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Tổng hợp đề thi IELTS Reading Test Practice with Answer PDF

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Reading 1

Reading Passage has four sections A-D

Choose the correct heading for the each section from the list of headings below Write the

correct number i-vi in boxes 1-4 on your answer sheet

List of Headings

i Causes of volcanic eruption

ii Efforts to predict volcanic eruption iii Volcanoes and the features of our planet

iv Different types of volcanic eruption

v International relief efforts

vi The unpredictability of volcanic eruption

1 Section A

2 Section B

3 Section C

4 Section D

Volcanoes - earth-shattering news

When Mount Pinatubo suddenly erupted on 9 June 1991, the power of volcanoes past and present again hit the headlines

A Volcanoes are the ultimate earth-moving machinery A violent eruption can blow the top

fewkilometres off a mountain, scatter fine ash practically all over the globe and hurt rock fragments into the stratosphere to darken the skies a continent away

But the classic eruption - cone-shaped mountain, big bang, mushroom cloud and surges of molten lava - is only a tiny part of a global story Volcanism, the name given to volcanic processes, really has shaped the world Eruptions have rifted continents, raised mountain chains, constructed islands and shaped the topography of the earth The entire ocean floor has

a basement of volcanic basalt

Volcanoes have not only made the continents, they are also thought to have made the world’s first stable atmosphere and provided all the water for the oceans, rivers and ice-caps There are now about 600 active volcanoes Every year they add two or three cubic kilometres of rock to the continents Imagine a similar number of volcanoes smoking away for the last 3,500 million years That is enough rock to explain the continental crust

What comes out of volcanic craters is mostly gas More than 90% of this gas is water vapour from the deep earth: enough to explain, over 3,500 million years, the water in the oceans The rest of the gas is nitrogen, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, methane, ammonia and hydrogen The quantity of these gases, again multiplied over 3,500 million years, is enough to explain the mass of the world’s atmosphere We are alive because volcanoes provided the soil, air and water

we need

B Geologists consider the earth as having a molten core, surrounded by a semi-molten mantle

and a brittle, outer skin It helps to think of a soft-boiled egg with a runny yolk, a firm but squishy white and a hard shell If the shell is even slightly cracked during boiling, the white material bubbles out and sets like a tiny mountain chain over the crack - like an archipelago of volcanic islands such as the Hawaiian Islands But the earth is so much bigger and the mantle below is so much halter

Even though the mantle rocks are kept solid by overlying pressure, they can still slowly ‘flow’ like thick treacle The flow, thought to be in the form of convection currents, is powerful enough

to fracture the ‘eggshell’ of the crust into plates, and keep them bumping and grinding against each other, or even overlapping, at the rate of a few centimetres a year These fracture zones, where the collisions occur, are where earthquakes happen And, very often, volcanoes

C These zones are lines of weakness, or hot spots Every eruption is different, but put at its

simplest, where there are weaknesses, rocks deep in the mantle, heated to 1,350oC, will start

to expand and rise As they do so, the pressure drops, and they expand and become liquid and rise

more swiftly

Sometimes it is slow: vast bubbles of magma - molten rock from the mantle - inch towards the surface, cooling slowly, to show through as granite extrusions (as on Skye, or the Great Whin Sill, the lava dyke squeezed out like toothpaste that carries part of Hadrian’s Wall in northern England) Sometimes - as in Northern Ireland, Wales and the Karoo in South Africa - the magma rose faster, and then flowed out horizontally on to the surface in vast thick sheets In the Deccan plateau in western India, there are more than two million cubic kilometres of lava, some of it 2,400 metres thick, formed over 500,000 years of slurping eruption

Sometimes the magma moves very swiftly indeed It does not have time to cool as it surges upwards The gases trapped inside the boiling rock expand suddenly, the lava glows with heat,

it begins to froth, and it explodes with tremendous force Then the slightly cooler lava following

it begins to flow over the lip of the crater It happens on Mars, it happened on the moon, it even happens on some of the moons of Jupiter and Uranus By studying the evidence, vulcanologists can read the force of the great blasts of the past Is the pumice light and full of holes? The explosion was tremendous Are the rocks heavy, with huge crystalline basalt shapes, like the Giant’s Causeway in Northern Ireland? It was a slow, gentle eruption

The biggest eruption are deep on the mid-ocean floor, where new lava is forcing the continents apart and widening the Atlantic by perhaps five centimetres a year Look at maps of volcanoes, earthquakes and island chains like the Philippines and Japan, and you can see the rough outlines

of what are called tectonic plates - the plates which make up the earth’s crust and mantle The most dramatic of these is the Pacific ‘ring of fire’ where there have the most violent explosions

- Mount Pinatubo near Manila, Mount St Helen’s in the Rockies and El Chichón in Mexico about

a decade ago, not to mention world-shaking blasts like Krakatoa in the Sunda Straits in 1883

D But volcanoes are not very predictable That is because geological time is not like human time

During quiet periods, volcanoes cap themselves with their own lava by forming a powerful cone from the molten rocks slopping over the rim of the crater; later the lava cools slowly into a huge, hard, stable plug which blocks any further eruption until the pressure below becomes irresistible In the case of Mount Pinatubo, this took 600 years

Then, sometimes, with only a small warning, the mountain blows its top It did this at Mont

Pelée in Martinique at 7.49 a.m on 8 May, 1902 Of a town of 28,000, only two people survived

In 1815, a sudden blast removed the top 1,280 metres of Mount Tambora in Indonesia The eruption was so fierce that dust thrown into the stratosphere darkened the skies, canceling the following summer in Europe and North America Thousands starved as the harvest failed, after snow in June and frosts in August Volcanoes are potentially world news, especially the quiet ones

