Tài liệu women minorities and persons with disabilities in science and engineering 1996 pdf

Women Course Taking in Elementary/Secondary Education Female students re similar to males in mathematics ‘course taking ata levels, About 80 percent ofboth male and female high school gr

Women, MINORITIES, AND

Persons Witn DISABILITIES

IN SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING:

1996

Women, Minorities, AND

PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES

IN SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING:

1996

NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION September 1996

NSF 96-311

FonEwonD

In an increasingly global economy, making fll use ofall of the Nation's human resources is essential to sue

‘xsful international competition, word leadership in science and engineering, and an improved quality of ie in the United States Different perspectives, talents, and experiences produce beter ideas and ultimately better goods and serviees to meet the needs of incessingly diverse markets in the United States and abroad, We need to involve all ofthe Nation's human resources in slence and engineering to simulate creativity, innovation, and change; con- teute tothe advancement of science and engineering: and foster "We need fo encourage al of the Nation's people to partcipate in science ad engineering at cach stage of the a sciemifcally literate population educational process and inthe workforce Some groups~-wortea, minorities, and persons with dssblites—tradi- Sionally have not fll participated in science and engineering Progress has Been made inthe achievement and par- ticipation of some of these groups but not consistently oe atthe same rate "This report the eighth na eves of biennial eeports tothe Congress the administration, and others wh direct public polity, presents data on participation of underrepresented groups in seience and engineering It also docu

‘ments factors important to success in Sience and engineering in precollege education, undergradvae and graduate

‘education, and employment The data and analyses presented fete canbe used to tack progress inform develop-

‘ment of policies to increase participation in science and engineering, and evaluate the effectiveness of such polices

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Resources ‘Studies (SRS) of the National Science

Foundation (NSF) under the direction of Kenneth M

Brown, Director of SRS Cora B Maree, Assistant

Director for Social, Behavioral, and Beonomic Sciences,

and Alan R Tupek, Deputy Director, SRS, provided

Buidance and review Preparation of the report was the

responsibility of the Education and Human Resources

Program under the direction of Mary A Golladsy,

Program Director "The report was written by Joan Bure, Carolyn

Arena, and Carolyn Shetle of SRS, and Deborah For,

‘consultant Joan Burrell coordinated the preparation of

the report, compiled data, and directed the production of

the volume, Several SRS sal members, nelading Lind, Handy, Susan T Hill, James Huckenpéhler, Jean M

Johasen, Kelly Kang Mark Regets, John Tsapogas, and

RR Keith Wilkinson, provided data or helped with data

gathering and interpretation, Abiola Davis and Colin

‘McCormick prepared tables and chars Administrative

support was provided by Martha James, David Sais, and

Julia Harrison of SRS Editing of the text was per

Tormead by Marilyn Nelson and Melissa Andrews of Blue

Pencil Group Ine Friday Systems Services edited and

produced the appendix tables Friday Systems Services

aff ineladed Lia Alexander, Thomas Binaut, Swart

owen, So Young Kim, Megan Kinney and Sara Pula

Patricia Hughes of NSF's Publication Services handled

production and printing arangements

Special acknowledgments due 19 NSF's Commitee

‘on Equal Opportunities in Science and Engineering

{CEOSE) who provided comments on the report The 1995 members were

Pati T Ota, Lehigh University

Jeanete Brown, New Jersey Insitute of Technology

Beaty Davidson, Boston Museum of Science

Sacquelynne E Eccles, Unversity of Michigan

David Glover, Woods Hole Oceanographic

Tnsition|

George C, Hill, Meharry Medical College

William M Jackson, University of

Calforia-Davis

Jane Butler Kable, Miami University Carolyn W Meyers, Georgia Institute of Technology

Richard Nichols, ORBIS Associates

‘Anne 8 Pruitt, Council of Graduate Schools,

‘Marilyn Suiter, American Geological Insitute

‘Teresa A Sullivan, The University of Texas at Ausin William Yslas Velez, University of Arizona Lydia Villa-Komaroff, Harvard Medical School Henry N, Willams, University of Maryland

H David Woblers, Northeast Missouri State University

‘Sue Kemnitve, Exceuive Seectary of CEOSE, also reviewed the report

Contributors

‘The following people provided data, allowed their research results o be presehied, oF assisted in obtaining data: M Nell Bailey, Tectnology Society of North ill Bogard, American Council on Education: Carol Burger, Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering: Linda C Cain, Oak Ridge

‘National Laboratories; Dehorah Carter, American Council on EdueMlion Linda Chase, Bureau of the Census: Alfrida Cooper Black Issues in Higher ulation; Margie Crutchfield, National Clearinghouse for Professions in Special Education; Jean M Curtin,

‘American Institute Tor Physics; Gaelyn Davidson, [National Research Council: Barbara DePaul, Quantum

‘Research Corporation; Donna M Dickman, Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf; Catherine 1 Didion, Association for Women in Science; Nan Ellen East, Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf; Henry Etzkowite, Slate University of New York Purchase: Michael Finn, Oak Ridge Insite for Science and Engineering: Lourdes Flaim, US Department of Census: Karen Foote, National Academy

‘of Sciences; Jay R Franz, American Physical Society; Howard N Fulleron, Je, Bureau of Labor Statistics: David Givens, American Anthropological Association:

W Vance Grant, National ‘Center for Education

Statisties; Rhona Hartmat

Education; Cathy Henderson,

Education, consultant: Michael D Hoefer US

Department of Immigration and Naturalization Services Susan Holland, Mathematica Policy Research; Shirley

‘Wat Ieton, National Science Teachers Association:

Ma laacs,Zhongre Jing, and Rita Kieshstea, Pelavin

Research Insitute, William S Kom, Higher Education

Research Institue: Paula Knepper, National Center for

Education Statistics; Nancy Matheson Plavin Research

Insitute, Michael Mati, Horizon Research, Ine Lisa

(McFall, University of Tennessee: Michael Neuschatz,

‘American Institute of Physics; George Nozicka,

Quantum Research Corporation: Daniel Pasquini,

National Research Council: D Michael Pavel,

‘Washington State University; Manvel dela Puente, U.S

Bureau of the Census; Carol Schlectse, National Technical Insite for the Deaf: Flaine Seymour,

University of Colorado; Frank Soper, Landmark

College; Claude Stecle, Stanford University; A

Christopher Stenta, Dartmouth College; Peter Syverson, Council of Graduate Schools; Delores

Thurgood, National Research Council; Sheila Tobias,

consultant; and Linda Zimbler, National Center for

clcation Statistics Their contbutions ae gratefully

Reviews of the report were provided by Carolyn Arena, Lawrence Burton, James Dietz, Rolf Letiing, Mark Reges, Richard Morison, Joanne Siete, and Lary Suter of NSF Outside reviewers included Ivy Broder American University; Sheldon Clark, Oak Ridge Insitute for Science and Education; Nicholas Claudy, American Geological Institute; Catherine Gadds, ‘Commission on Professionals in Science and Technology: Rhona Hartman, American Council on Education; Susan Mitchell, National Research Council; Wile Pearson, Je, Wake Forest University Nina Roscher, American University; Terry Russel,

