Tài liệu OCEAN MANAGEMENT IN GLOBAL CHANGE potx

Its aim is to deal with the evolution of the objectives and methodologies of coastal and ocean management, with special emphasis onthe relationships between resource development and envi

OCEAN MANAGEMENT IN GLOBAL

CHANGE

To commemorate

the Quincentenary of the Discovery of the Americasthe Twentieth Anniversary of the United NationsConference on the Human Environment

the Tenth Anniversary of the United NationsConvention on the Law of the Sea

Published with the collaboration ofENTE COLOMBO ’92, Genoa, Italy

ELSEVIER APPLIED SCIENCE

London and New York

1992

ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LTD Crown House, Linton Road, Barking, Essex IG11 8JU, England

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WITH 19 TABLES AND 72 ILLUSTRATIONS

© 1992 ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LTD

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at a sufficiently distinguished level to be able to discuss, authoritatively, theevolution of sea uses and the consequent need to protect the marineenvironment.

It was decided to programme these events during the central part of theCelebrations and so, during the week entitled ‘Man and the Sea’, threeinternational conferences on ocean management, the law of the sea(annual Conference of the Law of the Sea Institute) and legal maritimesubjects (conference of Unidroit and Comité Maritime International)respectively are to be held in Genoa

The event on ocean management was organized by Ente Colombo ’92with the co-operation of the United Nations Office for Ocean Affairs and

the Law of the Sea and was devoted to Ocean Management in Global

Change Its aim is to deal with the evolution of the objectives and

methodologies of coastal and ocean management, with special emphasis onthe relationships between resource development and environmentalprotection and, as a result, establishing close topical links with the UnitedNations Conference on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro,June 1992)

In order to give the greatest opportunities for scientific communicationand discussion at this Conference, two books have been published This

present volume contains the lectures presented at the Conference; Sea

Management: A Theoretical Approach, written by Adalberto Vallega, the

scientific co-ordinator of the Conference, deals with the theoreticalbackground and practical implications of coastal and ocean management

On behalf of Ente Colombo ’92 I express my gratitude to the UNOffice for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea, as well as to all those whohave offered their co-operation and moral support to the Conference, inthe fervent hope that it will contribute to the improvement of sea resourcedevelopment and environmental protection

ROMANO MERLO

Mayor of Genoa

President, Ente Colombo ’92

vi

The International Conference on Ocean Management in Global Change

The evolution of coastal and ocean management is worth considering inthe light of (i) the principles of environmental protection established bythe United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm,1972) and the subsequent action developed by the United Nations and itsorganizations, (ii) the legal frameworks provided by the United NationsConference on the Law of the Sea (1982), (iii) the recently implementedefforts to encourage multidisciplinary approaches to environmental changeand, finally, (iv) the impetus given by the United Nations Conference onEnvironment and Development (1992) to the implementation of therationale in resource use and environmental management

This background supports both the subject area and the whole approach

to be developed by the International Conference on Ocean Management

in Global Change (Genoa, 22–26 June 1992), the main objectives ofwhich are (i) to examine present and expected trends in coastal and oceanresource use, (ii) to evaluate the state of the art and the expected evolution

in theory and practice of management and (iii) to discuss scientific andtechnological developments and their impacts on management

On this basis it was thought that the Conference should have toproduce (i) general views of the evolution of coastal and ocean managementwith the aim of putting into evidence their theoretical background andmethodologies, as well as drafting short- and medium-term prospects, and,

in this context, (ii) should deal with crucial issues, such as the relationshipsbetween sea resource development and environmental protection, taking

into account (iii) relevant case studies and (iv) coastal and ocean areasworthy of special attention.

The Conference benefits from co-operation between scientists fromvarious disciplines—such as oceanography, ecology, law, economics,geography—and distinguished experts in coastal and ocean management.Their lectures are collected in this book, edited by Paolo Fabbri, of theUniversity of Bologna, Italy

The lectures are concerned with the history, theory, practice and theexpected evolution of coastal and ocean management, the physical changes

in oceans and the subsequent research undertaken, key marine policyproblems and the role of national jurisdictional belts, conflict managementand environmental protection and preservation, the role of coastal andocean management for development purposes, the specific features of themanagement of special coastal (waterfronts, estuaries and lagoons) andocean (enclosed and semi-enclosed seas, polar seas) areas This frameworkwas conceived with the United Nations Office for Ocean Affairs and theLaw of the Sea, in the context of which the objectives of the Conferenceand their background, as well as the preliminary descriptions of sessionsand lectures, were extensively discussed and formulated

We are very grateful to the members of the UN Office—especially toMoritaka Hayashi and Stella Maris Vallejo—for the encouragingatmosphere they created for scheduling this initiative and the help theyhave given towards its scientific conduct Gratitude is also expressed toEnte Colombo ’92, which decided to give such a strong impetus to thescientific events supporting the Celebrations of the Quincentenary of theDiscovery of the Americas, and to Alberto Bemporad, the CommissionerGeneral of the International Specialized Exhibition ‘ChristopherColumbus: Ships and the Sea’ Finally, acknowledgements are expressed toPaolo Fabbri, the editor of the volume, to the Scientific OrganizingCommittee of the Conference composed of Francesco Bandarin, GiulianoFierro, Maria Giuseppina Lucia and Giovanni Rildolfi, as well as to thestaff of the Technical Scientific Committee, constituted by ElisabettaDettori and Paola Schiavo

Ente Colombo ’92

viii

Information and Data Processing for Ocean Management

Adam Cole-King and Chandra S.Lalwani

135

Integrated Marine Policies: Goals and Constraints

Stella Maris A.Vallejo

The Role of National Jurisdictional Zones in Ocean

Multiple Use Conflicts and their Resolution: Toward a

Comparative Research Agenda

Biliana Cicin-Sain

285

Comparative Evaluation in Managing Conflicts: Lessons from

the North Sea Experience

Small Island States and Huge Maritime Zones: Management

Tasks in the South Pacific

Estuaries: Challenges for Coastal Management

HISTORY OF OCEAN MANAGEMENT

ALASTAIR D.COUPER University of Wales, Cardiff

INTRODUCTION

The concept of ocean management, in the sense of exercising some form

of centralised control over multiple uses of a sea area, is a product of thelate 20th Century It emerged at a time when there was increased concern

for the health of the oceans, a greater awareness of the need to allocatenational rights over ocean space and resources, requirements to regulatehuman activities at sea, and the need to resolve inter-territorial conflicts.Unlike land use management, ocean management is complicated by thefluidity of the medium, its three-dimensional parameters, mobility ofmany resources and activities, the complexity of interacting ecosystems,and the lack of relevance of administrative boundaries to the naturalenvironment

Ocean management is also bedeviled by inheritances from the past incustom, law (and lack of it), the perceptions of land-mindedadministrators, and by powerful global military interests