Questions 5-9

Answer the questions below using NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS AND/ OR A NUMBER from

the passage for each answer

Write your answers in boxes 5-9 on your answer sheet

5 What are the sections of the earth’s crust, often associated with volcanic activity, called?

6 What is the name given to molten rock from the mantle?

7 What is the earthquake zone on the Pacific Ocean called?

8 For how many years did Mount Pinatubo remain inactive?

Questions 9-13

Complete the summary below Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer

Write your answers in boxes 9-13 on your answer sheets

Volcanic eruptions have shaped the earth’s land surface They may also have produced the world’s atmosphere and 9 Eruptions occur when molten rocks from the earth’s mantle

rise and expand When they become liquid, they move more quickly through cracks in the surface There are different types of eruption Sometimes the 10 moves slowly and forms outcrops of granite on the earth’s surface When it moves more quickly it may flow out in thick horizontal sheets Examples of this type of eruption can be found in Northern Ireland, Wales, South Africa and 11 A third type of eruption occurs when the lava emerges

very quickly and 12 violently This happens because the magma moves so suddenly

that 13 are emitted.

READING 2

Experience versus speed

Certain mental functions slow down with age, but the brain compensates in ways that can keep seniors as sharp as youngsters

Jake, aged 16, has a terrific relationship with his grandmother Rita, who is 70 They live close by, and they even take a Spanish class together twice a week at a local college After class they sometimes stop at a cafe for a snack On one occasion, Rita tells Jake, 'I think it's great how fast you pick up new grammar It takes me a lot longer.' Jake replies, 'Yeah, but you don't seem to make as many silly mistakes on the quizzes as I do How do you do that?'

In that moment, Rita and Jake stumbled across an interesting set of differences between older and younger minds Popular psychology says that as people age their brains 'slow down' The implication, of course, is that elderly men and women are not as mentally agile as middle-aged adults or even teenagers However, although certain brain functions such as perception and reaction time do indeed take longer, that slowing down does not necessarily undermine mental sharpness Indeed, evidence shows that older people are just as mentally fit as younger people because their brains compensate for some kinds of declines in creative ways that young minds

do not exploit

Just as people's bodies age at different rates, so do their minds As adults advance in age, the perception of sights, sounds and smells takes a bit longer, and laying down new information into memory becomes more difficult The ability to retrieve memories also quickly slides and it is sometimes harder to concentrate and maintain attention

On the other hand, the ageing brain can create significant benefits by tapping into its extensive hoard of accumulated knowledge and experience The biggest trick that older brains employ is

to use both hemispheres simultaneously to handle tasks for which younger brains rely predominantly on one side Electronic images taken by cognitive scientists at the University of Michigan, for example, have demonstrated that even when doing basic recognition or memorization exercises, seniors exploit the left and right side of the brain more extensively than men and women who are decades younger Drawing on both sides of the brain gives them a tactical edge, even if the speed of each hemisphere's process is slower

In another experiment, Michael Falkenstein of the University of Dortmund in Germany found that when elders were presented with new computer exercises they paused longer before reacting and took longer to complete the tasks, yet they made 50% fewer errors, probably because of their more deliberate pace

One analogy for these results might be the question of who can type a paragraph 'better': a I6- year-old who glides along at 60 words per minute but has to double back to correct a number

of mistakes or a 70-year-old who strikes keys at only 40 words per minute but spends less time fixing errors? In the end, if 'better' is defined as completing a clean paragraph both people may end up taking the same amount of time

Computerized tests support the notion that accuracy can offset speed In one so-called distraction exercise, subjects were told to look at a screen, wait for an arrow that pointed in a certain direction to appear, and then use a mouse to click on the arrow as soon as it appeared

on the screen Just before the correct symbol appeared, however, the computer displayed numerous other arrows aimed in various other directions Although younger subjects cut through the confusion faster when the correct arrow suddenly popped up, they more frequently clicked on incorrect arrows in their haste

Older test takers are equally capable of other tasks that do not depend on speed, such as language comprehension and processing In these cases, however the elders utilize the brain's available resources in a different way Neurologists at Northwest University came to this conclusion after analyzing 50 people ranging from age 23 to 78 The subjects had to lie down in

a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machine and concentrate on two different lists of printed words posted side by side in front of them By looking at the lists, they were to find pairs of words that were similar in either meaning or spelling

The eldest participants did just as well on the tests as the youngest did, and yet the MRI scans indicated that in the elders' brains, the areas which are responsible for language recognition and interpretation were much less active The researchers did find that the older people had more activity in brain regions responsible for attentiveness Darren Gleitman, who headed the study, concluded that older brains solved the problems just as effectively but by different means

Questions 1-3

Choose the correct answer A, B, C or D ans write them on your answer sheet from 1-3