‘Assocation for Insiutional Research Peter Syverson, Council of Graduate Schools; and Iris Weiss, Horizon Rescarch, Inc; and the members of the American Chemical Society's Committee on Chemists With Disabilities, including Todd A Blumenkopf, Thomas Doyle, Mark Dubaick, ‘Thomas Kucera, David C Lunney, Michael Moore, Christine Rout, Virginia Stem,

‘Anne B Swanson, and H David Wohlers

‘Recommended Citation

‘National Science Foundation, Women, Minories and

‘Persons Wi Disabilites in Science dnd Engineering: 11996, Acington, VA, 1996, (NSF 96-311)

Grganizaion of This Report 5

‘Transition to Higher Education ‘College Entrance Examinations — 4

‘Women Scholastic Aptitude Test : : NS 15 SAT Scores and Hih School Classes, 16 'SAT Scores and Level of Difficulty of High School Mathematics and Science Courses aay

‘SAT TI: Achievement Tess 0

Intended Undergraduate Major

Minorities ‘Scholastic Aptitude Test

SSAT Scores and Level of Diliculty of High School Mathematics and Scieace Courses

Parental Income and SAT Scores

rental Education and SAT Scores

Citizenship Status and SAT Seores

‘SATII Achievement Tests

Intended Underaraduate Major

Persons With Dissbltis Scholastic Aptitude Test

SIDEBARS “American Taian Sehool

(Course Taking and Test Performance

References

Chapter 3 The Undergraduate Experience in Science,

‘Mathematics, and Engineering Patterns in Undergraduate Education

FullTime 4-Year Eneilment

‘The First 2 Years, First-Year Enrollment

First Time, Full-Time College Student

“The Role of 2-Year Institutions

‘Aer the First 2 Years: Patterns of Stdents Majoring in Science, Mathematics, and Engineering

Faculty Teaching Undergraduates

Students Leaving College in General and Scienes, Mathematics, and Engincoring in Particular ‘Some Causes —And Some Remedies °

Positive Paters for Women, Underrepresented Minorities, and Students With Disabilities in ‘Science, Mathematis, and Engineering nnn

‘Women

Minorities

Students With Disabilities

‘ye Opposite of Aton: Schnee and Hagin

Graduation Degrees “Associate Degrees and Cerucaiec sa :

Baccalaureate Depres

SIDEBARS Pattems Among American Indian Undergraduates

‘Students With Disabilities Studying Science, Engineering and Mathematics “The Time Disadvantage

‘Choosing and Leaving Science in Four Highly Selective Tnstiatons

‘A Burden of Suspicion: How Stereotypes Shape the Intellectual Idetites and Performance ‘of Women and Blacks ve

‘Minorities in Science at Pout Highly Selective lnsttations

Chapter 4, Beyond the Baccalaureate in Science and Engineering Graduate Enollment Acros the Board

Gradaate Stents: Some Characteristics Financing Graduate Schoo!

Gradvate Students’ Attendance Patter: Full or Parc Time?

oman ont and Pens a ates n Src an ếngeerng 185

Where They Study

Students With Disabilities

Outcomes: Masters, Doctorates, and Posdoctorates in Science ‘Master's Degrees and Engincering

Where They Study

Students With Disabiles

Posdoclortes

SIDEBARS Pluses and Minuses for Women Graduate Students in Physics

Foreign Graduate Students: Stayers and Leavers

The Rites and Wrongs of Passage: Criscal Transitions ‘for Female PhD Students in the Sciences

References

Chapter 5 Employment Overview

‘Women Scienists and Engineers Field

Employment and Unemployment ‘achelors and Master's Scientists and Engineers

Doctoral Scientists and Engineers

Sector of Employment ‘Academie Employment

Nonacidemic Employment

Salaries ‘Bachelors and Master's Salaries

‘The Doctoral Gender Salary Gap, ‘Years Sine Receipt of Doctorate

Field of Degree

Background Variables

‘Other Work-Related Enployee Characteristics Employer Characteristics,

‘Type of Work Life Choices

s "35

56 36 s6 36

Summary

XMinorty Sgienids and Enginccs el "` —

Employment and Unemployment ‘Bachelors Sieniss and Engineers

Doctoral Scientists and Engineers

Sector of Employment “Academic Employment

‘Nonacademie Employment

Salaries ‘Starting Salaries

Dectoral Racial/Ethnic Salary Gaps

Scientists and Engineers With Disabiites Feld of Seience and Engineering

Employment and Unemployment Recent Bachelor's Graduates

Dactoral Scientists and Engineers

Sector of Employment “Academie Employment

Nonacademic Employment

‘The Disability Salary Gap

SIDEBARS ‘Women's Persistence in Science After Graduation

‘Are Mariage and Seience Compatible for Women?

“Measuring Disabilities for Persons in the Labor Force

To Order Publications or Forms:

Send an e-mail to: pubs@nsf.gov

or telephone: (703) 306-1130

Bd To Locate NSF Employees: (703) 306-1284

ABBREVIATIONS

act American College Testing

ADA, “Americans with Disables Act of 1990

ẤP ‘Advanced Placement

BIA Bureau of Indian Affairs

care (Cooperative Institutional Research Program

EWC Engineering Workforce Commission

GRE Graduate Record Examination

HACU Hispanic Association of Colleges and Universities

HBCU Historically Black College or University

HEGIS Higher Education Geneeal Information Survey

HES Higher Eauation Survey

IPEDS Integrated Postsecondary Education Data Sytem

NAEP National Assessment of Educational Progzess

NCES National Center for Education Statistics, US Deparment of Education

NIH NPSAS NSF National Instittes of Health National Postsecondary Student Aid Study National Seence Foundation