What may now be understood by ocean management, if current viewsare pulled together, is methodology through which sectoral activities(navigation, fishing, mining, dumping, etc.) and environmental quality in

a sea area are considered as a whole, and their uses optimised in order tomaximise net benefits to a nation, but without prejudicing localsocioeconomic interests or jeopardising benefits to future generations Thismust involve assessments, priorities, allocations and regulations Overalloptimisation of uses in this way is a difficult objective and, it may beasserted, perhaps an unattainable one An alternative to this and to centralmanagement is simply sectoral management within national sea areas, withlinking mechanisms capable of resolving inter-sectoral, social welfare, andinter-territorial conflicts as these appear

Whether a centralised management approach should, or can, beadopted, or merely ad-hoc approaches used, is still open to debate What isgenerally agreed, is the need for a policy which has as its foundation therecognition that many activities at sea are inter-connected, and as sea usesincrease conflicts arise The requirement for policies based on the variousdegrees of functional integration in the marine environment wasemphasised in the preamble to the 1982 United Nations Convention onthe Law of the Sea, which…“recognises that the problems andopportunities of ocean space are closely inter-related and need to beconsidered as a whole” (1)

In a subsequent report of the Secretary General it was stated:

A fundamental requirement for the development and use of nationaloff-shore marine resources is a national policy that establishes goals,objectives and priorities and lays down basic principles and criteriawhich provide guidance for the formulation of plans andprogrammes and a marine development strategy (2)

It is not the purpose of this introductory paper to elaborate on these goalsand the ways of achieving them This will be done bysubsequent contributions What is intended here, is to consider how wereached the present levels of thinking, and to identify what concepts andpractices have been inherited from the past in our current approaches toocean management.

THE CONCEPTUAL INHERITANCE

Before multiple activities in sea areas can be managed, it is clearly necessary

to establish who has the authority for making rules and setting prioritieswithin a specified space, and what the law is with regard to resourceownership and access In these respects, it is recalled here that some of thebasic concepts which enter into present-day discussions and legislation arederived from much earlier periods The most fundamental of these is theconcept of freedom of the sea, and its related systems of coastal state andoff-shore user rights

Attempts to control ocean space and the uses of the sea by maritimepowers go back to at least Roman times(3) By far the most ambitiousattempt, and never to be surpassed in its magnitude, was the action bySpain after the 1492 voyage which we are now commemorating

Following the report by Columbus of his explorations, Ferdinand andIsabella were able to secure a Papal Bull from Pope Alexander VI in 1493.This granted to Spain all discoveries lying to the West of a line drawnthrough a point 100 leagues from any of the Azores or Cape Verdes Noonewas to pass beyond this line, even for fishing, without permission of Spainunder pain of excommunication It should be said that the MarineGeographers Commission would not have awarded any prizes to the Popefor this piece of delimitation, since there is a difference of 8° of longitudebetween the extremes of the Azores and Cape Verde islands(4)

The positional anomaly was rectified in the following year when Spainand Portugal signed the Treaty of Tordessilas establishing a new line 370leagues West of the Cape Verdes This delimitation included a section ofwhat is now Brazil in the Portugese Eastern sector

The division of the world ocean by Spain and Portugal was studiouslyignored by, amongst others, Henry VII of England who, in 1497, sentthe Genoese captain, John Cabot, on his historic voyage north-westwardfrom Bristol to North America This was an important early lesson ingeopolitics, indicating that national claims to sea areas could not beeffective unless there was the naval capability to maintain them.Considering the emerging knowledge of the real size of the global ocean in

HISTORY OF OCEAN MANAGEMENT 3

the late 15th Century there was little possibility of comprehensive nationalcontrols over fishing or navigation, and this signified the de factorecognition of freedom of the high seas.

These lessons and subsequent events may have influenced theformulation of the concept of freedom of the sea contained in the GrotiusMare Liberum in 1604, and ultimately its de Jure recognition Grotius notonly conceptualised the basic principles of high seas freedoms, but he alsoidentified the rights of nations to exercise jurisdiction over a narrow belt ofcoastal waters which could be controlled and defended from the shore Inthis respect, Clyde Sanger(5) reminds us that later in the early 18thCentury Dutch lawyers elaborated further on these themes, and in theprocess differentiated between off-shore sovereignty and jurisdiction(trusteeship) They argued also over such issues as exclusive fishery zonesand the principle of equidistance in delimiting boundaries betweenopposite coastal states

Freedom of the sea was challenged by the Englishman John Selden withhis counter-advocacy of Mare Clausum in 1635 Selden’s arguments (apartfrom their obvious imperialism) contained a hint of the possibility ofdepletion of the living resources of the sea He upheld therefore the right ofEngland to exercise jurisdiction over “English” waters Selden also, however,gave expression to the rights of innocent passage of ships in what was tobecome the territorial sea He did so in more elegant language than that ofthe 1982 Convention, when he wrote:

“The offices of humanitie require that entertainment bee given tostrangers and that inoffensive passage bee not denied”(6)

Many of the principles debated more than 300 years ago became theorthodoxies of attempts at managing the sea, with Grotius rather thanSelden on the ascendancy until very recently

PAST TECHNOLOGICAL INFLUENCES

When we consider the influences of technology on patterns of sea uses, itshould be recalled that the levels of technology in shipping and fishingwere relatively stable until the energy revolution of the early 19th Century.Technology until then did little to upset the continued adherence to highseas freedoms Indeed, the development of submarine cables in the late1860’s reinforced the freedom of the high seas by establishing the right tolay cables, and the ‘Challenger’ expedition in the 1870’s did likewise for

research, and incidentally retrieved the first manganese nodules from thedeep sea bed.

It was the introduction of steam to the fishing industry in the late 19thCentury which marked the beginning of concern over freedom to fish andthe common property characteristic of fish stocks The steam trawlerproved a magnificent ship for the job of catching large quantities of fish inwaters distant from its home port By the first decade of the 20th Century,this had given rise to disputes over fishing between, amongst others,Britain, Denmark and Iceland; and the need for stock assessments in theopen ocean The International Council for the Exploration of the Sea(ICES) was founded at this time made up of representatives from eighteencountries in the North Atlantic region

Before this period, some whale stocks were already under greaterpressures than fish in the high seas They had been hunted for their oilsince at least the 12th Century and by the early 18th Century there wereland-stations as far North as Spitzbergen for the Arctic whale Whalerswere soon pursuing the sperm whale throughout the Pacific Ocean, andthe Antarctic whaling flourished with the introduction of the explosiveharpoon and mechanised gun

For a brief period the whale had some respite with the development ofmineral oil as an alternative basis for lighting In 1885, the first oil tankercame into operation on the world sea lanes, and in 1898 the oil industrymoved off-shore in the Gulf of Mexico to depths of 10 metres For thewhale, the respite brought by mineral oil production was only minimal, for

in the 1900’s other technological changes brought renewed demand forwhale oil for the making of soap and margarine

Whaling illustrates even more than fishing, the problems of open accessand the common property nature of marine resources The companies andwhalers engaged in the industry must have known they were destroying theresource In more recent times, Earling Naess, a Norwegian shipownerwho made part of his fortune from whaling, consoled himself to thedestruction of the whale with the thought, that… “If I desisted somebodyelse would have taken my place”(7), which is the classical expression of the

‘tragedy of the commons’

The power driven ship gave rise also to the first real concerns over sectoral conflict The consequences of collisions between powerful cargoand passenger ships, which were concentrating in straits and portapproaches in increasing numbers, required that rules for vessel behaviour

intra-at sea had to be introduced There was some semblance of sailinginstructions even in the 17th Century, this included the rule that “nocaptain shall take the wind of an admiral”, and in the 18th Century a

HISTORY OF OCEAN MANAGEMENT 5

“Rule of the Road” for ships on different tacks existed However, it wasonly in 1863 that comprehensive collision regulations were introduced byBritain to govern the use of sea space in order to avoid collisions, but itwas not until 1910 that these could be said to have international effect(8).The turn of the century thus saw some attempts to manage conflictswithin the sectors of fishing and of shipping, and to internationaliseseveral of the procedures Freedom of the sea, however, was still theunderlying principle.

