Nutritional Counseling for Lifestyle Change ppt

EDITOR-IN-CHIEFBenjamin CaballeroJohns Hopkins UniversityMarylandUSAEDITORSLindsay AllenUniversity of CaliforniaDavis, CA, USA Andrew PrenticeLondon School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine

E NCYCLOPEDIA OF HUMAN

NUTRITION SECOND EDITION

VEGETARIAN DIETS

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Second edition 2005Library of Congress Control Number: 2004113614

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 0-12-150110-8 (set)

This book is printed on acid-free paperPrinted and bound in Spain

EDITOR-IN-CHIEFBenjamin CaballeroJohns Hopkins UniversityMarylandUSA

EDITORSLindsay AllenUniversity of CaliforniaDavis, CA, USA

Andrew PrenticeLondon School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine

Harvard Medical School

Boston, MA, USA

Johanna T Dwyer

Frances Stern Nutrition Center

Boston, MA, USA

Paul Finglas

Institute of Food Research

Norwich, UK

Terrence Forrester

Tropical Medicine Research Institute

University of the West Indies,

Mona Campus, Kingston, Jamaica

Hedley C FreakeUniversity of ConnecticutStorrs, CT, USA

Catherine GeisslerKing’s College LondonLondon, UK

Susan A JebbMRC Human Nutrition ResearchCambridge, UK

Rachel JohnsonUniversity of VermontBurlington, VT, USA

Janet C KingChildren’s Hospital Oakland Research InstituteOakland, CA, USA

Anura Kurpad

St John’s National Academy of Health SciencesBangalore, India

Kim Fleisher Michaelson

The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University

Frederiksberg, Denmark

Carlos Monteiro

University of Saˆo Paulo

Saˆo Paulo, Brazil

Michele J SadlerMJSR AssociatesAshford, UK

Ricardo UauyLondon School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine

UK and INTA University of Chile, Santiago, Chile

David YorkPennington Biomedical Research CenterBaton Rouge, LA, USA

W hy an encyclopedia? The original Greek word means ‘the circle of arts and sciences essential for aliberal education’, and such a book was intended to embrace all knowledge That was the aim of thefamous Encyclopedie produced by Diderot and d’Alembert in the middle of the 18th century, whichcontributed so much to what has been called the Enlightenment It is recorded that after all the authorshad corrected the proofs of their contributions, the printer secretly cut out whatever he thought might giveoffence to the king, mutilated most of the best articles and burnt the manuscripts! Later, and less controver-sially, the word ‘encyclopedia’ came to be used for an exhaustive repertory of information on some particulardepartment of knowledge It is in this class that the present work falls.

In recent years the scope of Human Nutrition as a scientific discipline has expanded enormously I used tothink of it as an applied subject, relying on the basic sciences of physiology and biochemistry in much thesame way that engineering relies on physics That traditional relationship remains and is fundamental, but thefield is now much wider At one end of the spectrum epidemiological studies and the techniques on whichthey depend have played a major part in establishing the relationships between diet, nutritional status andhealth, and there is greater recognition of the importance of social factors At the other end of the spectrum

we are becoming increasingly aware of the genetic determinants of ways in which the body handles food and

is able to resist adverse influences of the environment Nutritionists are thus beginning to explore themechanisms by which nutrients influence the expression of genes in the knowledge that nutrients areamong the most powerful of all influences on gene expression This has brought nutrition to the centre ofthe new ‘post-genome’ challenge of understanding the effects on human health of gene-environment interactions

In parallel with this widening of the subject there has been an increase in opportunities for training andresearch in nutrition, with new departments and new courses being developed in universities, medical schoolsand schools of public health, along with a greater involvement of schoolchildren and their teachers Publicinterest in nutrition is intense and needs to be guided by sound science Governments are realizing more andmore the role that nutrition plays in the prevention of disease and the maintenance of good health, and theneed to develop a nutrition policy that is integrated with policies for food production

The first edition of the Encyclopaedia of Human Nutrition established it as one of the major referenceworks in our discipline The second edition has been completely revised to take account of new knowledge inour rapidly advancing field This new edition is as comprehensive as the present state of knowledge allows,but is not overly technical and is well supplied with suggestions for further reading All the articles have beencarefully reviewed and although some of the subjects are controversial and sensitive, the publishers have notexerted the kind of political censorship that so infuriated Diderot

J.C WaterlowEmeritus Professor of Human NutritionLondon School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine

February 2005

T he science of human nutrition and its applications to health promotion continue to gain momentum Inthe relatively short time since the release of the first edition of this Encyclopedia, a few landmarkdiscoveries have had a dramatic multiplying effect over nutrition science: the mapping of the human genome,the links between molecular bioenergetics and lifespan, the influence of nutrients on viral mutation, to name

a few

But perhaps the strongest evidence of the importance of nutrition for human health comes from the factthat almost 60% of the diseases that kill humans are related to diet and lifestyle (including smoking andphysical activity) These are all modifiable risk factors As individuals and organizations intensify their efforts

to reduce disease risks, the need for multidisciplinary work becomes more apparent Today, an effectiveresearch or program team is likely to include several professionals from fields other than nutrition For bothnutrition and non-nutrition scientists, keeping up to date on the concepts and interrelationships betweennutrient needs, dietary intake and health outcomes is essential The new edition of the Encyclopedia ofHuman Nutrition hopes to address these needs While rigorously scientific and up to date, EHN providesconcise and easily understandable summaries on a wide variety of topics The nutrition scientist will find thatthe Encyclopedia is an effective tool to ‘‘fill the void’’ of information in areas beyond his/her field ofexpertise Professionals from other fields will appreciate the ease of alphabetical listing of topics, and thepresentation of information in a rigorous but concise way, with generous aid from graphs and diagrams.For a work that involved more than 340 authors requires, coordination and attention to detail is critical.The editors were fortunate to have the support of an excellent team from Elsevier’s Major Reference Worksdivision Sara Gorman and Paula O’Connell initiated the project, and Tracey Mills and Samuel Coleman saw

it to its successful completion

We trust that this Encyclopedia will be a useful addition to the knowledge base of professionals involved inresearch, patient care, and health promotion around the globe

