solar fuels production, which the editors suggest is likely to see a rapid rise in interest in the near future

This book seeks to address multiple audiences, and chapters can be read selectively according to need

• A reader with a background in science or engineering should fi nd a resource that introduces all the key principles and the state of the art

of the CSP fi eld

• Many of the chapters contain detailed review and presentation on various key aspects that should provide value to those experts already

working in the fi eld and, given the pace of technological change, gested resources for remaining up to date.

sug-• At the same time, the book should provide value to readers without a technical background Care has been taken to provide overviews and introductions of all key concepts in a manner targeted at the non-technical audience such as policy makers, for example

This book seeks to provide comprehensive, complete and up-to-date age of the CSP fi eld A previous well-respected coverage of this nature was

cover-provided by Winter et al (1991) There are a number of past and recent

books that address broader solar energy topics and others with more cal coverage of specifi c issues, which are referenced in various chapters where relevant

techni-1.1.1 History and context

Global investments in clean energy generation are continuing to increase with global energy producers (and users) now experiencing strong signals to develop a clean energy future Over the last three decades, the world wind industry has grown at an average rate of approximately 30% per year to reach a total installed capacity of 239 GW by the end of 2011 This represents nearly 3% of total world electricity annual generation (WWEA, 2012) and wind capacity is now being installed at a faster annual rate than nuclear.Over a shorter period, the solar photovoltaic (PV) industry has grown with comparable or higher rates of growth but from a lower base and in

2011 had a worldwide installed capacity of approximately 69 GW (EPIA, 2012) CSP technology saw a fi rst surge of commercial development between

1984 and 1995, but then no further commercial deployment until 2005, although in that time considerable research, development and demonstra-tion took place Since then, commercial CSP deployment has recommenced and gained considerable momentum Total installed capacity is, however, an order of magnitude smaller than PV, given that commercialization of the technology is a decade or so behind

The concept of concentrating solar energy has been a technology of est throughout history For example:

inter-• Archimedes described the idea of mirrored panels to concentrate the sun in around 200 BC;

• The Greek mathematician Diocles described the optical properties of a parabolic trough in the second century BC;

• The development of heliostat designs was described by Comte de Buffon

in 1746;

• Augustin Mouchot demonstrated a dish driven steam engine system at the 1878 universal exhibition in Paris

Introduction to concentrating solar power (CSP) technology 5

A more contemporary historical landmark was Frank Schuman’s successful parabolic trough driven pumping system built in Egypt in 1913 Experi-ments and prototypes were developed all through the twentieth century The real birth of CSP as an industry came in California in the 1980s Favour-able government policy settings lead to the construction of nine separate parabolic trough based ‘Solar Electric Generating Systems’ (SEGS), total-ling 354 MWe of installed capacity These were based around steam turbines for power generation, and used oil as the heat transfer fl uid within the trough receivers

These plants, with more than 2,000,000 m2 of mirror area, continue to operate under utility ownership after more than 20 years and have estab-lished the technology as commercially proven The tenth plant was in the early stages of construction when the effect of lower oil prices and changes

in government policy led to a loss of investment and subsequent demise of the company driving the development (LUZ) However, the technology was now on the map, and over that 1984–95 period, with just 354 MW deployed, the capital cost was successfully halved

The lead role in renewable energy development was grasped around that time by countries in north-western Europe, led by Denmark and then Germany The emphasis was on pursuing wind power given the favourable wind and less favourable solar resources in those countries Though wind turbines today are of the order of 3–5 MW per unit, at that time they were

in the small hundreds of kW, and even though the specifi c capital cost was similar to or higher than CSP, the smaller modules provided a much easier investment path Led by government incentives, PVs have moved from high cost space/satellite and small remote off-grid applications to residential applications and more recently large multi-MW installations The renew-able energy agenda has spread around the globe and overall market demand for renewable electricity continues to grow exponentially, though the ‘new’ renewables such as wind and PV still account for only a few percent of the world’s electricity demand