CULTURAL PERCEPTIONS

So far this paper has been peculiarly Euro centric in its perceptions, asthough freedom of the seas and open access had emerged as universalconcepts This would be to ignore the wealth of knowledge andunderstanding of the wise use of ocean space held and practiced bycommunities in other parts of the world—many of whom had cultureswith much higher dependencies on marine resources and more intimatesocial and religious links with the sea

Societies with possibly the closest relationships with the marineenvironment, (especially in the pre-European contact period), werethose occupying small oceanic coral islands Atoll and reef islandcommunities are very dependent on the sea They are often subject to naturaldisasters which deplete what little agriculture is possible with poorcalcareous soils and variable rainfall Geologically, oceanic low islandsrepresent the upward growth of coral from submerged volcanoes,consequently beyond the living reefs the outer slopes plunge to vastdepths With no continental shelves and little nutrient run-off from tinyareas of land most food resources are confined to reef margins, passes, flatsand lagoons Offshore deep sea fish are in turn highly migratory and oftenseasonal in their availability

Island people readily recognised that the vital resources on which theydepended were finite Their communities survived by evolving rules ofsocial behaviour, ethics, appropriate technologies, resource entitlementsand distributional methods which maintained at least long-term balancesbetween the people and the marine environment in a dynamic holisticecosystem

One basic feature of many Pacific island societies was limited entry to afishery Individual villages had access rights, there was no concept offreedom of island waters, or of a common property resource In manyplaces these indigeneous reef and lagoon tenure laws still exist In Palau,Johannes has described community fishing rights as extending seawards to

as far as where the islands are barely visible from a canoe(9) and Lucas in

1990 encountered intricate coastal zone rights held by villages in PapuaNew Guinea(10)

It was customary conservation procedures in parts of the Pacific to haveselective temporary closures of sea space; prohibitions on the taking ofcertain species at specified times; taboos on eating some species types;restrictions on methods of catch to ensure the escape of breeding fish; andthe targeting of specific fish amongst a multi-species stock King (et al)describes how it is taboo in many Fijian villages to catch small sardines inshallows; the belief is the sardines attract the larger carnivorous fish intoshallow water where they provide a more substantial catch He goes on tosay that this simple management measure is, in fact, quite sophisticated;fisheries regulations in developed countries are usually by contrastdirected towards protecting the target species itself rather than its ecologicalrelationships(11)

These traditional management systems are frequently characterised bystrong linkages between the social and natural environments Local fisherydisputes were often settled by village chiefs or elders, and temporaryreallocations of fishery rights made Lawson and Kwei describe similarsystems in West Africa, where chief fishermen and elders settle disputes,impose fines and award damages(12)

Not all indigenous sea management systems are of course useful, andmany of the most valuable are lost or are in decay, destroyed primarilyunder the impact of introduced concepts and technology Alexander hasshown that this exchange impoverished several communities in southernSri Lanka(13) UNESCO also notes in relation to the resource base, that…

“attempts to replace such traditional resource systems with those based onhigher technology and large fossil fuel flows often cause feedback loops to

be lost, resulting in resource exploitation rather than resourcemanagement”(14) It is only relatively recently that these aspects have beenappreciated in western countries

BASIS OF PRESENT OCEAN MANAGEMENT

POLICIES

It was the aftermath of the Second World War that saw greatly increased uses

of the sea, and the claims by several coastal states to sovereignty overseaward resources as national property

Concern about energy supplies led to the Truman Proclamation of

1945 This extended rights to the resources of the sub-soil and seabed ofthe continental shelf beneath the high seas contiguous to the United

HISTORY OF OCEAN MANAGEMENT 7

States The limits of exploitation were subsequently taken as the 200 metreisobath, although it was not until the 1950s that drill ships could workthese depths.

The sea enclosure movement followed soon after the United Statesdeclaration In 1947 Chile, and shortly other Latin American countries,extended jurisdiction to 200 nm; but the only widely acknowledgedcurtailments of high seas rights at this time were related to internationalattempts to manage whaling activities and the establishment of regionalfisheries commissions

This paper now summarises some of the principal events over thedecades since the Truman Proclamation as a basis for understandinginheritances in present-day ocean use management policies

1950/1960

The decade saw greatly increased catches of fish, as underfished stocks wereexploited, and the stern trawler freezer factory vessel brought urbanindustry to sea Several states unilaterally extended their jurisdiction overfishing to 12 nm Also, in 1951, the ICJ upheld the claim by Norway todraw baselines between the outer islands of the coastal archipelego,establishing a precedent for future enclosures of archipelegos

This was also a time of growth in the world fleet of oil tankers, andincreases in the size of the ships, as crude oil cargoes were carried to marketoriented refineries in Europe and America Tank washing took place onreturn voyages and the oily residue was discharged into the sea In 1954,the Oilpol Convention was introduced which curtailed tankers fromdischarging into the sea within 50 miles of the coast, and prohibited thisentirely in special areas

In 1958, the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organisation (tobecome IMO) was finally established, and in that year the first Law of theSea Conference was convened This made several contributions; butneither a uniform breadth of the territorial sea, nor a satisfactory limit tothe continental shelf emerged

Conceptually, there were major advances at this time in fishingmanagement—including the work by Schaefer(15) and Beverton and Holt(16) These established the principle of maximum sustainable yield; whileGordon(17) was an advocate of maximum economic yield and a movetowards closure of free access to marine resources Ocean science alsoadvanced in 1957 with the advent of satellites and the inauguration of theInternational Geophysical Year

UNCLOS II took place in 1960 but contributed only in minor ways toocean management issues By then, highly technically advanced vesselswere fishing harder and longer to maintain catches The oil industry wasexpanding in several offshore areas and in 1963, the seabed of the NorthSea was divided between the bordering states With the publication of thestudy by John Mero the deep seabed was also perceived as an area ofprofitable mining for manganese nodules, and although prospects wereconsiderably exaggerated at the time new types of ocean mining vesselswere designed

This likewise was a period of considerable conceptual contributions,much of which extended the biological thinking of the previous decadeinto wider dimensions in a more multi-disciplinary way In 1962, RachelCarson’s(18) ‘Silent Spring’ stimulated environmental debate and theinception of more NGOs In 1965 the LSI was founded at Rhode Island,and bodies such as Pacem in Maribus also emerged internationally,especially after the speach by Arvid Pardo