R&D research and development

See science and engineering

SAT Scholastic Apatude Test

SDR Survey of Doctorate Recipients

SED SIPP Survey of Eamed Doctorates Survey of Income and Program Paricipation

SME Science, mathematics, and engineering

SRS Division of Science Resources Studies, National Science Foundation

SESTAT Scientist and Engineer Statsies Dats System

HIGHLIGHTS

Women, minorities, and persons with disabilities

hve historically been underrepresented in cintitic and

engineering occupations Some progres has been made

lover the last several decades, especially in degrees to

‘Women, bat theres still oom Tor mprosement Women,

and minorities take fewer high-level mathematics and

Science courses in high school: eam fewer bachelor's,

Inasters and doctoral degrees in science and engineer-

ing: and are tes likely to be employed in sclence and

engineering than ate white males

Women

Course Taking in Elementary/Secondary

Education

Female students re similar to males in mathematics

‘course taking ata levels, About 80 percent ofboth male

and female high school graduates in 1992 had taken

Algebra, 69 percent of males and 72 percent of females

ad taken geometry 21 percent of both had taken

#igonomet, and 10 percent ofboth had taken calculus

Female students were also about as likely as males (0

hve taken advanced placement calculus: Š perceat of

females and 6 percent of males Tn science couse taking, male and female 1992 high

school graduates did not difer greatly, except in

‘physics Similar percentages of both male and female

bigh schoo! graduates had taken biology and chemisty

92 pereent of males and 94 pereent of females had taken

biology and $4 percent of males and 57 percent of

females had taken chemistry Male students, however,

‘were more likly than females to have taken physics: 28

peteent of males and 21 percent of females had taken

physics, Male stadenis were also more likely than

females to have taken advanced placement physic,

Female students have made gains over the lst several

years, however: in 1982, only 9 percent of women had

{aken physics in high school

Science and Mathematics Achievement

“Male and female students have similar mathematics

proficiency onthe National Assessment of Educational

Progress (NAEP) mathematics asesement at ages 9 13,

1992, $2 percent of males and $1 percent of females scored at of above 200 at age 9,78 percent of both sexes Scored at oF above 250 at age 13, and 60 percent of males and 58 percent of females scoved a or above 300 atage 17 Female students score lower than male students on the NAEP science assessment at ages 9, 13, tnd 17

“Although the differences are smal rom ito 3 percent lower) they are statistically significant and have been persistent since 1970 The gap between males! and females science achievement is greatest at age 17, although female students scores increased significantly Since 1982,

‘Transition to Higher Education

‘On the mathematics component ofthe SAT, scores for both sexes have risen during the decade since 1988, Nevertheless, in 1994 females continued to score con- siderably below males, the gap narrowing oaly slightly

‘over the decade, Since 1984, female scores increased I points to 460 in 1994, whereas male scores increased 6 points 1 S01 Females were also much les ikely than males to place inthe top range of scores (i inthe 600 {800 range) on the mathematics component of the SAT In 1994, only 14 percent of females scored in the

‘op fange versus 24 percent of males Differences between Temales and males in thee intended preference for degree majorare striking for stu- dents planing to eater college Thirty-one percent of

‘males and 13 pereent of females intended to pursue nat- tural science, mathematics, or engineering Held.)

Undergraduate Education Among first-year students planing scence or eng- neering majors in 1994, women's grades were higher than men’s 47 percent of women and 43 percent of men had average grades of Ain igh school

Bachelor's Degrees

‘Women eamed a smaller proportion of total science

and engineering degrees (45 percent in 1993) than they

dof non-sience-and-enginecring degrees (SS per

‘ent

‘+ Within the sciences, the field vith the highest share of bachelor’s degrees awarded to women

‘was psychology (73 pereen), Women also eared

668 percent of accalauretes in sociology, and

‘more than half (52 percent) of the bacealureates

in biological sciences,

[Engincering continued 1 be one ofthe lest popu:

lar fields fr women: in 1995, they eared 16 per

cent ofall baccalaureats in engineering

In most science and engineering fields, women

‘earned 1903 than they did in T983 In thee fields, com- a higher proportion of bachelor’s degrees in

puter sience, economies, ad sociology, however,

‘women's share of bachelor’s degrees deeresed

Since 1983,

Graduate Education

In 1998, 36 percent of graduate students enrolled in

science and engineering fields were women, up from 32

peroent in I9RS In seience fics, women constituted 44

percent of the total numberof graduate stodents: in engi hoerng, 15 percent Within science fields, women Were

‘substantial majority oF graduate enrolments in psy

hogy (70 percent and more tan half the toa in bio Iettyepidemiology, genetics, nuttin, anthropology,

Hingustes, and sociology

‘Master's Degrees

‘The proportion of women earing master's degrees

in science and engineering Fields reached 36 percent in 1993, having steadily increased from 31 percent a

deca earlier In engineering, one of the fields in which ‘women are lest represented, the percentage of master's

‘degres eared by women increased from 9 to 15 per-

‘ent between 1983 and 1993,

Doctorates

‘Women earned 30 percent of the seience and eng

neering doctorates awarded in 1993p frm 25 percent

Of the toa in 1983 Their proportions varied consider

ably by field: 61 percent in psychology, 40 percent in

biological sciences, 37 percent in social sciences, 23

percent in mathematical sence, 16 percent in compal:

fr sciences, and 9 percent in engineering

Employment Levels and Trends

‘Women are 22 percent ofthe science and engineer ing labor force Within science and engineering, women fare more highly represented in some fields thân in oth fers, Women are more than half of sociologists and ps} hologiss but are omy 9 percent of physicists and 8 per- cent of engineer sraduates, women ae les likely to be in the labor free, ‘Among recent bachelor's science and engineering

to be employed full ime, and tobe employed in their Feld than are men, Women constituted 1992 bachelor’s science and engineering graduates but 44 percent ofthe

ae 58 peteent of those out ofthe labor force (Le, not

‘employed and not secking employment), S¢ percent of those employed part time, and 47 percent of those employed fll ine outside thet fed ‘Unemployment rates of men and women recent bachelor's graduates donot difer greatly 4.1 percent of female and 47 percent of male 1992 bachelor's science and engineering graduates were unemployed in April 1993, Among doctoral scientists and engineers, worben fare more likely than men to be wnemployed, although the difference is small, The unemployment rae for doc

‘oral women in 1983 was 1.8 percent; For men, it as L6 percent ‘Women scientists and engineers are more ikely than

‘men tobe employed in academia, but among cademics,

‘women are Tess Tikely than men to be in science and engineering Women are 44 percent of facully in

"hon seiele and egineeing fields but only 4 percent fof science and engineering faculty, Women foculty dit {er from men in tems of teaching fed, typeof schoo}, Tall par-time employment, contract length, primary

‘work activity, productivity, rank, and ten

+ Within seience and engineering, women are 43 percent of psychology faculty and 31 percent of Mathematics Taculty but only 14 percent of physi

«al science and 6 percent of engineering [acl

‘Women seience and engineering faculty are Tar less likely than men faculty members to be employed in research universities and are more Tikely to be employed in 2-year schools

‘Women science and engineering faculty are much more likely than men teach par time 40 percent ersus 25 percent), and women are more likely than men to have fixed-term contracts, Fity-Tour pereent of women science and engineering faulty fare on 2 one-term of 1-year contract, compared with 34 percent of men + Fever women than men science and engineering faculty have a PRD degree Afar higher proportion

‘of women (42 percent than men (24 percent Tae uly have a master’s degree as their highest degre