Benjamin Caballero, Lindsay Allen and Andrew Prentice

EditorsApril 2005

Structure of the Encyclopedia

The material in the Encyclopedia is arranged as a series of entries in alphabetical order Most entries consist of severalarticles that deal with various aspects of a topic and are arranged in a logical sequence within an entry Some entriescomprise a single article

To help you realize the full potential of the material in the Encyclopedia we have provided three features to help youfind the topic of your choice: a Contents List, Cross-References and an Index

1 Contents List

Your first point of reference will probably be the contents list The complete contents lists, which appears at the front ofeach volume will provide you with both the volume number and the page number of the entry On the opening page of anentry a contents list is provided so that the full details of the articles within the entry are immediately available.Alternatively you may choose to browse through a volume using the alphabetical order of the entries as your guide Toassist you in identifying your location within the Encyclopedia a running headline indicates the current entry and thecurrent article within that entry

You will find ‘dummy entries’ where obvious synonyms exist for entries or where we have grouped together relatedtopics Dummy entries appear in both the contents lists and the body of the text

Example

If you were attempting to locate material on food intake measurement via the contents list:

FOOD INTAKE see DIETARY INTAKE MEASUREMENT: Methodology; Validation DIETARY SURVEYS MEAL SIZEAND FREQUENCY

The dummy entry directs you to the Methodology article, in The Dietary Intake Measurement entry At the appropriatelocation in the contents list, the page numbers for articles under Dietary Intake Measurement are given

If you were trying to locate the material by browsing through the text and you looked up Food intake then the followinginformation would be provided in the dummy entry:

Food Intake see Dietary Intake Measurement: Methodology; Validation Dietary Surveys Meal Size and Frequency

Alternatively, if you were looking up Dietary Intake Measurement the following information would be provided:

DIETARY INTAKE MEASUREMENT

Contents

Methodology

Validation

2 Cross-References

All of the articles in the Encyclopedia have been extensively cross-referenced

The cross-references, which appear at the end of an article, serve three different functions For example, at the end ofthe ADOLESCENTS/Nutritional Problems article, cross-references are used:

i To indicate if a topic is discussed in greater detail elsewhere

See also: Adolescents: Nutritional Requirements of Adolescents

Anemia: Iron-Deficiency Anemia Calcium: Physiology Eating orders: Anorexia Nervosa; Bulimia Nervosa; Binge Eating Folic Acid:

Dis-Physiology, Dietary Sources, and Requirements Iron: Dis-Physiology, DietarySources, and Requirements Obesity: Definition, Aetiology, andAssessment Osteoporosis: Nutritional Factors Zinc: Physiology

ii To draw the reader’s attention to parallel discussions in other articles

See also: Adolescents: Nutritional Requirements of Adolescents

Anemia: Iron-Deficiency Anemia Calcium: Physiology Eating orders: Anorexia Nervosa; Bulimia Nervosa; Binge Eating Folic Acid:

Dis-Physiology, Dietary Sources, and Requirements Iron: Dis-Physiology, DietarySources, and Requirements Obesity: Definition, Aetiology, andAssessment Osteoporosis: Nutritional Factors Zinc: Physiology

iii To indicate material that broadens the discussion

See also: Adolescents: Nutritional Requirements of Adolescents

Anemia: Iron-Deficiency Anemia Calcium: Physiology Eating orders: Anorexia Nervosa; Bulimia Nervosa; Binge Eating Follic Acid:

Dis-Physiology, Dietary Sources, and Requirements Iron: Dis-Physiology, DietarySources, and Requirements Obesity: Definition, Aetiology, andAssessment Osteoporosis: Nutritional Factors Zinc: Physiology

3 Index

The index will provide you with the page number where the material is located, and the index entries differentiatebetween material that is a whole article, is part of an article or is data presented in a figure or table Detailed notes areprovided on the opening page of the index

4 Contributors

A full list of contributors appears at the beginning of each volume

University of North Carolina

Chapel Hill, NC, USA

A Ahmed

Obetech Obesity Research Center

Richmond, VA, USA

University of California at Davis

Davis, CA, USA

D Anderson

University of Bradford

Bradford, UK

J J B Anderson

University of North Carolina

Chapel Hill, NC, USA

R A Anderson

US Department of Agriculture

Beltsville, MD, USA

L J AppelJohns Hopkins UniversityBaltimore, MD, USA

A Arin˜oUniversity of ZaragozaZaragoza, Spain

M J ArnaudNestle S.A

Vevey, Switzerland

E W AskewUniversity of UtahSalt Lake City, UT, USA

R L AtkinsonObetech Obesity Research CenterRichmond, VA, USA

S A AtkinsonMcMaster UniversityHamilton, ON, Canada

L S A AugustinUniversity of TorontoToronto, ON, Canada

D J Baer

US Department of AgricultureBeltsville, MD, USA

A BaquiJohns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public HealthBaltimore, MD, USA