In 1967, Pardo made his plea to the United Nations General Assemblyfor the application of the concept of the Common Heritage of Mankind tothe resources of the seabed beyond national jurisdiction Pardo argued forcentralised management of much of the deep ocean, as against laissez faire,

or piecemeal enclosure on the basis of technical superiority and defendableclaims

During this period there appeared new schools of legal thinking goingbeyond ‘black letter law” The work by Douglas Johnson(19) focused onbiological realities and social criteria in fishing policy In economics,Christy and Scott(20), amongst others, widened economic analysis beyondstrict disciplinary boundaries to include biology and law, and LewisAlexander(21) published his work ‘Offshore Geography of North WesternEurope’ This presented in an integrated way the political and economicproblems of delimitation and control Finally, in what was a stimulatingintellectual time, Hardin’s(22) ‘Tragedy of the Commons’ appeared,demonstrating the inevitable outcome of permitting open access to acommon property resource These works were well ahead of policy making

at national and international levels, and they were crossing the boundaries

of established disciplines into integrated approaches

It was the pollution from the ‘Torrey Canyon’ in 1967 which resulted inthe greatest public and political pressures, and triggered legislative changes.The resulting 1969 Intervention Convention gave more power to coastalstates over vessels on the high seas which were causing pollution Similarly,

HISTORY OF OCEAN MANAGEMENT 9

the 1970 unilaterally declared “Arctic Waters Pollution Act”, whichapplied to ships within 100 nm of the Canadian Arctic coast, representedaction by a coastal state in protection of the environment.

1970/1980

In the early years of this decade divisions between the coastal states and themaritime states became more pronounced with respect to control overresources In 1972, Iceland extended national fishery limits to 50 nm, and

in the same year, Kenya proposed a 200 nm entitlement for coastal stateswhich would give sovereign rights over all economic resources

The 1972 Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment(23) was

an important event, as was the subsequent creation of UNEP and itsregional seas programmes At this time also, the London DumpingConvention was introduced by IMO

The 1970’s Middle East crises had widespread effects This brought a200% increase in crude oil prices, and offshore oil development began totake place in waters of over 3000 metres New drillships were followed byenormous fixed platforms These were often fabricated in remote coastalareas The offshore oil industry now commanded vast capital resources.Rigs, platforms, service and support vessels all competed for space at seaand in ports The impact was considerable and the conflicting aspectsdifficult to manage with the high priorities being given to oil The oilcrises had also given impetus to the building of tankers of 250 000 DWTand above for the Cape route; and even more oil, possibly amounting toover 1 million tons per annum, was being discharged into the sea throughnormal ship operations The IMO MARPOL Convention of 1973 wasaimed at eliminating this by technological changes

The ‘Amoco Cadiz’ grounding off the Breton coast in 1978 broughtabout massive pollution and an immediate further extension of coastalstate controls, when the French authorities required loaded tankers toreport their positions to France and prohibited them from coming within

7 miles of the coast unless destined for a French port, and then only indesignated tanker channels

These events took place during the negotiations of UNCLOS III whichhad opened in 1973 They influenced the proceedings, especially inrelation to pollution of the sea and the management of marine traffic;although strategic considerations were successful in keeping well-established freedoms of navigation

The early years of this decade was a period of implementation andconsolidation of several ocean management measures, although stillprimarily on a sectoral basis

The conclusion of UNCLOS III in 1982, although not ratified,legitimised the global extensions of the territorial sea to 12 nm, the 200 nmEEZ, and the jurisdiction over continental margins to as far as 350 nm forwide margin states The seaward entitlements reduced high seas space by35%, and brought 90% of commercial fisheries under the sovereignty ofcoastal states; while the continental margin extensions gave coastal statesjurisdiction over almost all offshore hydro-carbon resources and mostminerals, with the exception of those of the deep seabed

The 1982 Convention continued to confirm freedom of the high seasfor fishing, and freedom of navigation on the high seas and within EEZs.The Convention also laid down what was regarded as being non-innocentpassage in the territorial sea Non-innocence it made clear, related to thebehaviour of ships, and not (by implication) to their structural condition,manning, or the nature of the cargoes (or weapons) they carried In theserespects, the Convention followed the orthodoxies of navigationalprimacy On the other hand, the resources of the deep seabed wereconsidered out-with the freedom of the seas and open access They weredeclared the common heritage of mankind, with guidelines as to how theywere to be managed under an International Seabed Authority

In 1982 the principles of port state control, recognised by UNCLOS III,were applied in a Memorandum of Understanding adopted by fourteencountries in North West Europe The principles were subsequentlyharmonised with several other states The objective of the memorandum was

to apply the terms of international conventions to all vessels in thememorandum ports, and thus help rid the seas of substandard ships whichposed a threat to safety of life and the marine environment In the early1980’s, there was a more widespread adoption of traffic separationschemes, archipelegic sea lanes and other routing requirements to reduceaccidents through the management of marine space

The early 1980s also saw more resolute management of marineresources under the International Whaling Commission This wasaccomplished through increased activities of non-whaling states in theCommission—which ensured the success of the vote for a moratorium onwhaling The same success was achieved with the London DumpingConvention, which through greater participation of states which were notengaged in dumping at sea, was able to extend restrictions to the ocean

HISTORY OF OCEAN MANAGEMENT 11

disposal of radioactive waste The LDC meeting may have been the firstapplication of the ‘precautionary principle’ to ocean management Thisrequired that promoters had to prove beforehand that there would be noadverse effects resulting from their proposed activities, rather thanobjectors proving that there would be.

It should be emphasised that, in relation to whaling and the dumping ofradioactive material, the influence of NGOs was very evident These, alongwith public awareness of environmental dangers from hazardoussubstances, increased very substantially during the 1980s However, it isalso interesting to note that the Basle Convention on the “Control Overthe Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal”did not interfere with navigational rights under innocent passageprinciples Ships carrying hazardous substances are not therefore required

to seek coastal state consents to pass through a territorial sea

The second half of the decade has seen world concepts ofpolitical economy undergoing changes with respect to the environment Ithas been demonstrated that the ‘labour theory of value’, whichunderpinned environmental perception and resource use in the centrallyplanned economies, was badly flawed Natural resources were considered

as having low value, since in their initial state they did not embody sociallynecessary labour Similarly, in capitalist economies, no real account wastaken of the value of environmental inputs which supported fish stock;values were determined for fish by the cost of catching and processing themand by market supply and demand It was not possible either, for freemarket forces on their own to deal adequately with the externalities arisingfrom many sectoral activities As a result, intervention by governments inthe form of directives or harmonisation policies gained strength, althoughoften in ad hoc forms and without clear underlying principles

The 1986 World Commission on Environment and Development(24)helped in these respects; and also focused on many of the inadequacies insectoral sea use management It emphasised the needs for wider, moreplanned integration in space and time The report showed the vulnerability

of coastal ecosystems to inland human activities, and the linkages ofoffshore living resources to the coastal ecosystem; and stressed the facts offuture population growth and distribution in coastal zones The principle

of ‘sustainable development’ was highlighted by the Commission as amanagement requirement, and it was adopted by the UN GeneralAssembly Basically, it meant that economic development was possible iftechniques were applied which provided environmental protection, andthe use of resources in a sustained way to ensure they could be passed on tofuture generations

The global scale of environmental destruction and the future impendingcrises became more apparent in the latter part of the decade and gaveadded urgencies to the application of sustainable development to sea uses.Environmental Impact Assessments were by now mandatory requirementswith respect to many development projects, and were expected to be asmuch part of the decision-making process as financial appraisals.