Women noes, ne aon in Destin So

+ Women are les likely than men to be engaged in funded researeh, to be a principal investigator or

co-principal investigator, ơr to have published

books or atcies i the previous 2 year These di

ferences remain even wilh research universities

and among all age groups

‘Among Talim seience and engineering faculty,

‘women are less likely to char deparments Only TT pereent of women, but [4 pereent of full-sime

ren science and engineering faculy, chair their

‘department

‘Women scientists and engineers hold fewer high kod position in colleges and universities than

n Women are less likely than mento be fll

professors and are more likely than men t0 be

sistant professors or instructors Par of this di

ference in rank can be explained by age dite

ences, but diferences in rank remain even after

controlling for age Among those who received

{heir doctorates 13 or more years ago, 72 percent

gự me ately 85 percent of wore ae >

‘+ Women are aso les likely than men tobe tenured for to be on a tenure track, Forty-three percent of

{alltime employed women science and engineer:

ing faculty are tenured, compared with 67 percent

of men

Among doctoral scientists and engineers employed

in indistry, women and men having similar number of

years of professional experience are equally likely to be

in management For example, among’ those who

received degrees between 1970 and 1979, 32 percent of

both women and men are manages, ‘Within science and engineering, women tend t0 be

‘more highly represented in fields with lower average res The 1993 median staring salary for recent

‘women bachelor's scence and engineering graduates

‘was lower than that for men overall, but within fils

the median stating slaries were more nearly the same

“Among more experienced bachelor’s scientists and engi

teers, the gap Between men’s and women's salaries is

Ty, ‘A substantial salary gap exists between men and

women with scence and engineering doctorates Almost

90 percent explained hy differences between men and women on ofthe observed $13,200 gap, however can be

the following variable groups: yeurs from doctorate

dđeyee, science and engineering degree field, other

background variables, Work-related employee character

ste, employer characterises, ype of work performed

and indicators of “life choices”

Engrg 198

Elementary/Secondary Education Course Taking

oth science and mathematics course taking by minorities have increased over the lst decade, The per

‘centages of black, Hispanic, and American Indian St dents taking many basic nd advanced mathematics

‘courses have doublod between 1982 and 1992 For example, 30 percent of Black high school graduates in

1982 had taken geometry and 1 percent had taken caleu- lus, By 1992, this ad increased to 60 percent and 7 per-

xm, respectively ‘Substantial differences in course taking by racialethnic groups temain, however Black and Hispanic high school graduates im 1992 were far less ely than white and Asian students to have ken advanced mathemati courses and far more likely 0 have taken remedial mathematics courses, Thiny-one etcent of black, 24 percent of Hispanic, and 35 percent

Do American Indian graduates, compared with about 15 petcent of white and Asian graduates, had taken remedi-

al mathematics in high school Although about 60 per- ent ofboth white and Asian students had taken algebra

T, les than half of blacks, Hispanics, and American Indians had taken this course Asians were mos ks of racilethnic group to have taken advanced mathe- tates courses Almost one-thind of Asians had taken trigonometry, and one-fth had taken ealelus By con- teas, 22 percent of white, 13 pereent of blacks, 15 por- cent of Hispanies, and 10 percent of American Indians had taken trigonometry and far fever took prealeulu+ oreilelus Blacks, Hispanics, and American Indians are taking

‘more seience classes than they took in he past The per centage of blacks and Hispanics taking chemistry and physics doubled between 1982 and 1992 In 1982, 22 percent of black and 17 percent of Hispanic high school fraduates had taken chemistry By” 1992, this had Increased 46 percent and 43 percent, respectively In 1982,7 percent of Blacks taken phisies; by 1992, 18 pereent of blacks and 6 per- and 6 percent of Hispanics had cent of Hispanics ha taken physics Despite gains, racialthnic diferences persis in high school science course taking Black and Hispanie studens are far less Iikely than white students to have taken advanced science courses Although black and Hispanic high school graduates are about equally likely

sen Sea tl dR En: Fete

as white and Asian students to have taken biology, they

fre meh less Tikely than shite and Asians t0 have

taken chemistry or physics, Only 46 percent of black, $3

percent of Hispanic, and 38 perent of American Indian

high school graduates had taken chemistry compared to

58 percent of white and 67 perceat of Asian high school

jaratates, Although 42 percent of Asian and 26 percent

fof white student had taken physics, less than 20 perceat

Of black, Hispanic, and American Tadian students had

taken physics in high school

Achievement

[NAEP mathematics assessment scores improved for

white Black, and Hispanie students tapes 9,13, and 17

between 1982 and 1992, Gains for black and Hispanic

sStudens wore higher than those for white students 1a 1902 for example, 13 percent more back 17-year-olds

and 18 percent more Hispanic T7yearolds, compared

‘with 12! percent more white 17.yearolds seored aLor

ove 300 than ad scored that high in 1932, Despite these gains, mathematics scores for black

and Hispanic students remain substantially lower than

‘hose of white students at all the age levels The medi-

an scores fr black and Hispanic stodens at all three age

Tevels are lower than the 25th pereenle scores for white

sds [NAEP science assessment scores increased for st

ents at ages 9, 13, and 17 between 1982 and 1992,

although scares for some racillethnicsroups increased

‘more than eters The pap between black and white and

‘between Hispanic and whit science scores narrowed for Styearolds between 1982 and 1992 Fifty-one percent

of black 9-year-olds scored a or above 200 in 1992,

Compared with 39 percent in 1982, 2 12-percentage

point increase The percent of Hispanic 9-year-olds

Scoring ator above 208 increased rom 40 percent i 1982 0.56 percent in 1992, a 15-percontage-point

increase The Comparable gain for white 9-yearol0s was

from 78 percent in 1982 to 86 percent in 1992 a T-per-

centage point increase No narrowing of the gap Was evident for black or Hispanic 13-year-old or 17-year-

‘olds Despite those gains scores for whites ae substan

tially higher than those for blacks and Hispanics tall

age levels, and diferences Schools, particularly secondary sehools, in urban are greatest at age 17

areas with high proportion of economically disedvan-

{aged high proportion of minority students offered less access to science an! mathematics education, Many

factors contbute to unequal participation of minorities

in science and mathematis ecation,incding track:

ing, judgmenss about ability, number and quality of

Science snd mathematics courses offered, aecess 10

qualified teachers, access to resources, and curicula

gts Being labeled by ability is very important to student achievement because teachers tend to have different expectations of students inthe various groups, Teachers

Tn "high-abiity lasses are more likely than “Towable "clases to emphasize the development of reasoning

fd ingury sills Students in “low ability” clases are tore likely to read fom a textbook and Hess ch to participate in hands-on science activities, ae more like

Fy to spend time doing worksheet problems, and ae less ly 10 be asked to write reasoning about solving &

‘mathematics problem ‘Minority students aso have less accesso qualified teachers, Mathematics clases wih «high proportion of

‘minorities ae less likely than those with & Tow propor= tion of minorities 4o have mathematics teachers with