Y BarnettNottingham Trent UniversityNottingham, UK

G E BartleyAgricultural Research ServiceAlbany, CA, USA

The Hong Kong Polytechnic University

Hong Kong SAR, China

University of California at Davis

Davis, CA, USA

C Boreham

University of Ulster at Jordanstown

Jordanstown, UK

F BrancaIstituto Nazionale di Ricerca per gli Alimenti e la NutrizioneRome, Italy

J Brand-MillerUniversity of SydneySydney, NSW, Australia

A BriendInstitut de Recherche pour le De´veloppementParis, France

P Browne

St James’s HospitalDublin, Ireland

I A BrownleeUniversity of NewcastleNewcastle-upon-Tyne, UK

H BrunnerCentre Hospitalier Universitaire VaudoisLausanne, Switzerland

A J BuckleyUniversity of CambridgeCambridge, UK

H H ButchkoExponent, Inc

Wood Dale, IL, USA

J ButtrissBritish Nutrition FoundationLondon, UK

B CaballeroJohns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health andJohns Hopkins University

Baltimore, MD, USA

E A CarreyInstitute of Child HealthLondon, UK

A CassidySchool of MedicineUniversity of East AngliaNorwich, UK

G E CaugheyRoyal Adelaide HospitalAdelaide, SA, Australia

J P Cegielski

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

Atlanta, GA, USA

C M Champagne

Pennington Biomedical Research Center

Baton Rouge, LA, USA

Royal Adelaide Hospital

Adelaide, SA, Australia

L Cobiac

CSIRO Health Sciences and Nutrition

Adelaide, SA, Australia

G A Colditz

Harvard Medical School

Boston, MA, USA

T J Cole

Institute of Child Health

London, UK

L A Coleman

Marshfield Clinic Research Foundation

Marshfield, WI, USA

S Collier

Children’s Hospital, Boston, Harvard Medical School,

and Harvard School of Public Health

Boston, MA, USA

Children’s Hospital Boston

Boston, MA, USA

R C CottrellThe Sugar BureauLondon, UK

W A CowardMRC Human Nutrition ResearchCambridge, UK

J M CoxJohns Hopkins HospitalBaltimore, MD, USA

S CoxLondon School of Hygiene and Tropical MedicineLondon, UK

P D’AcapitoIstituto Nazionale di Ricerca per gli Alimenti e la NutrizioneRome, Italy

S DaniellVanderbilt Center for Human NutritionNashville, TN, USA

O DaryThe MOST ProjectArlington, VA, USA

T J DavidUniversity of ManchesterManchester, UK

C P G M de GrootWageningen UniversityWageningen, The Netherlands

M de OnisWorld Health OrganizationGeneva, Switzerland

M C de SouzaUniversidad de Mogi das CruzesSa˜o Paulo, Brazil

R de SouzaUniversity of TorontoToronto, ON, Canada

C H C DejongUniversity Hospital MaastrichtMaastricht, The Netherlands

L DemeshlairaEmory UniversityAtlanta, GA, USA

K G Dewey

University of California at Davis

Davis, CA, USA

Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Harvard Medical School

Boston, MA, USA

J Eaton–EvansUniversity of UlsterColeraine, UK

C A EdwardsUniversity of GlasgowGlasgow, UK

M EliaUniversity of SouthamptonSouthampton, UK

P W EmeryKing’s College LondonLondon, UK

J L EnsunsaUniversity of California at DavisDavis, CA, USA

C Feillet-CoudrayNational Institute for Agricultural ResearchClermont-Ferrand, France

J D FernstromUniversity of PittsburghPittsburgh, PA, USA

M H FernstromUniversity of PittsburghPittsburgh, PA, USA

F FidanzaUniversity of Rome Tor VergataRome, Italy

P FieldhouseThe University of ManitobaWinnipeg, MB, Canada

N FinerLuton and Dunstable Hospital NHS TrustLuton, UK

J FioreUniversity of WestminsterLondon, UK

Harvard Center for Population and Development Studies

Cambridge, MA, USA

Applied Nutrition Inc

New York, NY, USA

C Geissler

King’s College London

London, UK

M E Gershwin

University of California at Davis

Davis, CA, USA

J M GrahamUniversity of California at DavisDavis, CA, USA

J GrayGuildford, UK

J P GreavesLondon, UK

M W GreenAston UniversityBirmingham, UK

R GreenUniversity of CaliforniaDavis, CA, USA

R F GrimbleUniversity of SouthamptonSouthampton, UK

M GrønbækNational Institute of Public HealthCopenhagen, Denmark

J D GroopmanJohns Hopkins UniversityBaltimore MD, USA

S M GrundyUniversity of Texas Southwestern Medical CenterDallas, TX, USA

M A GrusakBaylor College of MedicineHouston, TX, USA

M GueimondeUniversity of TurkuTurku, Finland

C S GulottaJohns Hopkins University and KennedyKrieger Institute

Baltimore, MD, USA

P HaggartyRowett Research InstituteAberdeen, UK

J C G Halford

University of Liverpool

Liverpool, UK

C H Halsted

University of California at Davis

Davis, CA, USA

J Hampsey

Johns Hopkins School of Medicine

Baltimore, MD, USA

E D Harris

Texas A&M University

College Station, TX, USA

Z L Harris

Johns Hopkins Hospital and School of Medicine

Baltimore, MD, USA

P J Havel

University of California at Davis

Davis, CA, USA

W W Hay Jr

University of Colorado Health Sciences Center

Aurora, CO, USA

Women’s and Children’s Hospital

North Adelaide, SA, Australia

M F HolickBoston University Medical CenterBoston, MA, USA

C HotzNational Institute of Public HealthMorelos, Mexico

R HoustonEmory UniversityAtlanta, GA, USA

H-Y HuangJohns Hopkins UniversityBaltimore, MD, USA

J R HuntUSDA-ARS Grand Forks Human Nutrition Research CenterGrand Forks, ND, USA

R HunterKing’s College LondonLondon, UK

P HylandNottingham Trent UniversityNottingham, UK

B K IshidaAgricultural Research ServiceAlbany, CA, USA

J JacquetUniversity of GenevaGeneva, Switzerland

M J JamesRoyal Adelaide HospitalAdelaide, SA, Australia

W P T JamesInternational Association for the Study of Obesity/International Obesity Task Force OfficesLondon, UK