1 The conversation between Jake and Rita is used to give an example of

A the way we learn languages

B the changes that occur in our brains over time

C the fact that it is easier to learn a language at a young age

D the importance of young and old people doing things together

2 In paragraph six, what point is the analogy used to illustrate?

A Working faster is better than working slower

B Accuracy is less important than speed

C Accuracy can improve over time

D Working faster does not always save time

3 In the computerized distraction exercises, the subjects had to

A react to a particular symbol on the screen

B type a text as quickly as possible

C move an arrow in different directions around the screen

D click on every arrow that appeared on the screen

Questions 4-7

Complete each sentence with the correct ending A-F

Write the correct letter A-F in boxes 4-7 on your answer sheet

4 According to popular psychology

5 Researchers at the University of Michigan showed that

6 Michael Falkenstein discovered that

7 Scientists at Northwest University concluded that

A the older we get the harder it is to concentrate for any length of time

B seniors take longer to complete tasks but with greater accuracy

C old people use both parts of their brain more than young people

D older people use their brains differently but achieve the same result

E the speed of our brain decreases with age

F older people do not cope well with new technology

Questions 8-12

Complete the summary below

Choose NO MORE THAN ONE WORD from the passage for each answer

Write your answers in spaces 8-12 of your answer sheet

People's bodies and 8 grow older at varying stages As we age our senses take longer to process information and our aptitude for recalling 9 _ also decreases However, older people's brains do have several advantages Firstly, they can call upon both the 10 and 11 _ which is already stored in their brain Secondly, although the 12 of each side of their brain is reduced, they are able to use both sides at once

READING TEST 3

Questions 1-4

Reading Passage has five sections A-E

Choose the correct heading for section A and C-E from the list of headings below

Write the correct number i-viii in boxes 28-31 on your answer sheet

List of Headings

i The connection between health-care and other human rights

ii The development of market-based health systems

iii The role of the state in health-care

iv A problem shared by every economically developed country

vi The views of the medical establishment

vii The end of an illusion

viii Sustainable economic development

The Problem of Scarce Resources

Section A

The problem of how health-care resources should be allocated or apportioned, so

that they are distributed in both the most just and most efficient way, is not a new

one Every health system in an economically developed society is faced with the

need to decide (either formally or informally) what proportion of the community’s

total resources should be spent on health-care; how resources are to be

apportioned; what diseases and disabilities and which forms of treatment are to be

given priority; which members of the community are to be given special

consideration in respect of their health needs; and which forms of treatment are

the most cost-effective

Section B

What is new is that, from the 1950s onwards, there have been certain general

changes in outlook about the finitude of resources as a whole and of health-care

resources in particular, as well as more specific changes regarding the clientele of

health-care resources and the cost to the community of those resources Thus, in

the 1950s and 1960s, there emerged an awareness in Western societies that

resources for the provision of fossil fuel energy were finite and exhaustible and that

the capacity of nature or the environment to sustain economic development and

population was also finite In other words, we became aware of the obvious fact

that there were ‘limits to growth’ The new consciousness that there were also

severe limits to health-care resources was part of this general revelation of the

obvious Looking back, it now seems quite incredible that in the national health

systems that emerged in many countries in the years immediately after the

1939-45 World War, it was assumed without question that all the basic health needs of

any community could be satisfied, at least in principle; the ‘in visible hand’ of

economic progress would provide

Section C

However, at exactly the same time as this new realization of the finite character of

health-care resources was sinking in, an awareness of a contrary kind was

developing in Western societies: that people have a basic right to health-care as a

necessary condition of a proper human life Like education, political and legal

processes and institutions, public order, communication, transport and money

supply, health-care came to be seen as one of the fundamental social facilities

necessary for people to exercise their other rights as autonomous human beings

People are not in

a position to exercise personal liberty and to be self-determining if they are

poverty-stricken, or deprived of basic education, or do not live within a context of

law and order In the same way, basic health-care is a condition of the exercise of

autonomy

Section D

Although the language of ‘rights’ sometimes leads to confusion, by the late 1970s

it was recognized in most societies that people have a right to health-care (though

there has been considerable resistance in the United Sates to the idea that there is

a formal right to health-care) It is also accepted that this right generates an

obligation or duty for the state to ensure that adequate health-care resources are

provided out of the public purse The state has no obligation to provide a

health-care system itself, but to ensure that such a system is provided Put another way,

basic health-care is now recognized as a ‘public good’, rather than a ‘private good’

that one is expected to buy for oneself As the 1976 declaration of the World Health

Organisation put it: ‘The enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health is

one of the fundamental rights of every human being without distinction of race,

religion, political belief, economic or social condition’ As has just been remarked,

in a liberal society basic health is seen as one of the indispensable conditions for

the exercise of personal autonomy

Section E

Just at the time when it became obvious that health-care resources could not

possibly meet the demands being made upon them, people were demanding that

their fundamental right to health-care be satisfied by the state The second set of

more specific changes that have led to the present concern about the distribution

of health-care resources stems from the dramatic rise in health costs in most OECD

countries, accompanied by large-scale demographic and social changes which have

meant, to take one example, that elderly people are now major (and relatively very

expensive) consumers of health-care resources Thus in OECD countries as a whole,

health costs increased from 3.8% of GDP in 1960 to 7% of GDP in 1980, and it has

been predicted that the proportion of health costs to GDP will continue to increase

(In the US the current figure is about 12% of GDP, and in Australia about 7.8% of

GDP.)

As a consequence, during the 1980s a kind of doomsday scenario (analogous to

similar doomsday extrapolations about energy needs and fossil fuels or about

population increases) was projected by health administrators, economists and

politicians In this scenario, ever-rising health costs were matched against static or

Classify the following as first occurring

A between 1945 and 1950 B between 1950 and 1980 C after 1980

Write the correct letter A, B or C in boxes 32-35 on your answer sheet

5 the realisation that the resources of the national health system were limited

6 a sharp rise in the cost of health-care

7 a belief that all the health-care resources the community needed would be

produced by economic growth

7 an acceptance of the role of the state in guaranteeing the provision of

health-care

Questions 8 - 12

Do the following statements agree with the view of the writer in Reading Passage?