‘major in the fed "The instructional emphases in largely minority lasses ar likey to difer as wel The teachers in sci- fence and mathematics elasses having a high minority enrollment are more likely to emphasize preparing stu-

‘dents for standardized ln classes having fever minority sadents to emphasize tests and ae les likely than those preparing students for further study in science ot mathe

‘Transition to Higher Education

On the mathematics component of the SAT, the scores of every racialethnic group improved over the

‘decade In 1994, Asians continued to have the highest tverage mathematics SAT scores, followed in order by

‘whites and American Indians, Latin American Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and blacks Asi students also achieved the highest increase in mathemat- ies scores of any racaletnie group, with scores ising 16 points over the decade Black students achieved the seeond highest increase in scores (15 points), and

‘American Indian stodens achieved a 14:poin increase “The amount and type of coursework taken in high school ate related t the scores achieved onthe SAT In ppanticular, Asians and whites, the two groups with the Consistently highest mathematics scores on the SAT,

‘were aso the (0 groups who ha taken the most cours:

es in mathematics and atual scence in igh schoo “The SAT data show that for every meidfethie _roup higher reported levels of parental income ae gen- fall associated with higher scores both the verbal land mathematics sections of the SAT Family income oes not uniformly eelate wo level of achievement, ow

‘ever The mean SAT mathemati seoe of 482 Tor those

‘Asian students atthe lowest family income level (under

$10,000) exceeded the scores at the highest family Tev- cls for several of the underrepresented minorities Tous

women ros, se one With abies in Sence an Eee 85

Within every raciaVethnic group higher levels of

prrentl eddeaion were associated With higher student

Scares on the mathematics potion of the SAT: Forexan- ple, the difference in mean SAT mathematics Scores

between the group whose parents didnot receive a high

School diploma and those whose parents held a graduate

tlgree ranged fom 120 poins for whites to 85 points

for backs Racialetnic differences in choice of undergraduate

major are less dramatic than the difeences by sex

Particularly when the socialsciences are separated from

the natural seiences and engineering the diferences in

Sex preference Hecome striking: the proportion of males

fending to major in natural sciences snd enginecring

‘was signficanly higher in all raialethnic groups than

the proportion of females intending to major in these

subjects For instance, the proportion of males intending

{ major in natural scienceengineering ranged from 28

‘Percent for American Indian and Puerto Rican males to 4 percent for Asian males, For females, however the

‘proportion intending 10 study natural sccncefengincer- Ing was much lower, ranging from 12 percent for

‘Mexican Americans to 16 percent fr Asians

‘Two-year institutions have Been particularly impor-

tant in providing acess to higher education for tadi-

Tionally'undemrepresented groups of student Two-year

colleges enroll 46 percent ofthe students entering high

‘eredlucation as first-year students: they enrol 80 percent

‘of students from underrepresented minority ‘roups

entering college Although the number of students

‘enrolled ull time at 2-year insitions rose by 20 per-

‘cent from 1980 to 1993, the number of students from Underepresented minority groups earolled as fulltime

‘dents increased 39 percent,

Four-Year Institutions

Enrollment of minorities in 4-year institutions has

increased atthe same time tat enrolment of white st

dents leveled off or decreased Fulltime earolimeat of

tunderrepresenied minorities increased 37_ percent

between 1980 and 1993 whereas white enrollment

‘increased | percent, Among ist year students at 4-year

Institutions, enrollment of underrepresented minorities

increased 8 percent between 1980 and 1993; enroll:

‘ment of whites decreased 16 percent in that time

Attrition From Higher Education tition from higher education i pester for minor ity students Although undemepresented minorities

21 percent of fistsime fest'year undergraduate enc ment they are only 12 percent of bactelor’s degree recipients’ Comparison’ of enrollment profiles for

‘cohorts enrolled inthe lower division in 1991 and the Upper division in 1993 shows differential declines in the size of cohorts enclled from different acilletnic fsroups Comparing across this 2-year period, the losses fnrnumbers of full-time students enrolled were appro rately 36 perceat of blacks, 22 percent of Hispanics, find 2 pereene of American Indians, compared with © percent of whites

Bachelor's Degrees Underrepresented minorites—blacks, Hispanics and American Indians—are as likely to arm bachelor's

‘degroes in science and enginecting as they are to earn bachelor’s degrees in oher fields Blacks earned? per- cent of both science and enginesring and non-science- and-enginesring degrees, Hispanics earned 5 perce land American Indians earned 0.5 pereent Asians were

‘more likely to eatn degrees in science and enginccring than in other fields They earned 7 percent of bachelor's

‘egroes in science and engineering in 1993 and 3 per cent of non-scienceand-engineering degrees Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) continve fo play an important cole in the

‘undergraduate education of blacks, despite the growing sisersity ofthe Nations campuses, Thirty percent ofthe black students receiving bachelor’s degrees in science and engineering in 1993 received their degrees from an HBCU:

Graduate Education Blacks, Hispanics, and American Indians continued

to be seriously underrepresented in graduate science and ‘engineering programs Blacks were'5 percent, Hispanics

‘Spercen, and American Indians Oct percent of the tol US citizen enrollment in graduate scicnee and en neering programs, Asians were 7 percent of US elizen enrollment

2S ce perm ie ny

‘nah erie ss pce Ee ue a

Master's Degrees

Minories eamed 17 percent of master’s degrees in

science and engineering in 1993, compared with 13 per

ent in 1085, Asians increased from 6 percent of mas-

ters degrees in 1985 t0 8 percent in 1993; blacks and

Hispanics both increased fom 3 percent in 1985 t0'4

percent in 1993

Doctorates

Minorities who were US citizens eared 11 percent

ofthe total seience and engineering doctorates awarded

{USS citizens 1983, For all of the underepresented minorities, the in 1993, up fom 7 percent ofthe total in

numbers of scence and engineering doctorate recipients

in 1993 wore very small: 374 blacks, 446 Hispanics, and

‘43 American Indian,

Employment Levels and Trends

With the exception of Asians, minorities are a small

proportion af scientists and engineers in the United

States Asians were 9 percent of seientists and engineers

in the United States in 1993, although they are only 3

percent of the US population Blacks, Hispanis, and

“American Indians as a group are 23 percent of the US

population, but only 6 percent of the total science and

engineering labor force Blacks were 3.5 percent,

Hispanics were almost 3 perce and American Indians

‘were 0.02 pereent of scientists and engineers Undertepresented minorities are an even smaller

proportion of doctoral scientists and engineers in the United States than they are of bachelor's or master's si-

entsts an engineers Asians were I1 percent of doctor-

fal sientists and enginoors in the United States in 1993,

Backs were 2 percent, Hispanics were 2 percent, and

"American Indians were less than half of 1 perceat of

actor scientists and engineers, Tn 1993, unemployment rates of doctoral scientists

and engineers by faceletnicity did not differ signiti=

andy The diferences in unemployment were consistent with what is expected from chance vai- were small and

ations due to sampling ‘Within the doctoral sience and engineering labor

force sa whole, minority scientists and engineers difer

inthe eld of employment

+ Half of black doctoral scientists and engineers, but ‘only 29 percent of all sientists and engineers re

in the social sciences and psyehology: Only IT

percent of black doctoral scientists and engineers

Sepa ni Mt Mr

rons compared with 21 percent of all doctoral scents and engineers percent of black doctoral scientists and engineers, are in physical sciences, and only 11 compared with 16 percent ofthe toa, ae in eng neering