A G JardineUniversity of GlasgowGlasgow, UK

S A JebbMRC Human Nutrition ResearchCambridge, UK

Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine and Mount

Washington Pediatric Hospital

Baltimore, MD, USA

C L Keen

University of California at Davis

Davis, CA, USA

N L Keim

US Department of Agriculture

Davis, CA, USA

E Kelly

Harvard Medical School

Boston, MA, USA

S F L KirkUniversity of LeedsLeeds, UK

P N KirkeThe Health Research BoardDublin, Ireland

G L KleinUniversity of Texas Medical Branch at GalvestonGalveston TX, USA

R D W KlemmJohns Hopkins UniversityBaltimore, MD, USA

D M Klurfeld

US Department of AgricultureBeltville, MD, USA

P G KopelmanQueen Mary’s, University of LondonLondon, UK

J KrickKennedy–Krieger InstituteBaltimore, MD, USA

D KritchevskyWistar InstitutePhiladelphia, PA, USA

R LangUniversity of TeesideMiddlesbrough, UK

A LaurentinUniversidad Central de VenezuelaCaracas, Venezuela

A LavertyMuckamore Abbey HospitalAntrim, UK

M LawsonInstitute of Child HealthLondon, UK

F E LeahyUniversity of AucklandAuckland, New Zealand

Children’s Hospital, Boston, Harvard Medical School, and

Harvard School of Public Health

Boston, MA, USA

P A Lofgren

Oak Park, IL, USA

B Lo¨ nnerdal

University of California at Davis

Davis, CA, USA

M J Luetkemeier

Alma College

Alma, MI, USA

Y C Luiking

University Hospital Maastricht

Maastricht, The Netherlands

M D MarcusUniversity of PittsburghPittsburgh, PA, USA

E MariettaThe Mayo Clinic College of MedicineRochester, MN, USA

P B MarkUniversity of GlasgowGlasgow, UK

V MarksUniversity of SurreyGuildford, UK

D L MarsdenChildren’s Hospital BostonBoston, MA, USA

R J MaughanLoughborough UniversityLoughborough, UK

K C McCowenBeth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and HarvardMedical School

Boston, MA, USA

S S McDonaldRaleigh, NC, USA

S McLarenLondon South Bank UniversityLondon, UK

J L McManamanUniversity of ColoradoDenver, CO, USA

D N McMurrayTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, TX, USA

D J McNamaraEgg Nutrition CenterWashington, DC, USA

J McPartlinTrinity CollegeDublin, Ireland

UC Davis Medical Center

Sacramento, CA, USA

University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences

Little Rock, AR, USA

N Moore

John Hopkins School of Medicine

Baltimore, MD, USA

J O Mora

The MOST Project

Arlington, VA, USA

T Morgan

University of Melbourne

Melbourne, VIC, Australia

T A Mori

University of Western Australia

Perth, WA, Australia

J MurrayThe Mayo Clinic College of MedicineRochester, MN, USA

R NalubolaCenter for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition,

US Food and Drug Administration, MD, USA

J L NapoliUniversity of CaliforniaBerkeley, CA, USA

V NehraThe Mayo Clinic College of MedicineRochester, MN, USA

B NejadnikJohns Hopkins UniversityBaltimore, MD, USA

M NelsonKing’s College LondonLondon, UK

P NestelInternational Food Policy Research InstituteWashington, DC, USA

L M NeufeldNational Institute of Public HealthCuernavaca, Mexico

M C NevilleUniversity of ColoradoDenver, CO, USA

F NielsenGrand Forks Human Nutrition Research CenterGrand Forks, ND, USA

N NoahLondon School of Hygiene and Tropical MedicineLondon, UK

K O O’BrienJohns Hopkins UniversityBaltimore, MD, USA

S H OhJohns Hopkins General Clinical Research CenterBaltimore, MD, USA

University of North Carolina

Chapel Hill, NC, USA

V PreedyKing’s College LondonLondon, UK

N D PriestMiddlesex UniversityLondon, UK

R RajendramKing’s College LondonLondon, UK

A RamanUniversity of Wisconsin–MadisonMadison, WI, USA

H A RaynorBrown UniversityProvidence, RI, USA

Y RayssiguierNational Institute for Agricultural ResearchClermont-Ferrand, France

L N RichardsonUnited Nations World Food ProgrammeRome, Italy

F J RohrChildren’s Hospital BostonBoston, MA, USA

A R RollaHarvard Medical SchoolBoston, MA, USA

P Roncale´sUniversity of ZaragozaZaragoza, Spain

A C RossThe Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, PA, USA

R RoubenoffMillennium Pharmaceuticals, Inc

Cambridge, MA, USA and Tufts UniversityBoston, MA, USA

University of California at Davis

Davis, CA, USA

National Institute of Medical Sciences and Nutrition

Salvador Zubira´n, Tlalpan, Mexico

University of California at Davis

Davis, CA, USA

D A SchoellerUniversity of Wisconsin–MadisonMadison, WI, USA

L SchuberthKennedy Krieger InstituteBaltimore, MD, USA

K J SchulzeJohns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public HealthBaltimore, MD, USA