In boxes 8-12 on your answer sheet write:

YES - if the statement agrees with the views of the writer

NO - if the statement contradicts the views of the writer

NOT GIVEN - if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

8 Personal liberty and independence have never been regarded as directly linked

to health-care

9 Health-care came to be seen as a right at about the same time that the limits of

health-care resources became evident

10 IN OECD countries population changes have had an impact on health-care costs

in recent years

11 OECD governments have consistently underestimated the level of health-care

provision needed

12 In most economically developed countries the elderly will to make special

provision for their health-care in the future

READING 4

Urban planning in Singapore

British merchants established a trading post in Singapore in the early nineteenth

century, and for more than a century trading interests dominated However, in

1965 the newly independent island state was cut off from its hinterland, and so it

set about pursuing a survival strategy The good international communications it

already enjoyed provided a useful base, but it was decided that if Singapore was to

secure its economic future, it must develop its industry To this end, new

institutional structures were needed to facilitate, develop, and control foreign

investment One of the most important of these was the Economic Development

Board (EDB), an arm of government that developed strategies for attracting

investment Thus from the outset, the Singaporean government was involved in

city promotion

Towards the end of the twentieth century, the government realised that, due to

limits on both the size of the country’s workforce and its land area, its

labour-intensive industries were becoming increasingly uncompetitive So an economic

committee was established which concluded that Singapore should focus on

developing as a service centre, and seek to attract company headquarters to serve

South East Asia, and develop tourism, banking, and offshore activities The land

required for this service-sector orientation had been acquired in the early 1970s,

when the government realised that it lacked the banking infrastructure for a

modern economy So a new banking and corporate district, known as the ‘Golden

Shoe’, was planned, incorporating the historic commercial area This district now

houses all the major companies and various government financial agencies

Singapore’s current economic strategy is closely linked to land use and

development planning Although it is already a major city, the current development

plan seeks to ensure Singapore’s continued economic growth through

restructuring, to ensure that the facilities needed by future business are planned

now These include transport and telecommunication infrastructure, land, and

environmental quality A major concern is to avoid congestion in the central area,

and so the latest plan deviates from previous plans by having a strong

decentralisation policy The plan makes provision for four major regional centres,

each serving 800,000 people, but this does not mean that the existing central

business district will not also grow A major extension planned around Marina Bay

draws on examples of other ‘world cities’, especially those with waterside central

areas such as Sydney and San Francisco The project involves major land

reclamation of 667 hectares in total Part of this has already been developed as a

conference and exhibition zone, and the rest will be used for other facilities

However the need for vitality has been recognised and a mixed zoning approach

has been adopted, to include housing and entertainment

One of the new features of the current plan is a broader conception of what

contributes to economic success It encompasses high quality residential provision,

a good environment, leisure facilities and exciting city life Thus there is more

provision for low-density housing, often in waterfront communities linked to

beaches and recreational facilities However, the lower housing densities will put

considerable pressure on the very limited land available for development, and this

creates problems for another of the plan’s aims, which is to stress environmental

quality More and more of the remaining open area will be developed, and the only

natural landscape surviving will be a small zone in the centre of the island which

serves as a water catchment area Environmental policy is therefore very much

concerned with making the built environment more green by introducing more

plants - what is referred to as the ‘beautification’ of Singapore The plan focuses on

green zones defining the boundaries of settlements, and running along transport

corridors The incidental green provision within housing areas is also given

considerable attention

Much of the environmental provision, for example golf courses, recreation areas,

and beaches, is linked to the prime objective of attracting business The plan places

much emphasis on good leisure provision and the need to exploit Singapore’s island

setting One way of doing this is through further land reclamation, to create a whole

new island devoted to leisure and luxury housing which will stretch from the central

area to the airport A current concern also appears to be how to use the planning

system to create opportunities for greater spontaneity: planners have recently

given much attention to the concept of the 24-hour city and the cafe society For

example, a promotion has taken place along the Singapore river to create a cafe

zone This has included the realisation, rather late in the day, of the value of

retaining older buildings, and the creation of a continuous riverside promenade

Since the relaxation in 1996 of strict guidelines on outdoor eating areas, this has

become an extremely popular area in the evenings Also, in 1998 the Urban

Redevelopment Authority created a new entertainment area in the centre of the

city which they are promoting as ‘the city’s one-stop, dynamic entertainment

scene’

In conclusion, the economic development of Singapore has been very consciously

centrally planned, and the latest strategy is very clearly oriented to establishing

Singapore as a leading ‘world city’ It is well placed to succeed, for a variety of

reasons It can draw upon its historic roots as a world trading centre; it has invested

heavily in telecommunications and air transport infrastructure; it is well located in

relation to other Asian economies; it has developed a safe and clean environment;

and it has utilised the international language of English

Question 1-6

Complete the summary below using words from the box

Singapore

When Singapore became an independent, self-sufficient state it decided to build

up its 1… , and government organisations were created to support this policy

However, this initial plan met with limited success due to a shortage of 2……and

land It was therefore decided to develop the 3… sector of the economy instead

Singapore is now a leading city, but planners are working to ensure that its

economy continues to grow In contrast to previous policies, there is emphasis on

4…… In addition, land will be recovered to extend the financial district, and

provide 5… as well as housing The government also plans to improve the quality

of Singapore’s environment, but due to the shortage of natural landscapes it will

concentrate instead on what it calls 6……

Question 7-13

Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage?