Hispanic doctoral scintss and engineers are sim iar to whites in terms of fel,

+ Thirty-seven percent of Asians compared with 16 percent ofall doctoral scientists are in engineering, snd engineers, and only 10 percent of Asians are social scientists, including psychologists, com- pared with 29 peccent of ll doctoral cients and engineers, US.-bom® Asians are simile to whites

‘in terms of field, Non-U.S-bor Asians, on the

‘other hand, as wells non-U.S-bom scientists and tobe engineers engineers in gener, are disproportonately likely

RaciaVethnic groups differ in their academic employment characteristics The types of isttations in

‘which they teach differ; they dtfer in employment sta- tus, in highest depre, in research activites in rank, and + Asian faculty are far es ikelythan other groups

to be employed in 2-year colleges of 1 have a master's as their highest degree They are more likely than others 10 be engaged in funded research, to be principal or eo-principal investiga tors, and to have publications within the last 2 years—at al ages ahd within research universities Black faculty are less likely than ether groups to

‘be employed in research institutions and are more Iikely to be employed in comprehensive indi- tions, liberal ats schools, and 2-year colleges Black faculty have fewer publications inthe previ

‘us 2 years than white scientist and engineets—at all ages and in all types of schools Black faculty

at also less likely than other groups tbe engaged

in funded research or tobe a principal investigator

‘or co-principal investigator

“ispanie faculty are less likely than ater groups

to be employed in research institutions and are

‘more likly 10 be employed in 2-year colleges ‘Among Tul-time ranked science and engineering faculty, Asians, blocks, and Hispanics are les like:

Iy than whites to be full professors Forty-one per cent of Asians, 38 percent of blacks, and 4S per-

‘cent of Hispanics, compared with 49 percent of whites, ae fll professors When age differences fare secounted for, Asin and Hispanic faculty are

an anit, nd Porson ith sts nS an Engrg 198 xx

as likely or more likely than white faculty 1 be Fal professors, bu lack faculty are sil es ike-

ly than other faculty to be full professors Among,

‘anked faculty who received doctorates 13 6 more

years previously, only 58 percent of black faculty

compared to 70 percent of white faculry were all

professors

Black, Hispanic, and Asian faculty ae also less likely than white faculty to be tenured Fit-four

pereent of black faculty, 52 percent of Hispanic faculty, and $7 percent of Asian faulty compared

‘wih 64 percent of white faculty are tenured,

Black, Hispanic, and Asian scientists and engineers

ifr Tite fom white scientists and engineers in thet

primary work activity The one exception is that among

octoral scientists and engineers, Asians are much moce

Tike than other groups to be engaged in research and

evelopment “The median stating salaries of new bachelor's and

master's sience and engineering graduates by raceleth-

nity are not dramatically dierent Racia/edmie sac

{doesnot appear very “elt” population of full-time employed individe- to have much effect on salary within the

als with doctoral science and engineering deprees when

‘one compares groups with similar caracterstis on rel

evant variables expected t alec salary

Persons With Disabilities

Elementary/Secondary Education

The incidence of elementary/secondary students

with disabiies is increasing Approximately 6 perent

‘of the population of ehilren fom birt though age 21 in the United States were in feerally supported special

education programs in 1992-1993, compared with 4.5

percent in 1976-107 ‘Mote than half of the children ages 6 through 21

with disabilities had specific leaming disabilities, and

‘nother one-fifth had speech or language impairments,

‘Students with these disabilities were most likely to be

either in 2 regular class environment or in a resource

room Students with other, less prevalent disabilities,

Such as mental retardation and autim, were more likely

fo be taught in separate classes or separate school

“Those with speech or language impairments a well 35

those with visual impairments, were most likely to

spend more thân bai oftheir cass time in segula ei

‘ation academic clasts,

Science and Mathematics Education

Students with physical disabilities make up 4 t0 6

percent of the science students and 2 o 6 percent of the

‘mathematies stents in grades 1 through 12 Students with mental disabilities make up 2 109 percent of the cence student and Ito percent ofthe mathematics students in grades 1 through 12, Srodents with mental Aisabilities dre more likely to be included in regular si- fence instruction than n mahenatics indrueion, “The fraction of stadets sith learning disabilities is

‘much smuller in high schoo! than inthe earlier grades Slighily more than haf of the seience and mathematics classes in grades 4, but only 31 percent ofthe scence

‘asses and 24 porcent of the matheraties classes in fides 9-12, have students with leering distiliies,

‘The fraction of students with physical and mental i abies much smaller and vies less by grade, Four percent of sconce clases ad 6 percet of mathematics lasses in grades 1-1 have at least one student ith & physical disability compared with S percent of scence asses and 2 percent of mathematics classes in grades

tà

‘Transition to Higher Education Four percent of high schoo! seniors in 1994 report ced adisabling condition: Scores onthe SAT than dd seniors who reported having they tended to have lower mean

no disabilities In mathematics, the average SAT score for students with disabilities was 436, compared with

483 for oer students

Undergraduate Education Choice of Field

‘Students with ssbiities ar as likely to choose sci= ence and engineering majors as they ae to choose ater

‘majors Stents with disabilities constituted 9 percent

of first-year students with planned majors in science and engineering and also 9 percent of those planing majors

fn non-sclence-and-engineering fields Students with Aisabilities constiuted a higher proportion of planed

‘majors physi sciences (ID percent) an socia fences (10 petcent) than they did in engineering (8 pe end

Employment Levels and Trends

About 20 percent ofthe population have some form

‘of disability; shout 10 percent have a severe disability? Persons with disabilities were 13 percent of all

employed persons in 1991 and were 5 percent of the 1993 sence and engineering labor force

“The proportion of scientists and engineers with dc

abiites ‘neteases with age- More than half became

isabled at age 35 or later Only 7 percent had been

‘isabled since bint, and only 25 pereeat had been đe

abled before the ae of 20 ‘Unlike women and minorities, persons with dis

ities are not prtculrly concentrated incerta Fld ‘event bachelor's science and engineering gradu