Y SchutzUniversity of LausanneLausanne, Switzerland

K B SchwarzJohns Hopkins School of MedicineBaltimore, MD, USA

J M ScottTrinity College DublinDublin, Ireland

C ShawRoyal Marsden NHS Foundation TrustLondon, UK

J ShedlockJohns Hopkins Hospital and School of MedicineBaltimore, MD, USA

S M ShirreffsLoughborough UniversityLoughborough, UK

R ShrimptonInstitute of Child HealthLondon, UK

H A SimmondsGuy’s HospitalLondon, UK

A P SimopoulosThe Center for Genetics, Nutrition and HealthWashington, DC, USA

R J SmithBrown Medical SchoolProvidence, RI, USA

P B SoetersUniversity Hospital MaastrichtMaastricht, The Netherlands

All India Institute of Medical Sciences

New Delhi, India

S Stanner

British Nutrition Foundation

London, UK

J Stevens

University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

Chapel Hill, NC, USA

University of Colorado at Colorado

Colorado Springs, CO, USA

Harbor–UCLA Medical Center

Torrance, CA, USA

E H M Temme

University of Leuven

Leuven, Belgium

H S ThesmarEgg Nutrition CenterWashington, DC, USA

B M ThomsonRowett Research InstituteAberdeen, UK

D I ThurnhamUniversity of UlsterColeraine, UK

L TolentinoNational Institute of Public HealthCuernavaca, Mexico

D L ToppingCSIRO Health Sciences and NutritionAdelaide, SA, Australia

B TorunCenter for Research and Teaching in LatinAmerica (CIDAL)

Guatemala City, Guatemala

M G TraberOregon State UniversityCorvallis, OR, USA

T R TrinickUlster HospitalBelfast, UK

K P TruesdaleUniversity of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel Hill, NC, USA

N M F TrugoUniversidade Federal do Rio de JaneiroRio de Janeiro, Brazil

P M TsaiHarvard Medical SchoolBoston, MA, USA

K L TuckerTufts UniversityBoston, MA, USA

O Tully

St Vincent’s University HospitalDublin, Ireland

E C UchegbuRoyal Hallamshire HospitalSheffield, UK

M C G van de Poll

University Hospital Maastricht

Maastricht, The Netherlands

Kennedy Krieger Institute and Johns Hopkins

University School of Medicine

C K WinterUniversity of California at DavisDavis, CA, USA

H WisemanKing’s College LondonLondon, UK

M WolraichVanderbilt UniversityNashville, TN, USA

R J WoodTufts UniversityBoston, MA, USA

X XuJohns Hopkins Hospital and School of MedicineBaltimore, MD, USA

Z YangUniversity of Wisconsin-MadisonMadison, WI, USA

A A YatesENVIRON Health SciencesArlington, VA, USA

S H ZeiselUniversity of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel Hill, NC, USA

X ZhuUniversity of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel Hill, NC, USA

S Zidenberg-CherrUniversity of California at DavisDavis, CA, USA

T R ZieglerEmory UniversityAtlanta, GA, USA

VOLUME 1 A

ACIDS see ELECTROLYTES: Acid-Base Balance

ADIPOSE TISSUE G Fru¨hbeck and J Go´mez-Ambrosi 1ADOLESCENTS

Nutritional Requirements C H S Ruxton and J Fiore 15

Diet and Antioxidant Defense I F F Benzie and J J Strain 117

APPETITE

Physiological and Neurobiological Aspects J C G Halford and J E Blundell 147Psychobiological and Behavioral Aspects R J Stubbs, S Whybrow and J E Blundell 154ARTHRITIS L A Coleman and R Roubenoff 163ASCORBIC ACID

Physiology, Dietary Sources and Requirements D A Bender 169

ATHEROSCLEROSIS see CHOLESTEROL: Sources, Absorption, Function and Metabolism CORONARY

HEART DISEASE: Prevention

B VITAMINS see COBALAMINS NIACIN PANTOTHENIC ACID RIBOFLAVIN THIAMIN: Physiology;

Beriberi VITAMIN B6

BACTERIA see INFECTION: Nutritional Interactions; Nutritional Management in Adults

BASES see ELECTROLYTES: Acid-Base Balance

BEER see ALCOHOL: Absorption, Metabolism and Physiological Effects; Disease Risk and Beneficial Effects;

Effects of Consumption on Diet and Nutritional Status

BERIBERI see THIAMIN: Beriberi

BEVERAGES see ALCOHOL: Absorption, Metabolism and Physiological Effects; Disease Risk and Beneficial

Effects; Effects of Consumption on Diet and Nutritional Status TEA

BLOOD LIPIDS/FATS see HYPERLIPIDEMIA: Overview LIPOPROTEINS

BLOOD PRESSURE see HYPERTENSION: Etiology

BODY COMPOSITION D Gallagher and S Chung 210

BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM J D Fernstrom and M H Fernstrom 225

C

CALORIES see ENERGY: Balance; Requirements ENERGY EXPENDITURE: Indirect Calorimetry; Doubly

Labeled Water

CANCER

Epidemiology and Associations Between Diet and Cancer G A Colditz 260Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Cancers Other Than Colorectal Cancers H-Y Huang 266Epidemiology of Lung Cancer A J Alberg and J M Samet 272

Effects on Nutritional Status C Shaw 289Carcinogenic Substances in Food D Anderson and J C Phillips 295CARBOHYDRATES