Write:

True- if the statement agrees with the information

False - if the statement contradicts the information

Not Given - if there is no information on this

7 After 1965, the Singaporean government switched the focus of the island’s

10 Planners have modelled new urban developments on other coastal cities

11 Plants and trees are amongst the current priorities for Singapore’s city planners

12 The government has enacted new laws to protect Singapore’s old buildings

13 Singapore will find it difficult to compete with leading cities in other parts of the

world

READING 5

Questions 1-5

Reading Passage contains six Key Points

Choose the correct heading for Key Points TWO to SIX from the list of headings

below Write the correct number, i-viii, in boxes 14-18 on your answer sheet

List of Headings

i Ensure the reward system is fair

ii Match rewards lo individuals

iii Ensure targets are realistic

iv Link rewards to achievement

v Encourage managers to take more responsibility

vi Recognise changes in employees' performance over time

vii Establish targets and give feedback

viii Ensure employees are suited to their jobs

Key Point One viii

Motivating Employees under Adverse Condition

THE CHALLENGE

It is a great deal easier to motivate employees in a growing organisation than a

declining one When organisations are expanding and adding personnel,

promotional opportunities, pay rises, and the excitement of being associated with

a dynamic organisation create Slings of optimism Management is able ta use the

growth to entice and encourage employees When an organisation is shrinking, the

best and most mobile workers are prone to leave voluntarily Unfortunately, they

are the ones the organisation can least afford to lose- those with me highest skills

and experience The minor employees remain because their job options are limited

Morale also surfers during decline People fear they may be the next to be made

redundant Productivity often suffers, as employees spend their time sharing

rumours and providing one another with moral support rather than focusing on

their jobs For those whose jobs are secure, pay increases are rarely possible Pay

cuts, unheard of during times of growth, may even be imposed The challenge to

management is how to motivate employees under such retrenchment conditions

The ways of meeting this challenge can be broadly divided into six Key Points, which

are outlined below

KEY POINT ONE

There is an abundance of evidence to support the motivational benefits that result

from carefully matching people to jobs For example, if the job is running a small

business or an autonomous unit within a larger business, high achievers should be

sought However, if the job to be filled is a managerial post in a large bureaucratic

organisation, a candidate who has a high need for power and a low need for

affiliation should be selected Accordingly, high achievers should not be put into

jobs that are inconsistent with their needs High achievers will do best when the

job provides moderately challenging goals and where there is independence and

feedback However, it should be remembered that not everybody is motivated by

jobs that are high in independence, variety and responsibility

KEY POINT TWO

The literature on goal-setting theory suggests that managers should ensure that all

employees have specific goals and receive comments on how well they are doing

in those goals For those with high achievement needs, typically a minority in any

organisation, the existence of external goals is less important because high

achievers are already internally motivated The next factor to be determined is

whether the goals should be assigned by a manager or collectively set in

conjunction with the employees The answer to that depends on perceptions the

culture, however, goals should be assigned If participation and the culture are

incongruous, employees are likely to perceive the participation process as

manipulative and be negatively affected by it

KEY POINT THREE

Regardless of whether goals are achievable or well within management's

perceptions of the employee's ability, if employees see them as unachievable they

will reduce their effort Managers must be sure, therefore, that employees feel

confident that their efforts can lead to performance goals For managers, this

means that employees must have the capability of doing the job and must regard

the appraisal process as valid

KEY POINT FOUR

Since employees have different needs, what acts as a reinforcement far one may

not for another Managers could use their knowledge of each employee to

personalise the rewards over which they have control Some of the more obvious

rewards that managers allocate include pay, promotions, autonomy, job scope and

depth, and the opportunity lo participate in goal-setting and decision-making

KEY POINT FIVE

Managers need to make rewards contingent on performance To reward factors

other than performance will only reinforce those other factors Key rewards such

as pay increases and promotions or advancements should be allocated for the

attainment of the employee's specific goals Consistent with maximising the impact

of rewards, managers should look for ways to increase their visibility Eliminating

the secrecy surrounding pay by openly communicating everyone's remuneration,

publicising performance bonuses and allocating annual salary increases in a lump

sum rather than spreading them out over an entire year are examples of actions

that will make rewards more visible and potentially more motivating

KEY POINT SIX

The way rewards ore distributed should be transparent so that employees perceive

that rewards or outcomes are equitable and equal to the inputs given On a

simplistic level, experience, abilities, effort and other obvious inputs should explain

differences in pay, responsibility and other obvious outcomes The problem,

however, is complicated by the existence of dozens of inputs and outcomes ana by

the Fact that employee groups place different degrees of importance on them For

instance, a study comparing clerical and production workers identified nearly

twenty inputs and outcomes The clerical workers considered factors such as

quality of work performed and job knowledge near the top of their list, but these

were at the bottom of the production workers' list Similarly, production workers

thought that the most important inputs were intelligence and personal

involvement with task accomplishment, two factors that were quite low in the

importance ratings of the clerks There were also important, though less dramatic,

differences on the outcome side For example, production workers rated

advancement very highly, whereas clerical workers rated advancement in the lower

third of their list Such findings suggest that one person's equity is another's

inequity, so an ideal should probably weigh different inputs and outcomes

according to employee group

Questions 6-11

Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reading Passage?