Another recent development is the spatial unification of some EEZs infisheries management The EC Common Fishery Policy now extends overthe wide sea areas of North West Europe The South Pacific Forum statesalso established elements of fishery management policies This applies toabout 30 million km of the Pacific within combined fishing zones UNEPregional seas programmes appear to be moving in these directions, and theprocess is reinforced by the concept of large marine ecosystems for someocean management purposes Use zoning, and the identification andpromotion of exclusive marine reserves are further advances in oceanmanagement concepts, but practices are still lagging behind

The close of the decade has seen little progress in ocean management inthe half of the world ocean still considered as high seas Concern over driftnetting and the consequent destruction of marine mammals directly, and

by ghost fishing, is perhaps being resolved, but straddling stocks andendangered species are vital issues, as is the question of deep seabed miningentitlements, which remain unresolved, despite the efforts of thePreparatory Commission It is not clear either if radioactive dumping hasbeen finally removed

CONCLUSIONS

The history of ocean management is partially the history of control overaccess to marine space and entitlements to the ownership of marineresources When ocean space was perceived as plentiful and resources asinfinite, management requirements were minimal The prevailing view was

of marine resources as common properties and the sea as free Ultimately,freedom of the sea became a widespread underlying principle in law; andthis was reinforced during the ages of imperialism and global naval strategy.Freedom of the sea started to be curtailed as pressures increased onresources and space, as new independent coastal states emerged, and astechnology revealed previously unknown ocean resources—as well as thecapacity for resource exploitation to the point of extinction Large areasthen passed under various forms of national jurisdiction Exclusiveeconomic zones could not, however, solve many of the basic problems ofcommon property resources New technology in turn, gave rise to new

HISTORY OF OCEAN MANAGEMENT 13

problems These included major ship accidents, serious operationaldischarges, overfishing, oil well blow-outs, coastal erosion andspecies destruction Several such events were seen as catastrophic and werethe triggers for reactive regulations relating to particular sectors.Government departments implemented the regulations, and with therelated industries, tried to manage problems as they arose In turn,government research bodies provided data and analysis on the basis ofsectoral terms of reference.

It was evident as sea activities increased, and inter-sectoral conflictsappeared, that the management of sea uses on a sectoral basis could only bepartially successful The evolution towards integrated managementproceeded, particularly in terms of new multi-disciplinary concepts and theactivities of NGOs There were also positive roles on the part of UnitedNations agencies—although several were bound by restricted areas ofcompetence which did not correspond to the realities of the oceans It wasalso apparent that European cultural perceptions made it difficult to learnfrom the integrating practices of other civilisations which had evolvedmore balanced relationships with the marine environment

It can be concluded that over a few decades, in spite of several positivemeasures, a gulf appeared between new integrated ocean managementconcepts, United Nations global policies, and national governmentsectoral attitudes and practices to sea uses There are now indications thatthese components are beginning to come together This has been broughtabout by a number of more recent events There are strong pressures byNGOs on governments worldwide to adopt more proactive management

in the face of the environmental crisis Edward Shevardnadze(25) identifiesthis as the rise of political-ecology and the driving force for the future Theend of East/West conflicts has also changed several of the main strategicfactors effecting ocean policies, opening the way for more controls bycoastal states There are now well integrated global networks anddeveloping GIS facilities which will allow planning on a larger scaleecological basis Governments are becoming increasingly committed inprinciple to the stewardship of the marine environment on the ‘commonfuture’ basis The meeting of UNCED may reinforce these trends

REFERENCES

1 United Nations, Convention on the Law of the Sea, 7 October 1982.

2 United Nations, Development of Marine Areas Under National Jurisdiction Problems and Approaches in Policy-Making, Planning and Management,

Report of the Secretary General Economic and Social Council, New York, 1987.

3 Gold, E., Maritime Transport: The Evolution of International Marine Policy and Shipping Law, Lexington Books, 1981.

4 Spate, O.H.K., The Spanish Lake, Australian National University Press, Canberra, 1979.

5 Sanger, C., Ordering the Oceans, Zed Books, London, 1986.

10 Lucas, K., Personal Correspondence, 1990.

11 King, M., Cartwright, I and Carver, A., Fisheries Development in Pacific Islands: Some Problems in Paradise, in Couper, A.D., Development and Social Change in the Pacific Islands, Routledge, London, 1989, pp 47–61.

12 Lawson, R.M and Kwei, African Entrepreneurship and Economic Growth, Ghana University Press, 1974.

13 Alexander Paul, Lessons for the Pacific, Technological Transfer and Fishing Communities: The Sri Lanka Experience, in Couper, A.D., Development and Social Change in the Pacific Islands, Routledge, London, 1989,

16 Beverton, R.J.H and Holt, S.J., On the Dynamics of Exploited Fish Populations, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, London, 1957.

17 Gordon, H.S., Economic Theory of a Common-Property Resource: The Fishery, Journal of Political Economy, 62:124–142, 1954

18 Carson, R., Silent Spring, Houghton Muffin, Boston, 1962.

19 Johnston, D.M., The International Law of Fisheries: A Framework for Policy-Oriented Inquiries, Yale University Press, 1965.

20 Christy, F.T and Scott, A., The Commonwealth in Ocean Fisheries, John Hopkins Press, Baltimore, 1965.

21 Alexander, L.M., Offshore Geography of Northwestern Europe, Rand McNally, Chicago, 1963.

22 Hardin, G., The Tragedy of the Commons, Science, 162:1243–1248, 1968.

HISTORY OF OCEAN MANAGEMENT 15

23 Declaration on the Human Environment, Stockholm Conference, June 1972; in Encyclopedia of the UN and International Agreements, Taylor and Francis, 1985, 780/782.