‘ates with disabilities ae somewhat las ikely than those ‘without disabilities wo enrll either fll time or parttime

in graduate school Twenty-six percent of 1992 bache~

Joe's science and engineering graduates with disabilities

were fulltime or parttime graduate students in 1993,

compared with 31 percent of comparable graduates Svthout disabilities

‘The unemployment rates of recent bachelor's

Science and engineering graduates with and without

Aisabilios ae similar The unemployment rate for 1992

bachelor's science and engineering graduates with dis-

abilities was 4.7 percent compared with 45 percent for

those without disabilides “The labor force part

tists and engineers with and without di

{quite diferent Almost one-quarter of doctoral scientists

find engineers compared with only 7 percent of those without with disabilities are out of the labor force

— ‘Among those in the lor fore, persons with dis

ities are more likely than those without disabilities

to be unemployed and to be employed parttime The

tinemployment rate for doctoral scientists and engineers

‘with disabilities was 24 percent compared with 6 pet-

tent for those without disabilities The percentage of

in universities and 4year colleges and who have dis 2Biiiet are more likey than hose without dsabiis 0

be fll professors and to be tenured Because incidence

‘of disability increases with age, scientists and engineers ‘vith disabilities tend wo be ole and to have more years

‘of professional work experience than those without dis- abilities Among pre-I985 graduates, the differences in

Ta an tenure satus between persons with disabilities tnd persons without disabilities are narower ‘The typeof work that bacbelo eVel and maer5- level scientists and engineers with disabilities dois not reat diferent from the type of work done by those

‘without disabilities The primary work activity of 27 petcent of bacheloe’s scientists and engineers with dis- bilities is computer application compared with 29 peteent of chose without disables Design of equip: rent i the primary work activity of 1S perent of bach elofs scientists and engineers both with and without Aisabilites Ten percent of bachelor’s scientists and engineers with disabilites and 11 percent of those with- ‘ut dsabiies are in management and administration

‘Within industry, doctoral scientists and engineers with disabilities are more likely than those without dis abilities co be in management Again, this funtion fof age Among doctoral scientists and engineers age 4S and older and employed in business or industry, 32 pe- ent ofboth those with disables and those without Aisabilitios are in management Disability satus appears to have a slight effect on Salary among those fulltime employed individuals with doctoral science and engineering degrees when one

‘compare groups with similar characteristics on relevant Variables expected to affect sary Those with disabii- ties average slates approximately $1,000 a year less

‘han those without disailies

CHAPTER 1

Representation in Science and Engineering

‘The Science and Engineering Equal Opportunities

‘Act of 1980 declares that itis he policy ofthe United State to encourage

men and women, equally, ofall ethnic, racial

and economic backgrounds to acquire skill in Science, engineering and mathematics 1 have

‘equal opportunity in edocation, taining, and

‘employment inslenifie and engineering field,

land there (0 promote sieniie and engineer” ing literacy and the full use of the human

resources of the Nation in science and

engineering,

PSE SEES Stee HS

Pgưe L1

INTRODUCTION Women, minorities, and persons with disabilities?

ae underrepresented in scientific and engineering osc Pations, (See figure 1.) Some progres hasbeen made ver the last several decades, especialy iathe number of degrees awarded to women, but there is sill room for improvement Women snd underrepresented minor ties—blacks, Hispanics, and American Thdians—take fever highevel mathematics and science courses in high school: earn fewer bachelor’s, mader' and doe toral degrees in science and engincering; and are less Tikely to be employed in science and engineering than sre white males

Women

‘Women constitute 51 percent of dhe US popula:

tion, and 46 percent ofthe USS labor force (see appen

độc tables 1-2 and 1-4), but only 22 percent of scents, nd engineers in the Tabor free (See text table I-1.)

‘Women particulary white women, are approaching par

ity among science and engineering bachelor’s depree

recipients In 1993, 45 percent of bachelor’s depree

recipients in science und engineering were women, up

from 39 perceat in 1983 (See appendin table 325.)

‘Women, though, ae less likely 19 choose seience and

engineering than they ae to choose other feds Women

‘were $8 percent of bachelor’s degree recipients in

on-science-and-engincering filds in 1993, compared

‘wth 45 percent of bachelor's degre recipients in si

tence and enginccring (See figure 1-2) Within scence

tnd engineering, women ate sill concentrated ina few Fields—predominantly the social sciences Women

eared more than half ofthe bachelor’s degrees in ps

‘chology and social seiences, but only about one-third of

the bachelors degrees in mathematics and physical

feiences, and 16 percent of bachelor’s: degrees in

engineering

erconage of degrees in sence and engineering

‘hd ates to women, by level of degre: 1958

in seademis or asin management positions in industy,

US population, but 5 percent of US citizen doctorate reciplems in 1993 Underrepresented minorities a5 &

‘whole were about 23 percent of the U.S population Blacks constituted about 12 percent ofthe US popu tion, Hispanics about 10 percent and American Indians shout I percent (See figure 1-3) Although they are as likely to choose science and engineering fells a other

Selected characteristics ath netos net vali, by sox, rcefthnicty, and eisai statu: 1988

s faceetmoty | popaton | „hoi |«geesin |deveecaa| v8ene | graduate | doyees | labo: Tan | nh | BVBS | BAGS |NEMENSS] SAE | PO | see

HUệt | gadusee| sites | Seer | SẠC | coi | sce? | fren ensieymon!| etna soe | som | 60k | 107% | soo% | r00% | s00% | too 296 | ‘asa | ‘aoa | ‘sur | ‘sar | ‘eto | ‘eos | 70

2 | ot | Se | asa | 383 | Soo | oon | zea

» Source: US, Bureau of the Census, Popuiation Dison, Release PPL, US Poputon Estimates, by Age, Sex ‘Race ahd Hepane Ong, 1990 01069

» Source! Brine and Ase U.S rons of he Census, Curent Population ports P2079, Ocuber 1894 ince porte 42-24 ony Hipanes ae ncuded bh he white and ask popaston Soups Seo appon- detabe bộ

«© Pures by clan ae for US cizens and permanent esients ony Sources: National Science Folndaion, Scion ant Engineering Degeas 1965-98, Selected Daia ov Gado Sturt an,

Fostoctortes n Sconce and Engnoorng, Fal 1809, and Selsced Osa an Saence and Engneanng Doctorate

fields, blacks, Hispanics, and American Indians are less

likely than whites to earn bachelors degrees, (See figure

1-4) As a group, they are only 12 percent degree recipients in science and enginering, as they are of bachelor's

fof bachelor’s degree recipients in all Tels, Steady

progress has been made in these groups’ share of science

find engineering degrees In 1985, blacks were 5.2 per-

‘ent of bachelors degree recipients in seience and ene

feering, Hispanics were 3.7 percent, and American Indians were Ot percent, By 1993, the Traction of si

ence and engineering bachelor’s ‘deprees camed by

black inereased (06,7 percent, by Hispanics 05.0 pe

‘ent and by American Indians to 05 percent” (Sec Big fre 1-5.) Blacks, Hispanics, and American Indians are