In boxes 6-11 on your answer sheet, write:

YES - if the statement t agrees with the claims of the writer

NO - if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer

NOT GIVEN - if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

6 A shrinking organisation lends to lose its less skilled employees rather than its

more skilled employees

7 It is easier to manage a small business ban a large business

8 High achievers are well suited lo team work

9 Some employees can fee! manipulated when asked to participate in goal-setting

10 The staff appraisal process should be designed by employees

11 Employees' earnings should be disclosed to everyone within the organisation

Questions 11-13

Look at the follow groups of worker (Question 11-13 )and the list of descriptions

below Match each group with the correct description, A -E

Write the correct letter, A-E, in boxes 25-27 on your answer sheet

11 high achievers

12 clerical workers

13 production workers List of Descriptions

A They judge promotion to be important

B They have less need of external goats

C They think that the quality of their work is important

D They resist goals which are imposed

E They have limited job options

READING 6

PAPER RECYCLING

A Paper is different from other waste produce because it comes from a sustainable

resource: trees Unlike the minerals and oil used to make plastics and metals, trees

are replaceable Paper is also biodegradable, so it does not pose as much threat to

the environment when it is discarded While 45 out of every 100 tonnes of wood

fibre used to make paper in Australia comes from waste paper, the rest comes

directly from virgin fibre from forests and plantations By world standards this is a

good performance since the world-wide average is 33 per cent waste paper

Governments have encouraged waste paper collection and sorting schemes and at

the same time, the paper industry has responded by developing new recycling

technologies that have paved the way for even greater utilization of used fibre As

a result, industry’s use of recycled fibres is expected to increase at twice the rate

of virgin fibre over the coming years

B Already, waste paper constitutes 70% of paper used for packaging and advances

in the technology required to remove ink from the paper have allowed a higher

recycled content in newsprint and writing paper To achieve the benefits of

recycling, the community must also contribute We need to accept a change in the

quality of paper products; for example stationery may be less white and of a

rougher texture There also needs to be support from the community for waste

paper collection programs Not only do we need to make the paper available to

collectors but it also needs to be separated into different types and sorted from

contaminants such as staples, paperclips, string and other miscellaneous items

C There are technical limitations to the amount of paper which can be recycled and

some paper products cannot be collected for re-use These include paper in the

form of books and permanent records, photographic paper and paper which is

badly contaminated The four most common sources of paper for recycling are

factories and retail stores which gather large amounts of packaging material in

which goods are delivered, also offices which have unwanted business documents

and computer output, paper converters and printers and lastly households which

discard newspapers and packaging material The paper manufacturer pays a price

for the paper and may also incur the collection cost

D Once collected, the paper has to be sorted by hand by people trained to recognise

various types of paper This is necessary because some types of paper can only be

made from particular kinds of recycled fibre The sorted paper then has to be

repulped or mixed with water and broken down into its individual fibres This

mixture is called stock and may contain a wide variety of contaminating materials,

particularly if it is made from mixed waste paper which has had little sorting

Various machineries are used to remove other materials from the stock After

passing through the repulping process, the fibres from printed waste paper are grey

in colour because the printing ink has soaked into the individual fibres This recycled

material can only be used in products where the grey colour does not matter, such

as cardboard boxes but if the grey colour is not acceptable, the fibres must be

de-inked This involves adding chemicals such as caustic soda or other alkalis, soaps

and detergents, water-hardening agents such as cal-cium chloride, frothing agents

and bleaching agents Before the recycled fibres can be made into paper they must

be refined or treated in such a way that they bond together

E Most paper products must contain some virgin fibre as well as recycled fibres and

unlike glass, paper cannot be recycled indefinitely Most paper is down-cycled

which means that a prod-uct made from recycled paper is of an inferior quality to

the original paper Recycling paper is beneficial in that it saves some of the energy,

labour and capital that go into producing virgin pulp However, recycling requires

the use of fossil fuel, a non-renewable energy source, to collect the waste paper

from the community and to process it to produce new paper And the recycling

process still creates emissions which require treatment before they can be

disposed of safely Nevertheless, paper recycling is an important economical and

environmental practice but one which must be carried out in a rational and viable

manner for it to be useful to both industry and the community

Questions 1-7

Complete the summary below of the first two paragraphs of the Reading Passage

Choose ONE OR TWO WORDS from the Reading Passage for each answer

Write your answers in boxes 1-7 on your answer sheet

SUMMARY Example

From the point of view of recycling, paper has two advantages over minerals and

oil in that firstly it comes from a resource which is (1)…… and secondly it is less

threatening to our environment when we throw it away because it is (2) ……

Although Australia’s record in the re-use of waste paper is good, it is still necessary

to use a combination of recycled fibre and (3)… to make new paper The paper

industry has contributed positively and people have also been encouraged by

(4)…… to collect their waste on a regular basis One major difficulty is the removal

of ink from used paper but (5)… are being made in this area However, we need

to learn to accept paper which is generally of a lower (6) than before and

to sort our waste paper by removing (7) … before discarding it for collection

Look at paragraphs C, D, and E and, using the information in the passage, complete

the flow chart below Write your answers in boxes 8-12 on your answer sheet Use

ONE OR TWO WORDS for each answer

Waste Paper collected from:

paper converted and printers Households

The fibres are then

READING 7

Creating Artificial Reefs

In the coastal waters of the US, a nation's leftovers have been discarded Derelict

ships, concrete blocks, scrapped cars, army tanks, tyres filled with concrete and

redundant planes litter the sea floor However, this is not waste disposal, but part

of a coordinated, state-run programme To recently arrived fish, plants and other

sea organisms, these artificial reefs are an ideal home, offering food and shelter

Sea-dumping incites widespread condemnation Little surprise when oceans are

seen as 'convenient' dumping grounds for the rubbish we have created but would

rather forget However, scientific evidence suggests that if we dump the right

things, sea life can actually be enhanced And more recently, purpose-built

structures of steel or concrete have been employed - some the size of small

apartment blocks -principally to increase fish harvests

Strong currents, for example, the choice of design and materials for an artificial reef

depends on where it is going to be placed In areas of a solid concrete structure will

be more appropriate than ballasted tyres It also depends on what species are to

be attracted It is pointless creating high- rise structures for fish that prefer flat or

low-relief habitat But the most important consideration is the purpose of the reef