A past and continuing challenge for CSP is its dependence on the mies of scale afforded by large steam turbines, leading to large levels of risk capital per project for a relatively new technology However, now that the size of new renewable projects has grown, there is more appetite for making the necessary investments

econo-Concern over human induced climate change has emerged to dominate the political agenda around energy supply There has been a resurgence

of CSP development since 2005, led partly by the recognition that it is a technology which could make large greenhouse gas emission cuts quickly, and offer the signifi cant benefi t of distributable solar power through integrated thermal storage This growth has been led predominantly by Spain through specifi c and targeted feed-in tariff incentives that have

proven highly successful for the technology Approximately 2,400 MW is approved for operation by 2014 with half of that already operating The sun belt of the south-west USA has also been targeted for CSP through tax credits and loan guarantees with approximately 1.8 GW expected to

be in operation by the end of 2013 Importantly, the majority of new lations now incorporate thermal storage, usually of the order of 6 hours

instal-or so

Other countries with CSP projects announced or under construction include North Africa (Algeria, Morocco) and the Middle East (Egypt, Israel), China, India, Australia, South Africa, Portugal, Italy, Greece, Malta and Cyprus In 2010, India took a major initiative with the establishment of the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission, with a target of 20 GWe of combined PV and CSP capacity to be installed by 2022 China has a target

of 1 GW of CSP by 2015 This activity has combined to give a rate of growth from 2005 to 2012 of approximately 40% per year This is similar to the rate

of growth for wind power during its fi rst decade of modern commercial deployment, which began in approximately 1990, and faster than that for PVs when it began to accelerate commercial deployment in about 1992 Whilst the industry is still in its early stages and vulnerable to sudden policy changes in key countries, continued strong growth in global installed capac-ity is predicted

Due to the 15-year hiatus in commercial CSP deployments, installed PV capacity grew to be some ten times greater than CSP, and as a result PV has seen signifi cant cost reduction over recent years, whilst CSP is at an early stage of its cost reduction path In 2012, PV is lower cost than CSP for non-dispatchable electricity production under most applications Under these circumstances, greater attention is turning to CSP’s potential benefi ts

of built-in thermal energy storage and dispatchability, as well as other electrical applications such as fuels

non-Whilst the issue of climate change is dominating the future energy agenda, the idea that demand for oil may have now passed the level of supply from conventional sources is well accepted and, despite large levels of fl uctuation, the overall trend is to increasing prices This could prove to be a very major driver for technology change both increasing demand for solar electricity and encouraging developments such as solar fuels

CSP systems capture the direct beam component of solar radiation Unlike

fl at plate photovoltaics (PV), they are not able to use radiation that has been diffused by clouds or dust or other factors This makes them best suited

to areas with a high percentage of clear sky days, in locations that do not have smog or dust

Introduction to concentrating solar power (CSP) technology 7The confi gurations that are currently used commercially in order of deployment level are:

1.2.1 Parabolic trough

Parabolic trough-shaped mirrors produce a linear focus on a receiver tube along the parabola’s focal line as illustrated in Fig 1.1 The complete assem-bly of mirrors plus receiver is mounted on a frame that tracks the daily movement of the sun on one axis Relative seasonal movements of the sun

in the other axis result in lateral movements of the line focus, which remains

on the receiver but can have some spill at the row ends

1.1 Parabolic trough collector: tracks the sun on one axis (background

picture, Nevada Solar 1 plant, R Dunn).

Trough systems using thermal energy collection via evacuated tube receivers are currently the most widely deployed CSP technology In this confi guration, an oil heat transfer fl uid is usually used to collect the heat from the receiver tubes and transport it to a central power block Chapter

7 examines trough systems in detail

1.2.2 Central receiver tower

A central receiver tower system involves an array of heliostats (large mirrors with two axis tracking) that concentrate the sunlight onto a fi xed receiver mounted at the top of a tower, as illustrated in Fig 1.2 This allows sophisticated high effi ciency energy conversion at a single large receiver point Higher concentration ratios are achieved compared to linear focusing systems and this allows thermal receivers to operate at higher temperatures with reduced losses A range of system and heliostat sizes have been dem-onstrated Chapter 8 examines tower systems in detail

1.2.3 Linear Fresnel refl ectors

Linear Fresnel refl ector (LFR) systems produce a linear focus on a ward facing fi xed receiver mounted on a series of small towers as shown in Fig 1.3 Long rows of fl at or slightly curved mirrors move independently

down-on down-one axis to refl ect the sun’s rays down-onto the statidown-onary receiver For thermal

1.2 Central receiver tower plant: multiple heliostats move on two axes

to focus the sun to a fi xed tower mounted receiver (background picture, Gemasolar plant, owned by Torresol Energy, © Torresol Energy).