24 World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future, OUP, 1987.

25 Shevordnadze, E., Governments Alone Won’t Turn the World Green, New Scientist, August, 1991

THEORY OF OCEAN MANAGEMENT

HANCE D.SMITH Department of Maritime Studies and International Transport

In contrast to the discussion of the history of ocean management, to focusattention on the theory may seem presumptive Ocean management as apractical reality remains elusive—more to be found in the realms of ideasrather than practical management, and thus awaiting clearer definition anddiscussion in the burgeoning literature Because of this it is arguablypremature to discuss theory in any depth However, rather than get tooinvolved in the semantics of ocean management, at least to begin with, it ismore fruitful to commence with the historical reality of activities whichmay be classified as ocean management

This paper accordingly commences with a discussion of the schools ofthought, loosely defined, which have arisen out of the practical realities ofinfluencing man/sea interactions and their wider setting The current state

of the art is then examined both from narrower scientific viewpoints andwider cultural standpoints This leads naturally to the present role oftheory in the broad concepts of global change which are being used to pulltogether much scientific effort relating to the environment as a whole Therole of theory in influencing practical management decision-making is thenconsidered with regard to the world of ideas, maritime traditions andpractical management, with particular reference to regional geographicalimplications

A DEVELOPMENT OF IDEAS

To talk about schools of thought in ocean management implies a scale ofholistic thinking on the subject which does not square with historicalreality Rather, there has been a sequence of key ideas relating to theoverall concept which has paralleled the history of ocean development It isthus to the thread of history that we turn in the first instance to gaininsight into the nature of thinking in the ocean management field Indoing this it is convenient to highlight elements in the historic pattern andrelate these to the emergence of the ideas concerned

Contrary to modern appearances, ideas relating to aspects of oceanmanagement are very old The role of the traditional societies in this regardhas been considered by Couper [1] Bearing in mind that the traditionalsociety remains predominant or at least influential in much of the globe,traditional approaches have considerable potential This is especiallysignificant concerning the concepts of closeness and balance between manand the natural environment which lie at the heart of traditionalphilosophies around the world, and which can surely be incorporated into

more scientifically-oriented approaches, especially in the developing world[2]

Ideas concerning an order, or law of the sea have of course classical roots

in the West For present purposes, however, the key starting point is theemergence of modem Europe, as defined by historians, beginning with theage of exploration [3] in the second half of the fifteenth century, which inthe space of three centuries provided a network of maritime links amongall the traditional maritime culture regions, and implanted a developmentethos in them all via immigration and transfer of ideas

A useful approach to subsequent developments from a theoreticalstandpoint is to consider these both as a sequence of structuraldevelopment stages and part of a periodic, cyclical process The firstdevelopment in the ideas field concerned the conflict between the concepts

of closed and open seas, out of which emerged the freedom of the seas ininternational law It really arose at the end of the first stage of explorationwhich occupied the first half of the sixteenth century, but attained aprogressively higher profile during the emergence of Dutch maritimesupremacy after the revolution of 1580 The argument intensified duringthe course of the seventeenth century as Anglo-Dutch rivalry increased.The strategic use of the sea which in many ways grew out of the concept

of maintaining open seas tends not to be regarded as a management

activity, but in the evolution of sea use management should be soregarded The management of naval affairs was aimed at ensuring that theseas remained open—primarily for trade, to maintain international powerbalances, promote colonial expansion, and even on occasion to regulate thefisheries The latter in Britain, the primary maritime power in theeighteenth and nineteenth centuries, tended however to be valued more as

a source of skilled manpower, to their considerable detriment at times [4].There was a notable evolution in the patterns of conflict over seapowerbefore 1914 [5], including the Anglo-Spanish conflict of the late sixteenthcentury, followed by the successive Anglo-Dutch and Anglo-French battles

for supremacy, and ending with the Pax Britannica which was maintained

in the world ocean from Trafalgar to Jutland

The third set of ideas revolved around the concept of safety in theoperation of merchant shipping This too had its modern origins in theseventeenth century and gained in importance in the eighteenth, especiallyafter the establishment of Lloyd’s of London in 1734, and the MerchantShipping Act of 1786 It gained ground much more rapidly during theperiod of economic expansion after the 1840s, when a truly globallyintegrated economy began to emerge for the first time [6] This wasevidenced in the successive British merchant shipping acts, the

THEORY OF OCEAN MANAGEMENT 19

establishment of coastguards and lifesaving services, elaboration ofpilotage, expansion of navigational charting, and the setting up of moreclassification societies Unlike the simple concepts of closed and open seas,maritime safety and the navigation management which followed in itswake covered a wide range of diverse and organisationally disaggregated

activities which in many ways came more sharply into focus after the Titanic

disaster of 1912 and the ultimate establishment of the globalIntergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organisation under UnitedNations auspices in 1948

A fourth significant development was the growth of pure scientificinterest in the oceans in the course of the nineteenth century, culminating

in the famous Challenger voyage of the early 1870s, which was followed by

a whole series of expeditions both before and after the First World War.Paralleling this was a considerable element of hydrographic surveying forthe production of navigational charts, which provided a detailedknowledge of bathymetry, albeit for primarily practical rather than purelyscientific ends The role of marine science as a use of the sea at this timewas probably not regarded in a managerial light, although it required agood deal of management to bring it to fruition [7] However, science was

to be put to practical management ends before the scientific exploration ofthe oceans was fully under way, in investigations into the decline ofcommercial fish stocks

The fifth topic, fish stock conservation, was the first concept which wasenvironmentally-based in a contemporary sense This had been notionally

on the ocean agenda since the seventeenth century, but the practicalnecessities arose from the decline of fish stocks in North West Europe,beginning with the Danish plaice fishery The result was the formation ofthe International Council for the Exploration of the Seas (ICES),established in Copenhagen in 1902 [8] Interestingly, the earlier collapse

of certain whale populations in the mid- and late nineteenth century seemsnot to have generated similar practical responses These came later, in the1930s, and with the formation of the International Whaling Commission

in 1946 [9] Meanwhile, there were landmark conventions dealing withoverfishing, including the Pacific Fur Seal Convention of 1894, and thePacific Halibut Convention of 1924 [10]

The common feature of the development of all these ideas was theirbasis in the separate management organisation of individual use groups[11] The development of the freedom of the seas and the management ofseapower of course proceeded in tandem with state evolution and wereprimarily state responsibilities Marine science and hydrographic surveying

in turn depended on naval activity to begin with, and only towards the end

of the nineteenth century became more the province of the growinginternational scientific community The complex management ofnavigation had its roots in the private sector, although also the subject ofincreasing government intervention in the course of the nineteenthcentury Fisheries management efforts were pursued by government inassociation with the scientific interest All consisted of variouscombinations of what can now be considered as general and technicalmanagement initiatives [12] Viewed from a geographical standpoint, theprimary emphasis was on the spatial organisation of the sea, not only inmaintaining its open-ness, but in strategic and navigation management.Interest in the marine environment was born of necessity, through strategicconsiderations and the needs of allocation and conservation of fisheriesresources.