In the US, where there is a national reef plan using cleaned up rigs and tanks,

artificial reefs have mainly been used to attract fish for recreational fishing or

sport-diving But there are many other ways in which they can be used to manage the

marine habitat For as well as protecting existing habitat, providing purpose-built

accommodation for commercial species (such as lobsters and octupi) and acting as

sea defences, they can be an effective way of improving fish harvests Japan, for

example, has created vast areas of artificial habitat - rather than isolated reefs - to

increase its fish stocks In fact, the cultural and historical importance of seafood in

Japan is reflected by the fact that it is a world leader in reef technology; what's

more, those who construct and deploy reefs have sole rights to the harvest

In Europe, artificial reefs have been mainly employed to protect habitat

Particularly so in the Mediterranean where reefs have been sunk as physical

obstacles to stop illegal trawling, which is destroying sea grass beds and the marine

life that depends on them If you want to protect areas of the seabed, you need

something that will stop trawlers dead in their tracks,' says Dr Antony Jensen of the

Southampton Oceanography Centre

Italy boasts considerable artificial reef activity It deployed its first scientifically

planned reef using concrete cubes assembled in pyramid forms in 1974 to enhance

fisheries and stop trawling And Spain has built nearly 50 reefs in its waters, mainly

to discourage trawling and enhance the productivity of fisheries Meanwhile,

Britain established its first quarried rock artificial reef in 1984 off the Scottish coast,

to assess its potential for attracting commercial species

But while the scientific study of these structures is a little over a quarter of a century

old, artificial reefs made out of readily available materials such as bamboo and

coconuts have been used by fishermen for centuries And the benefits have been

enormous By placing reefs close to home, fishermen can save time and fuel But

unless they are carefully managed, these areas can become over- fished In the

Philippines, for example, where artificial reef programmes have been instigated in

response to declining fish populations, catches are often allowed to exceed the

maximum potential new production of the artificial reef because there is no proper

management control

There is no doubt that artificial reefs have lots to offer And while purpose-built

structures are effective, the real challenge now is to develop environmentally safe

ways of using recycled waste to increase marine diversity This will require more

scientific research For example, the leachates from one of the most commonly

used reef materials, tyres, could potentially be harmful to the creatures and plants

that they are supposed to attract Yet few extensive studies have been undertaken

into the long- term effects of disposing of tyres at sea And at the moment, there is

little consensus about what is environmentally acceptable to dump at sea,

especially when it comes to oil and gas rigs Clearly, the challenge is to develop

environmentally acceptable ways of disposing of our rubbish while enhancing

marine life too What we must never be allowed to do is have an excuse for

dumping anything we like at sea

Questions 1-3

The list below gives some of the factors that must be taken into account when

deciding how to construct an artificial reef Which THREE of these factors are

mentioned by the writer of the article? Write the appropriate letters A-F in boxes

1-3 on your answer sheet

Questions 4-8

Complete the table below Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the

passage for each answer Write your answers in boxes 4-8 on your answer sheet

Italy Consists of pyramid

Using NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS, complete the following sentences Write

your answers in boxes 9-12 on your answer sheet

In (9)… , people who build reefs are legally entitled to all the fish they attract

Trawling inhibits the development of marine life because it damages the (10)…

In the past, both (11) were used to make reefs To ensure that reefs are not

over-fished, good (12)……is required

Question 13

Choose the appropriate letter A-D and write it in box 13 on your answer sheet

13 According to the writer, the next step in the creation of artificial reefs is

A to produce an international agreement

B to expand their use in the marine environment

C to examine their dangers to marine life

D to improve on purpose-built structures

READING 8

Questions 1-6

Reading Passage has eight paragraphs (A-H) Choose the most suitable heading for

each paragraph from the list of headings below

Write the appropriate numbers (i-xi) in boxes 14-19 on your answer sheet

NB There are more headings than paragraphs so you will not use all of them You

may use any heading more than once

List of Headings

ii Cigarettes produced to match an image

iii Financial outlay on marketing

iv The first advertising methods

v Pressure causes a drop in sales

vi Changing attitudes allow new marketing tactics

vii Background to the research

viii A public uproar is avoided

ix The innovative move to written adverts

x A century of uninhibited smoking

xi Conclusions of the research

1 Paragraph A

2 Paragraph B

3 Paragraph C

4 Paragraph E

Looking for a Market among Adolescents

A In 1992, the most recent year for which data are available, the US tobacco

industry spent $5 billion on domestic marketing That figure represents a huge

increase from the approximate £250-million budget in 1971, when tobacco

advertising was banned from television and radio The current expenditure

translates to about $75 for every adult smoker, or to $4,500 for every adolescent

who became a smoker that year This apparently high cost to attract a new smoker

is very likely recouped over the average 25 years that this teen will smoke

B In the first half of this century, leaders of the tobacco companies boasted that

innovative mass-marketing strategies built the industry Recently, however, the

tobacco business has maintained that its advertising is geared to draw established

smokers to particular brands But public health advocates insist that such

advertising plays a role in generating new demand, with adolescents being the

primary target To explore the issue, we examined several marketing campaigns

undertaken over the years and correlated them with the ages smokers say they

began their habit We find that, historically, there is considerable evidence that