Chemistry and Classification C L Stylianopoulos 303Regulation of Metabolism C L Stylianopoulos 309Requirements and Dietary Importance C L Stylianopoulos 316Resistant Starch and Oligosaccharides A Laurentin and C A Edwards 322CARCINOGENS see CANCER: Carcinogenic Substances in Food

CAROTENOIDS

Chemistry, Sources and Physiology B K Ishida and G E Bartley 330Epidemiology of Health Effects S A Tanumihardjo and Z Yang 339

CHEESE see DAIRY PRODUCTS

CHILDREN

CHOLECALCIFEROL see VITAMIN D: Physiology, Dietary Sources and Requirements; Rickets and

Osteomalacia

CHOLESTEROL

Sources, Absorption, Function and Metabolism D J McNamara 379Factors Determining Blood Levels S M Grundy 385CHOLINE AND PHOSPHATIDYLCHOLINE X Zhu and S H Zeisel 392

Nutritional Management of Disorders D M Klurfeld 460

COPPER X Xu, S Pin, J Shedlock and Z L Harris 471CORONARY HEART DISEASE

CYSTIC FIBROSIS J Dowsett and O Tully 494

D

DEHYDRATION A W Subudhi, E W Askew and M J Luetkemeier 518

DIABETES MELLITUS

Etiology and Epidemiology J Sudagani and G A Hitman 535Classification and Chemical Pathology K C McCowen and R J Smith 543Dietary Management C D Saudek and S H Oh 551DIARRHEAL DISEASES A Baqui, R Heinzen, M Santosham and R Black 565DIETARY FIBER

Physiological Effects and Effects on Absorption I T Johnson 572Potential Role in Etiology of Disease D L Topping and L Cobiac 578Role in Nutritional Management of Disease A R Leeds 586

DIETETICS P A Judd 32DIGESTIBILITY see BIOAVAILABILITY

E

EARLY ORIGINS OF DISEASE

EATING BEHAVIOR see MEAL SIZE AND FREQUENCY

EATING DISORDERS

Bulimia Nervosa A J Hill and S F L Kirk 74Binge Eating M D Marcus, M A Kalarchian and M D Levine 80

EICOSANOIDS see PROSTAGLANDINS AND LEUKOTRIENES

ELECTROLYTES

Acid-Base Balance A G Jardine and P B Mark 93Water–Electrolyte Balance S M Shirreffs and R J Maughan 100ENERGY

Indirect Calorimetry A Raman and D A Schoeller 139

EXERCISE

Beneficial Effects C Boreham and M H Murphy 154

F

FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS see VITAMIN A: Biochemistry and Physiological Role VITAMIN D: Physiology,

Dietary Sources and Requirements; Rickets and Osteomalacia VITAMIN E: Metabolism and

Requirements VITAMIN K

FAT STORES see ADIPOSE TISSUE

FATS see FATTY ACIDS: Metabolism; Monounsaturated; Omega-3 Polyunsaturated; Omega-6

Polyunsaturated; Saturated; Trans Fatty Acids LIPIDS: Chemistry and Classification; Composition and

FERTILITY R E Frisch 237FETAL ORIGINS OF DISEASE see EARLY ORIGINS OF DISEASE: Fetal; Non-Fetal

FIBER see DIETARY FIBER: Physiological Effects and Effects on Absorption; Potential Role in Etiology of

Disease; Role in Nutritional Management of Disease

FISH A Arin˜o, J A Beltra´n, A Herrera and P Roncale´s 247FLAVONOIDS see PHYTOCHEMICALS: Classification and Occurrence; Epidemiological Factors

FOLATE see FOLIC ACID

FOOD ALLERGIES

FOOD CHOICE, INFLUENCING FACTORS A K Draper 277

FOOD FORTIFICATION

Developing Countries O Dary and J O Mora 302FOOD INTAKE see DIETARY INTAKE MEASUREMENT: Methodology; Validation DIETARY SURVEYS

MEAL SIZE AND FREQUENCY

FOOD SAFETY

Mycotoxins J D Groopman and T W Kensler 317

FORTIFICATION see FOOD FORTIFICATION: Developed Countries; Developing Countries

Nutrition-Related Problems; Nutritional Management of Geriatric Patients

GLUCOSE

Chemistry and Dietary Sources D J A Jenkins, R de Souza, L S A Augustin and C W C Kendall 390Metabolism and Maintenance of Blood Glucose Level V Marks 398

GLYCEMIC INDEX G Frost and A Dornhorst 413GOITRE see IODINE: Deficiency Disorders

GRAINS see CEREAL GRAINS

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT, PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS W W Hay Jr 423

GROWTH MONITORING T J Cole 433GUT FLORA see MICROBIOTA OF THE INTESTINE: Probiotics; Prebiotics

H

HANDICAP

Down’s Syndrome M Collins and A Laverty 443

HEART DISEASE see CORONARY HEART DISEASE: Hemostatic Factors; Lipid Theory;

Nutritional Management A H Lichtenstein 491HYPERTENSION

Nutritional Management C M Champagne 513

VOLUME 3 I

IMMUNE SYSTEM see IMMUNITY: Physiological Aspects; Effects of Iron and Zinc

IMMUNITY

Physiological Aspects A T Borchers, C L Keen and M E Gershwin 1

INBORN ERRORS OF METABOLISM

Classification and Biochemical Aspects D L Marsden 13Nutritional Management of Phenylketonuria D L Marsden, F J Rohr and K C Costas 22INFANTS