After the Second World War, the management system concerned withthese issues greatly expanded It was joined by other hitherto relativelypoorly developed areas, in mineral extraction, waste disposal, recreationand conservation But the emphasis remained on the “separate use”approach until around 1970, although a harbinger of a more integratedview can be discerned in the early stages of the current phase of theevolution of the Law of the Sea in the 1950s and early 1960s Beforeconsidering these in more detail it is necessary to take account of the

“background” influences operating on the evolving management system.These influences, termed the external environment by Vallega [13],include environmental, technological, economic, social and politicalcategories Environmental influences and interactions were of courseparamount in certain aspects of safety and fisheries conservation, butconstituted only one of several priorities overall Technological influenceshave of course been profound [14], notably in the coming of steam in thefirst instance Economic and social influences were considerable to anextent which remains to be fully evaluated

On the long time scale which is the focus of this section of the paper, it

is likely that long waves of economic and technological development andtheir accompanying social evolution were of critical importance Specificpolitical, including military influences can also be discerned but arecumulatively less significant than the trends of economic and social change

in which these are in the nature of landmarks

In any event there emerged in the 1970s a sea change in the conceptualapproach to sea use management which even began to be reflected inorganisational (general) and practical (technical) measures This was amove towards integration, operating at several levels First was theconceptual level of a view of interacting uses with the environment, upon

THEORY OF OCEAN MANAGEMENT 21

which both technical and general approaches could be based, including thenegotiation of the Law of the Sea Convention of 1982 Inherent in thiswas a comprehensive approach to the specification of sea use management

in both space and time [15] Beyond this lay the beginnings oforganisational change, both administrative and political [16], in whichthere was a strong emphasis upon the intensely used coastal zones [17].Behind all this lay important international developments of a multi-disciplinary nature reflected in the organisation of both the natural andsocial sciences at tertiary level in education and research [18] There werealso practical examples, supreme among which was the Great Barrier Reefmanagement initiative [19] and the United Nations EnvironmentProgramme (UNEP) Regional Seas Programme [20], various coastalmanagement initiatives, including the US Coastal Zone Management Act

of 1972 [21], and a variety of measures applied to the European Seas.Overall, the nature and complexity of true integration began to emergeand be appreciated

THE STATE OF THE ART

The purpose of this section is to examine present thinking and practice,first with regard to disciplines in both the natural and social sciences,followed by consideration of the approaches to be found in the traditionalsocieties, and ending with the concept of integration of thinking withrespect to human experience in the field of sea use management

It is appropriate to begin with the social sciences broadly defined toinclude history, law, sociology, anthropology, economics and humangeography Here it is necessary to distinguish to some extent between thestudy of the sea generally and the study of ocean management in particular,although the two are to some extent inseparable

The history of sea use management, integrated or otherwise, has still to

be written, partly because in an integrated sense it is very short, as in theurban industrial world, or not history in a strict sense, in the case of theoral traditions of traditional societies There is, however, a large literature

in maritime history, especially with regard to commercial shipping, ports,naval history, fishing, and to some extent marine science In all of thisthere are notable contributions to what may be termed the history ofmanagement of individual uses This is the case for aspects of navigation[22], naval history [23] and fisheries [24] Finally, because of the newness

of integration, current literature has considerable historical value [25].The study of the law of the sea has been a practical affair in whichacademic work has proceeded to a substantial extent in tandem with the

development of the law of the sea itself [26], and those aspects of lawrelating to boundary delimitation [27] Almost by definition, thepost-1970 approach to the comprehensive law of the sea is concerned withthe practical underpinnings of an integrated approach to sea usemanagement.

In the realms of sociology and anthropology, thinking has proceededmainly by the case study approach, concentrating especially on thefisheries and, to some extent shipping [28]; in other words, upontraditional occupations, and often relating to traditional rather than urbanindustrial societies There is a good deal of sea use management value here,not least because maritime traditions are often as not deeply imbued intraditional societies

In economics the central focus has likewise been on the traditionalactivities of shipping [29] and fishing [30] As in the case of law, academicwork has often been closely allied to practical implementation Whereasshipping economics has concentrated mainly on the shipping industry,fisheries economics has been concerned both with development andconservation, often from a theoretical standpoint As with fisheriesbiology, further mentioned below, it has been the academic and theoreticalcornerstone of fisheries management in the second half of the twentiethcentury As such, relatively little has been contributed directly to the study

of sea use management, although the theory, together with widerdevelopments in environmental economics are of great practicalsignificance

Marine human geography lies at the centre of sea use managementstudies in providing a bridge between the social and natural sciences Itthus has great integrative potential, despite its relatively recent arrival onthe scene [31] This contribution exists at several levels, ranging frompractical approaches based on technical and general management concepts[32] to theoretical approaches based on general system theory [33] In theregional dimension in particular [34], there is considerable potential for

integrating not only the multidisciplinary thinking per se, but also the

theory with the practical applications [35]

The natural science disciplines involved include marine biology,geomorphology, geology, oceanography, and meteorology together withmarine technology It is arguably in the marine sciences that the scientifictradition is strongest and most obvious, not least because of the field-basednature of the work in environmental monitoring, engineering anddevelopment of theory Developments in maritime technology, notably innavigation, fisheries and offshore engineering have been allied withconsiderable advances in both social and natural sciences, because

THEORY OF OCEAN MANAGEMENT 23

technological development has itself provided great opportunities fordevelopment and management activities.

The classic application of marine biology has of course been in fisheriesmanagement, extending back to the second half of the nineteenth century,and receiving a boost with the establishment of ICES Effort has beenparticularly directed towards the development of models to explain thedynamics of commercial fish populations [36] This field is now facing up

to the need for the construction of multispecies models, which generallylack sufficient data Since the 1970s, with the increased importance ofconservation, the subject has also developed to deal with the ecology ofmajor marine habitats, including coral reefs [37], mangroves [38] and largemarine ecosystems [39]

Oceanography and marine meteorology [40] owe their modem origins

in part to the Challenger expedition and have subsequently been built upon

the acquisition of data from sea voyages by research ships, monitoring frommerchant ships and latterly remote sensing data from satellite observations.Since the International Geophysical Year in 1957, a substantial momentumhas been built up using large scale medium to long term “experiments”based on coordinated monitoring and model building The InternationalGeosphere-Biosphere Program (IGBP) in particular may be regarded as thelatest stage in this evolutionary process, with a particular focus upon longterm atmospheric and oceanic change

In geomorphological and geological terms, the emergence of platetectonics in the 1960s provided a revolutionary new basis for theexplanation of the evolution of the ocean basins, the implications of whichare still being worked out in detail in many subfields of the earth sciences.However, all this has taken place against a background in which most ofthe ocean floor has not been surveyed at all to modern standards [41].Viewing the state of development of both the social and natural sciences

in relation to the study of the ocean leads to the conclusion that there havebeen large-scale advances, especially in the course of the past quarter-century or so Although basic exploration and fieldwork have expandedgreatly during this period, the emphasis has nonetheless shifted towardsintegration and model-building, particularly within the confines ofindividual disciplines The existence of the IGBP and Human Dimensions

of Global Change (HDGC) Programmes further shifts the emphasistowards disciplinary integration, all of which heightens expectations thatthe next stage must be towards the application of such integrated approaches

in specific management situations, at which point it is instructive to look

at the knowledge relationships of traditional societies with the sea

Traditional maritime societies belonging to the great cultural regions ofthe globe [42] have always had a vast lore of traditional knowledge,summed up in artefacts such as the design of boats and fishing gear, oraltraditions, and a pre-scientific world view in which kinds of knowing otherthan science are emphasised, inherent, for example in the wildernessconcept [43] In all these traditions, the complexity of inter-relatedness ofman and the sea is emphasised, and the holistic, integrated approach tomanagement is inherent in the ways of life, from the South Pacific islands

of today [44] to the North Atlantic culture region descended from Vikingtimes [45]