such campaigns led to an increase in cigarette smoking among adolescents of the

targeted group

C National surveys collected the ages at which people started smoking The 1955

Current Population Survey (CPS) was the first to query respondents for this

information, although only summary data survive Beginning in 1970, however, the

National Health Interview Surveys (NHIS) included this question in some polls

Answers from all the surveys were combined to produce a sample of more than

165,000 individuals Using a respondent's age at the time of the survey and the

reported age of initiation, [age they started smoking], the year the person began

smoking could be determined Dividing the number of adolescents (defined as

those 12 to 17 years old) who started smoking during a particular interval by the

number who were "eligible" to begin at the start of the interval set the initiation

rate for that group

D Mass-marketing campaigns began as early as the 1880s, which boosted tobacco

consumption six fold by 1900 Much of the rise was attributed to a greater number

of people smoking cigarettes, as opposed to using cigars, pipes, snuff or chewing

tobacco Marketing strategies included painted billboards and an extensive

distribution of coupons, which a recipient could redeem for free cigarettes Some

brands included soft-porn pictures of women in the packages Such tactics inspired

outcry from educational leaders concerned about their corrupting influence on

teenage boys Thirteen percent of the males surveyed in 1955 who reached

adolescence between 1890 and 1910 commenced smoking by 18 years of age,

compared with almost no females

E The power of targeted advertising is more apparent if one considers the men born

between 1890 and 1899 In 1912, when many of these men were teenagers, the

R.J Reynolds company launched the Camel brand of cigarettes with a revolutionary

approach Every city in the country was bombarded with print advertising

According to the 1955 CPS, initiation by age 18 for males in this group jumped to

21.6 percent, a two thirds increase over those boom before 1890 The NHIS

initiation rate also reflected this change For adolescent males it went up from 2.9

percent between 1910 and 1912 to 4.9 percent between 1918 and 1921

F It was not until the mid-1920s that social mores permitted cigarette advertising

to focus on women In 1926 a poster depicted women imploring smokers of

Chesterfield cigarettes to "Blow Some My Way" The most successful crusade,

however, was for Lucky Strikes, which urged women to "Reach for a Lucky instead

of a Sweet." The 1955 CPS data showed that 7 percent of the women who were

adolescents during the mid-1920s had started smoking by age 18, compared with

only 2 percent in the preceding generation of female adolescents Initiation rates

from the NHIS data for adolescent girls were observed to increase threefold, from

0.6 percent between 1922 and 1925 to 1.8 percent between 1930 and 1933 In

contrast, rates for males rose only slightly

G The next major boost in smoking initiation in adolescent females occurred in the

late 1960s In 1967 the tobacco industry launched "niche" brands aimed exclusively

at women The most popular was Virginia Slims The visuals of this campaign

emphasized a woman who was strong, independent and very thin Initiation in

female adolescents nearly doubled, from 3.7 percent between 1964 and 1967 to

6.2 percent between 1972 and 1975 (NHIS data) During the same period, rates for

adolescent males remained stable

H Thus, in four distinct instances over the past 100 years, innovative and directed

tobacco marketing campaigns were associated with marked surges in primary

demand from adolescents only in the target group The first two were directed at

males and the second two at females Of course, other factors helped to entrench

smoking in society Yet it is clear from the data that advertising has been an

overwhelming force in attracting new users

Questions 6-10

Do the following statements agree with the information in Reading Passage 21? In

boxes 6-10 write:

YES - if the statement is true according to the passage

NO - if the statement contradicts the passage

NOT GIVE - if there is no information about this in the passage

6 Cigarette marketing has declined in the US since tobacco advertising banned on

TV

7 Tobacco companies claim that their advertising targets existing smokers

8 The difference in initiation rates between male and female smokers at of the 19

Lh century was due to selective marketing

9 Women who took up smoking in the past lost weight

10 The two surveys show different trends in cigarette initiation

Questions 11-13

Complete the sentences below with words taken from the Reading Passage Use

NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS for each answer Write your answers in boxes

11-13 on your answer sheet

Tobacco companies are currently being accused of aiming their advertisements

mainly at (11)… statistics on smoking habits for men born between 1890 and 1899

were gathered in the year (12) The (13) … brand of cigarettes was designed for

a particular sex

READING 9

A spark, a flint: How fire leapt to life

[ The control of fire was the first and perhaps greatest of humanity’s steps towards

a life-enhancing technology ]

To early man, fire was a divine gift randomly delivered in the form of lightning, forest fire or burning lava Unable to make flame for themselves, the earliest peoples probably stored fire by keeping slow burning logs alight or by carrying charcoal in pots

How and where man learnt how to produce flame at will is unknown It was

probably a secondary invention, accidentally made during tool-making operations

with wood or stone Studies of primitive societies suggest that the earliest method

of making fire was through friction European peasants would insert a wooden drill

in a round hole and rotate it briskly between their palms This process could be

speeded up by wrapping a cord around the drill and pulling on each end

The Ancient Greeks used lenses or concave mirrors to concentrate the sun’s rays

and burning glasses were also used by Mexican Aztecs and the Chinese

Percussion methods of fire-lighting date back to Paleolithic times, when some

Stone Age tool-makers discovered that chipping flints produced sparks The

technique became more efficient after the discovery of iron, about 5000 vears ago

In Arctic North America, the Eskimos produced a slow-burning spark by striking

quartz against iron pyrites, a compound that contains sulphur The Chinese lit their

fires by striking porcelain with bamboo In Europe, the combination of steel, flint

and tinder remained the main method of firelighting until the mid 19th century

Fire-lighting was revolutionized by the discovery of phosphorus, isolated in 1669 by

a German alchemist trying to transmute silver into gold Impressed by the

element’s combustibility, several 17th century chemists used it to manufacture