Nutritional Requirements S A Atkinson 28Feeding Problems R M Katz, L Schuberth and C S Gulotta 42INFECTION

Nutritional Management in Adults J A Tayek 54INTESTINE see SMALL INTESTINE: Structure and Function; Disorders; MICROBIOTA OF THE INTESTINE:

Probiotics; Prebiotics

IODINE

Physiology, Dietary Sources and Requirements R Houston 66

ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE see CORONARY HEART DISEASE: Lipid Theory

Causes, Prevalence and Prevention M Merialdi and M de Onis 161

LYCOPENES AND RELATED COMPOUNDS C J Bates 184

M

MAGNESIUM C Feillet-Coudray and Y Rayssiguier 191MALABSORPTION SYNDROMES P M Tsai and C Duggan 196MALNUTRITION

Primary, Causes Epidemiology and Prevention A Briend and P Nestel 203Secondary, Diagnosis and Management N Solomons 212MANGANESE C L Keen, J L Ensunsa, B Lo¨nnerdal and S Zidenberg-Cherr 217

MEAT, POULTRY AND MEAT PRODUCTS P A Lofgren 230MENKES SYNDROME see COPPER

MICROBIOTA OF THE INTESTINE

Probiotics M Gueimonde and S Salminen 244MILK see DAIRY PRODUCTS

MINERALS see CALCIUM MAGNESIUM PHOSPHORUS POTASSIUM SODIUM: Physiology

MOLYBDENUM see ULTRATRACE ELEMENTS

MONOSATURATED FAT see FATTY ACIDS: Monounsaturated

MYCOTOXINS see FOOD SAFETY: Mycotoxins

N

NITROGEN see AMINO ACIDS: Chemistry and Classification; Metabolism PROTEIN: Digestion and

Bioavailability; Quality and Sources; Requirements and Role in Diet; Deficiency

NUCLEIC ACIDS E A Carrey and H A Simmonds 260

NUTRIENT–GENE INTERACTIONS

Molecular Aspects C D Berdanier and H C Freake 269Health Implications C D Berdanier and H C Freake 276NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS, INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES A A Yates 282NUTRITION POLICIES IN DEVELOPING AND DEVELOPED COUNTRIES C Geissler 293NUTRITION TRANSITION, DIET CHANGE AND ITS IMPLICATIONS B M Popkin 301NUTRITIONAL ASSESSMENT

NUTRITIONAL SUPPORT

In the Home Setting M Elia and R J Stratton 332

Adults, Parenteral J Binkley, S Daniell and G L Jensen 349Infants and Children, Parenteral S Collier and C Lo 357NUTRITIONAL SURVEILLANCE

Developing Countries L M Neufeld and L Tolentino 371

O

OBESITY

Definition, Etiology and Assessment A Pietrobelli 389Fat Distribution J Stevens and K P Truesdale 392

Complications A Ahmed and R L Atkinson 406

Treatment E C Uchegbu and P G Kopelman 421OILS see FATS AND OILS

OLDER PEOPLE

Nutrition-Related Problems C P G M de Groot and W A van Staveren 444Nutritional Management of Geriatric Patients M-M G Wilson and J E Morley 449OSTEOMALACIA see VITAMIN D: Rickets and Osteomalacia

PESTICIDES see FOOD SAFETY: Pesticides

PHENYLKETONURIA see INBORN ERRORS OF METABOLISM: Nutritional Management of Phenylketonuria

PHOSPHATE see SMALL INTESTINE: Structure and Function

PHYSICAL ACTIVITY see EXERCISE: Beneficial Effects; Diet and Exercise

PHYTOCHEMICALS

Classification and Occurrence A Cassidy 490

PHYTO-ESTROGENS see PHYTOCHEMICALS: Classification and Occurrence;

Role of Placenta in Nutrient Transfer P Haggarty 513

Energy Requirements and Metabolic Adaptations G R Goldberg 528Weight Gain L H Allen and J M Graham 533

VOLUME 4

PREGNANCY

Dietary Guidelines and Safe Supplement Use L H Allen, J M Graham and J E Sabel 8Prevention of Neural Tube Defects P N Kirke and J M Scott 15Pre-eclampsia and Diet E Abalos and J Villar 27PREMENSTRUAL SYNDROME M C de Souza and Ann F Walker 35PROSTAGLANDINS AND LEUKOTRIENES G E Caughey, M J James and L G Cleland 42PROTEIN

Requirements and Role in Diet D J Millward 58Digestion and Bioavailability Z A Bhutta 66

PULSES see LEGUMES

PYRIDOXINE see VITAMIN B6

R

RELIGIOUS CUSTOMS, INFLUENCE ON DIET P Fieldhouse 93RESPIRATORY DISEASES see CANCER: Epidemiology of Lung Cancer LUNG DISEASES

RETINOL see VITAMIN A: Biochemistry and Physiological Role; Deficiency and Interventions

RICKETS see VITAMIN D: Rickets and Osteomalacia

ROUGHAGE see DIETARY FIBER: Physiological Effects and Effects on Absorption; Potential Role in Etiology

of Disease; Role in Nutritional Management of Disease

S

SALT see SODIUM: Physiology; Salt Intake and Health

SATIETY see APPETITE: Physiological and Neurobiological Aspects

SATURATED FAT see FATTY ACIDS: Saturated

SEEDS see NUTS AND SEEDS

SENESCENCE see AGING

SKINFOLD THICKNESS see NUTRITIONAL ASSESSMENT: Anthropometry

SMALL INTESTINE

Disorders R D’Souza and J Powell-Tuck 133

SODIUM

Salt Intake and Health C P Sa´nchez-Castillo and W P T James 154SODIUM CHLORIDE see SODIUM: Salt Intake and Health