In reviewing the overall state of the art of ocean management a number

of points emerge with regard to “theory” First is the surprising importance

of traditional societies, both in population and geographical extent,including the Arctic polar regions within the developed world Althoughunder attack and open to change, the integrated approach of these maritimetraditions must not be lost sight of, and indeed can be capitalised upon inmany regions where possible Secondly the exploitation of the oceans usingmodem science and technology has reached a stage at which severeimbalances are inherent in man’s relationship with the oceans in almostevery major sea use group It is for a wiser further development and use ofscience and technology to redress the balance inherent in the philosophyand practice of traditional societies, which have often been thrown off-balance by indiscriminate application of modem science and technology It

is in this context of change that we now turn to the significance of globalchange

THEORY AND GLOBAL CHANGE

The study of global change implies above all the integration not only offields of knowledge, but also of knowledge with experience, both modernand traditional This is a great challenge which must be taken up ifprogress is to be made In achieving this there are arguably threefundamental starting points, namely the dominance of the developmentperspective in human affairs, the true significance of the traditionalsociety, and the concept of a natural world of which man is an integralpart, symbolised by the idea of “spaceship earth” With such ideas in mind

it is possible to review and grasp the significance of the IGBP and HDGCProgrammes in the context of ocean management

The dominance of the development perspective at the present stage ofworld history can scarcely be exaggerated, despite apparent reactionsagainst Western culture in the major traditional non-Western societies,

THEORY OF OCEAN MANAGEMENT 25

and the predominantly Western concern with environmental issues.Cultural compromises can be varied and difficult to categorise—perhapsthe universal adoption of modem technology is symptomatic, while inenvironmental affairs, the widespread currency of the sustainabledevelopment concept is striking That there should be such a prevalence ofthe development perspective is hardly surprising It has to do with thefundamentals of human nature, including the acquisition of materialpossessions, the advance of science and technology, and the profoundsocial forces evidenced in political and strategic developments Overagainst these driving forces stands the panoply of management exemplified

by the law of the sea, planning and policy-making

In making sense of this amalgam of knowledge and experience in themaritime field much history is, as elsewhere, narrative in nature Perhapsrightly so, theory is distrusted And yet the existence of patterns in what isfundamentally a process of social evolution is incontrovertible not only interms of historical evidence, but also in the environmental sciences Inplumbing the depths of theory, conventional academic disciplines can be ahindrance rather than a help The observation of Wallerstein in the socialscience field that the only real subject is “historical social science” is a usefulone in promoting the idea of a seamless web of knowledge andunderstanding set within a temporal framework In all this, perhaps one ofthe most immediate problems of interest and usefulness is to increaseunderstanding of cyclical phenomena, from the stages of Rostow [46] tothe various business cycles and long waves The integrative nature of suchwork transcends the conventional academic boundaries which nonethelessalso serve a useful purpose in promoting integrated managementapproaches

Such considerations naturally lead on to considering the real nature ofthe traditional society In this it is the apparent closeness, even symbiosis

of society with environment which can provide much immediateinspiration The significance of the traditional society’s relationship withthe environment in general and the sea in particular is vividly portrayed in

the symbol of the erthyrina leaf adopted by the World Wilderness

Congresses [47] This consists of three small leaves reminiscent of a cloverleaf One represents the relationship of person to soil, or environment, inwhich the concept of balance and therefore sustainable use is inherent, andindeed paramount This has undoubtedly been the case in the long run in,for example, the relationships of coastal and island communities with thesea in areas as far apart as the North Atlantic fishing communities and theSouth Pacific island communities

The second small leaf represents the relationship of person to person, andcan include both individual and wider social relationships Socialrelationships also enshrine the concept of balance, from the division oflabour among men, women and children and old people in fishingcommunities; family inter-relationships in small communities; and thestrong oral tradition present, for example, in medieval Iceland, or inoceanic island communities today.

The third small leaf represents the relationship of person to divinity.Again the philosophical and religious role of the sea in traditional maritimecommunities is profound In particular the sea plays a symbolic role,amply displayed, for example, in national languages in which the sea isimportant to the national culture, such as English The sea figuresprominently in the creation myth as, for example, in the Book of Genesis,and the gods of the sea played a prominent role in the pantheon of both theGreeks (Poseidon) and Romans (Neptune) The imagery of great seavoyages lies at the heart of exploration long before Columbus’ time in, forexample, the Odyssey, the Argosy, the voyages of Sinbad the Sailor, andmany more

In the past two decades or so the environmental values of the traditionalsocieties have gradually come to be appreciated by the urban industrialworld Although much of this appreciation has been fostered by theenvironmental movement, there are deeper practical roots, most notablythrough the nineteenth century American conservation movement led bysuch notable individuals as John Muir and George Perkins Marsh, whichled to the establishment of the National Parks The modem expression ofthis is to be found in the “spaceship Earth” approaches and, most recently

in the Gaia hypothesis of James Lovelock [48] which, despite its mysticalconnotations, has a strong conventional scientific input

It is with these ideas in mind that we now turn to the IGBP and theHDGCP, the latest and, in some ways most elaborate and ambitious in the

genre of international scientific programmes which have become a marked

feature of the second half of the twentieth century There are two particularlyimportant ideas at the heart of these programmes The first is that ofintegration of scientific effort, significantly encompassing for the first timeboth the social and natural sciences The second idea is that of change atglobal level, in both the natural and social worlds, which surely must bethe top priority for the pilots in charge of spaceship earth It is difficult toexaggerate the profound connotations of this for sea use management.Both integration and change are ideas whose time has come not only—orperhaps mainly—in the context of the world of ideas, but for the world of

THEORY OF OCEAN MANAGEMENT 27

practical management which the rush of events conspires to force uponour attention.

THEORY AND PRACTICAL MANAGEMENT

In relating the development of ideas to practical management, the focus ofthe latter on the man/sea interface, as it were, is the primary consideration,

as the nature of that interface largely governs the practical managementtasks which emerge from it These tasks can then be systematicallyconsidered Beyond the interactions lie a number of social considerationsrelated to the role of broad social influences upon the technicalmanagement tasks, including economic, technological, social and politicaldimensions These, together, with environmental influences may beconceived of in terms of a general management function relating thetechnical management organisation to society as a whole

The marine environment itself has a recognisable management

“system”, often clearer in the conceptual domain of the law of the sea,rather than in the day to day routine of management decision-making Insome ways this system is of less immediate concern in itself, than along itsboundaries, particularly with land management systems in the coastalzone, and with a rapidly evolving atmospheric management system which

is at a very early stage in the development process within the overallenvironmental management field

The primacy of man/sea interactions is paramount Here is the focus ofthe technical management function discussed at length elsewhere [49].The inputs to the technical management function are based on anempirical classification of existing practice in the field which includesscientific, technological, environmental and social categories Thetechnical management system has its own specific management objectivesshared in various permutations and combinations across the fundamentalsea use groups [50] Of these objective groups, safety, allocation,environmental control and regional development are most obvious;research is more problematical and difficult to define, as it underlies theothers and is also a sea use

Within the four technical management inputs there are three basicprocesses at work, namely information management, assessment ofmanagement information, and professional practice Informationmanagement is primarily concerned with environmental monitoring,surveillance of uses and the information technology required for the use ofthat information in management decision-making, including data bases.The IGBP in particular focuses upon the need for considerable