Introduction to concentrating solar power (CSP) technology 9

systems, the fi xed receiver not only avoids the need for rotary joints for the heat transfer fl uid, but can also help to reduce convection losses from a thermal receiver because it has a permanently down-facing cavity

The proponents of the LFR approach argue that its simple design with near fl at mirrors and less supporting structure, which is closer to the ground, outweighs the lower overall optical and (for CST) thermal effi ciency To increase optical and ground-use effi ciency, compact linear Fresnel refl ectors (CLFRs) use multiple receivers for each set of mirrors so that adjacent mirrors have different inclinations in order to target different receivers This allows higher packing density of mirrors which increases optical effi ciency and minimizes land use Chapter 6 examines linear Fresnel systems in detail

1.2.4 Fresnel lens

A conventional lens is expensive and impractical to manufacture on a large scale The Fresnel lens overcomes these diffi culties and has been employed extensively for CPV systems A Fresnel lens is made as a series of concentric small steps, each having a surface shape matching that which would be found on a standard lens but with all the steps kept within a small thickness

A plastic material is usually used and arrays of multiple lens units are cally mounted on a heliostat structure as shown in Fig 1.4 This is also a

typi-1.3 Linear Fresnel refl ector: multiple mirrors move on one axis to

focus the sun to a fi xed linear receiver (background picture,

Kimberlina LFR plant, Bakersfi eld California, image courtesy of AREVA Solar).

point focus approach requiring accurate sun tracking in two axes Chapter

10 examines various CPV systems in detail

1.2.5 Parabolic dishes

Dish systems, like troughs, exploit the geometric properties of a parabola, but as a three-dimensional paraboloid as shown in Fig 1.5 The refl ected direct beam radiation is concentrated to a point focus receiver and in CST systems can heat this to operating temperatures of over 1,000ºC, similar to tower systems

Dish systems offer the highest potential solar conversion effi ciencies of all the CSP technologies, because they always present their full aperture directly towards the sun and avoid the ‘cosine loss effect’ that the other approaches experience They are, however, the least commercially mature Dishes up to 24 m diameter have been demonstrated

As well as thermal conversion, CPV conversion on dishes is well lished, it is also applied with ‘micro dishes’ with diameters of just several centimetres Chapter 9 examines dish systems in detail

CSP systems produce renewable electricity that ultimately must compete with other forms of electricity generation in the marketplace Thus the cost

Fresnel lens

Target (single cell)

1.4 Fresnel lens-based CPV: multiple small units on a heliostat

(background picture, River Mountains, USA, Amonix).

Introduction to concentrating solar power (CSP) technology 11

of CSP energy is the main preoccupation of the technology developers and research and development practitioners within the CSP community With

no fuel costs, the cost of CSP energy is dominated by the amortization of the high initial capital cost investment over the life of the plant

CSP is a proven technology that is at an early stage of its cost reduction curve A period of rapid growth in installed capacity, together with a rapid decay in cost of energy produced is confi dently predicted by the industry The trend of cost reduction as installed capacity increases is logically linked to:

• technical improvements, as lessons are learned from installed plants and parallel R&D efforts identify performance improvements,

• scaling to larger installed plant size, which allows for more effi cient and more cost-effective large turbines and other components to be used, and

• volume production that allows fi xed costs of investments in production effi ciency to be spread over larger production runs

Empirically these practical effects lead to a commonly observed trend for

a new technology of a reduction in cost of an approximately fi xed fraction for every doubling of deployed capacity

An analysis of various comprehensive studies investigating feasible cost reduction paths for CSP was carried out in a study for the Global Environ-ment Facility for the World Bank in 2006 (World Bank 2006) One compre-hensive scenario predicted a pathway to install 5 GW by 2015

1.5 Paraboloidal dish concentrator: tracks the sun in two axes

(background picture, Australian National University, 500 m 2 dish).

A recent roadmap published by the International Energy Agency (IEA) for CSP technology presents a highly credible summary of the global situ-ation and way forward (IEA 2010) Cost of energy reductions to around 25% of 2010 values are predicted by 2050 AT Kearney (2010) was commis-sioned by European and Spanish CST industry associations to produce a study of CSP energy cost reduction projections A range of key areas for reducing cost of manufacture and increasing annual output are identifi ed, these measures together are suggested to result in an overall reduction of cost of energy in 2025 relative to 2012 of 40–50% Over the same time period, they suggest global installed capacity could reach between 60 and

100 GW depending on policy measures in place Figure 1.6 illustrates the history of installed capacity to 2011 together with extrapolations based on compound growth rates of the 19% per year average since 1984 and the 40% per year average since 2005

Figure 1.7 shows the same data on an expanded vertical axis, together with actual historical data for installed capacity of wind and PV systems The historical high compound growth rates for these technologies can be seen together with the approximately one decade lag between PV growth

1.6 Global installed capacity of CSP plants, both actual and possible

future compound growth rates.

1.7 Global installed capacity of CSP plants, both actual and possible

future compound growth rates together with historical data for wind and PV deployment.