SPIRITS see ALCOHOL: Absorption, Metabolism and Physiological Effects; Disease Risk and Beneficial

Effects; Effects of Consumption on Diet and Nutritional Status

STARCH see CARBOHYDRATES: Chemistry and Classification; Regulation of Metabolism; Requirements

and Dietary Importance; Resistant Starch and Oligosaccharides

STARVATION AND FASTING J E Bines and R G Heine 173STOMACH

Structure and Function J P Pearson and I A Brownlee 180

Dietary Importance; GALACTOSE GLUCOSE: Chemistry and Dietary Sources; Metabolism and

Maintenance of Blood Glucose Level; Glucose Tolerance SUCROSE: Nutritional Role, Absorption and

Metabolism; Dietary Sucrose and Disease

SUPPLEMENTATION

Role of Micronutrient Supplementation R D W Klemm 220

Developed Countries M F Picciano and S S McDonald 233SURGERY

Long-term Nutritional Management E Lin and T R Ziegler 246

T

TEETH see DENTAL DISEASE

THIAMIN

THIRST J Leiper 278TOCOPHEROL see VITAMIN E: Metabolism and Requirements; Physiology and Health Effects

TRACE ELEMENTS see CHROMIUM COPPER IMMUNITY: Effects of Iron and Zinc IODINE:

Physiology, Dietary Sources and Requirements IRON MANGANESE SELENIUM ZINC:

Gastrointestinal Cancers Other Than Colorectal Cancers; Epidemiology of Lung Cancer

U

UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND J P Greaves and R Shrimpton 311

V

VEGAN DIETS see VEGETARIAN DIETS

VEGETABLES see FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

VITAMIN A

Biochemistry and Physiological Role J L Napoli 339Deficiency and Interventions K P West Jr 348VITAMIN B1see THIAMIN: Physiology; Beriberi

VITAMIN B2see RIBOFLAVIN

VITAMIN B12see COBALAMINS

VITAMIN C see ASCORBIC ACID: Physiology, Dietary Sources and Requirements; Deficiency States

VITAMIN D

Physiology, Dietary Sources and Requirements M F Holick 368Rickets and Osteomalacia J J B Anderson 378VITAMIN E

Metabolism and Requirements M G Traber 383Physiology and Health Effects P A Morrissey and M Kiely 389

Weight Maintenance H A Raynor and R R Wing 413

WILSON’S DISEASE see COPPER

WINE see ALCOHOL: Absorption, Metabolism and Physiological Effects; Disease Risk and Beneficial Effects;

Effects of Consumption on Diet and Nutritional Status

Y

YOGURT see DAIRY PRODUCTS FUNCTIONAL FOODS: Health Effects and Clinical Applications;

MICROBIOTA OF THE INTESTINE: Probiotics; Prebiotics

Acids see Electrolytes: Acid-Base Balance

ADIPOSE TISSUE

G Fru¨ hbeck and J Go´ mez-Ambrosi, Universidad de

Navarra, Pamplona, Spain

ª 2005 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved.

Introduction

The role of white adipose tissue (WAT) in storing

and releasing lipids for oxidation by skeletal muscle

and other tissues became so firmly established

decades ago that a persistent lack of interest hindered

the study of the extraordinarily dynamic behavior

of adipocytes However, disentangling the

neuro-endocrine systems that regulate energy homeostasis

and adiposity has jumped to a first-priority

chal-lenge, with the recognition of obesity as one of the

major public health problems Strictly speaking,

obesity is not defined as an excess of body weight

but as an increased adipose tissue accretion, to the

extent that health may be adversely affected

There-fore, in the last decades, adipose tissue has become

the research focus of biomedical scientists for

epide-miological, pathophysiological, and molecular

reasons Although the primary role of adipocytes is

to store triglycerides during periods of caloric excess

and to mobilize this reserve when expenditure

exceeds intake, it is now widely recognized that

adipose tissue lies at the heart of a complex network

that participates in the regulation of a variety of

quite diverse biological functions (Figure 1)

Development

Adipose tissue develops extensively in

home-otherms with the proportion to body weight

varying greatly among species Adipocytes entiate from stellate or fusiform precursor cells ofmesenchymal origin There are two processes ofadipose tissue formation In the primary fat for-mation, which takes place relatively early (inhuman fetuses the first traces of a fat organ aredetectable between the 14th and 16th weeks ofprenatal life), gland-like aggregations of epithe-loid precursor cells, called lipoblasts orpreadipocytes, are laid down in specific locationsand accumulate multiple lipid droplets becomingbrown adipocytes The secondary fat formationtakes place later in fetal life (after the 23rd week

differ-of gestation) as well as in the early postnatalperiod, whereby the differentiation of otherfusiform precursor cells that accumulate lipid toultimately coalesce into a single large drop percell leads to the dissemination of fat depotsformed by unilocular white adipocytes in manyareas of connective tissue Adipose tissue may bepartitioned by connective tissue septa intolobules The number of fat lobules remains con-stant, while in the subsequent developmentalphases the lobules continuously increase in size

At the sites of early fat development, a cular morphology of adipocytes predominates,reflecting the early developmental stage Micro-scopic studies have shown that the second trime-ster may be a critical period for the development

multilo-of obesity in later life At the beginning multilo-of thethird trimester, adipocytes are present in the mainfat depots but are still relatively small Duringembryonic development it is important to empha-size the temporospacial tight coordination ofangiogenesis with the formation of fat cellclusters At birth, body fat has been reported to