‘are likely to carn degrees in the socialsciences than in

the natural sciences or engineering More than half of

the hachelor’s degrees earned by members of these

{groups were in socialsciences, (See appendix able 3-28

land figure 1-6, Blacks, Hispanics, and American Indians, who con-

sttwie 6 peroent of the tial science and engineering

labor force, are disproportionate likely to cảm

degrees inthe social sciences and t0 be employed as Social science practitioners, for example, as social

Workers of clinical psychologists, rather shan in social

Sciences per se

‘other groups in science and engineering by disability status are aval (fr example, no data on bachelor’s degrees thle), The data that do exist, though, point to a small Proportion of persons with disabilities in science and

‘engineering education and employment In 1998, pee Sons with disabilities were only 6 percent of undergrad uate enrollment, 4 percent of graduate enrollment, 13 percent of scence and engineering doctorate recipients, find 6 percent of scientists and engineers inthe labor force.” (See figure 17, Factors influencing participation by women, minor ties, and persons with dsabiies in science and engi

i ee es a

Pecans ih Dien Scnce ae Engrg: 1088 5

Bgợ tổ of bachelor's by broad el ana rocaetnley degrees in science and

‘990 (U.S eltzens and permanent relents

neering ate varied and complex They include, among

others, ferences in access 10 eddctional resources,

Alfferences in economic satus, diflerences in interest

(hoe), cultural bares, and lck of encouragement®

‘Scope of This Report

‘The National Seience Foundation (NSF) is mandat

ed by Congress o provide bienial reports onthe status

ff women and minorities in science and engineering

“The primary purpose of this report is to monitor trends

{in paticipation at various levels This report documents

the progres that has been made by women, minor

find persons with disabilis in science and engineering

education and employment and highlights the areas in

‘which further progress can be made This report isthe

cihth in a series of repors on this subject Like is pre

fecessors, it examines the purtcipation of women,

‘minorities, and persons with disabilities in Sclence and

tngineering education and i Scientific and engineering

‘ceupations, including employment, salaries, and pro-

‘motional opportunites, Sutistical data are presented on represent

— ae eee

undergraduate, and graduate levels, and on representa tion in science and engineering employment (Current data and historical tends fom a numberof [NSE surveys are reported, and also, whete appropriate, findings from externally conducted research are cited A shronological sequence of education then workforce barieipaton is followed This report documents the progres that has boon made in recent years and exatn-

‘nes some ofthe factors that continue to hinder further participation,

Organization of This Report Chapter 2 focuses on preollege mathematics and science edocaton, including science and mathematics chievement, course taking, atiudes toward science and engineering, and school differences in cumieul: resources, activites, and teacher qualifications ‘Chapicr 3 examines undergraduate education as preparation both for carers and for graduate education,

‘This chapter presents data on trends in enrollments and degrees in 2- and 4-yeat colleges and universities, char actetsie of it-ycar students, and financial support t also discusses atiton and characterstis of underprad- tate environments that are condicve to retention of

‘Women, minorities, and students with disabilities ‘Chapter 4 addreses graduate enrollment, degrees,

enrollments and degrees, primary source of support in

‘rauate school, time to completion of PAD, aid post

‘ctor fellowships ‘Chapter 5 examines employment patterns including

unemployment underemployment fll- and parctime

employment, and employment by field and sector Te also

‘examines career patterns and attrition out of seience and

engineering, and focuses separately on academic and

‘nonacademie employment

Data Sources

Data for this report come from a numberof sources

‘The primary sources of information are surveys con-

dete by NSF's Division of Sience Resources Studies,

Other sources include surveys conducted by the

Depattmnent of Education's National Center for ducati Statistics (NCES) by the Educational Testing

Service, and bythe Higher Education Research Inditt Dats on bichelor's and master's degrees come fom

‘he Ineprated Postsecondary Eduction Data Systems

LAPEDS) Completions Survey, which is part of an inte

grated system of surveys conducted by the National

Center for Education Statistics Tis survey provides

sta on the number and types of degrees awarded by

US postsscondary institutions and data on the cha

teristics Data on graduate enrollments come primarily from of degre recipients

[NSF's Graduate Students and Postdoctrats in Science

and Engineering (GSESP) Survey This survey provides

data on the number and characteristics of graduates

fence and enginering students enrolled in US institu-

‘ions diferences in enrollment patterns, and differences

in financal support pater Data oa doctoral degrees come primarily from the

‘Survey of Earned Doctorates (SED), which i conducted

bby the National Research Council for the National

Science Foundation, the National Institutes of Health,

the National Endowment forthe Humanities, the US

Department of Education, andthe U:S Department of

Agriculture, This survey annually provides data on the

‘number and characteristics of individuls receiving

research doctorate degrees from US, institutions Dataon employment come primarily fom thre sur-

‘veys that wil form an integrated system of NSF surveys

called the Scientist and Engineer Stasis Daa System

(SESTAT), which produces national estimates of the

entre science and engineering workforce? The Survey

ff Doctorate Recipienls provides demographic and

feployment formation on individuals with doctoral

degrees in science and engineering This survey i lon-

‘mation on the underlying concepts data collection tech- nigues reporting procedures, and statistical reliability of the primary data Sources used in this report

References Bruno, Rosalind R., and Andrea Adams 1994 School Enrolment—Social and Economic Characteristics fof Students: October 1993 US Bureau of the Census, Current Populations Reports (P20-479)

‘Washington, DC: U.S Deparinent of Commerce [National Seience Foundation 1994, Selected Data on Science and Engineering Doctorate Awards: 1993 (NSF 94-318) Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation,

[National Science Foundation, 1995 Science and Engineering Degrees: 1986-93 (NSF 95-312)

‘Adlington, VA: National Science Foundation

[National Science Foundation 1995, Selected Data on Graduate Students and Postdoctornes in Science land -Engincering: Fall 1993 (NSF 95-316) ‘Aalington, WA: National Science Foundation, Oakes, Jeannie, 1990, Lost Talon: The Underparick pation of Women, Minortes, and Disabled Persons

fm Science Santa Monica, CA: The RAND Corporation

as amended by PL, 99-159, SSRI Intemational 1991, Youth Wisk Disables: How Are They Doing? The First Comprehensive Report from the National Longitudinal Study of Spectal Educavional “Students Washington, DC: SRL Intemational

oman, Monte, nd Pern nasties in Soe Engrg 108

US Department 1994, US Population Estimates, by Age, Sex, Race, of Commerce, Bureau of the Census,

and Hispante Origin, 1990 10 1993 (PPL-8)

‘Washington, DC: U'S Department of Comers

U.S Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census 1993 Americans With Disabilities: 1991-92: Data

Jom the Survey of Income and Program Pat cipaion "(P70-33) "Washington, DC! US Department of Commerc

US Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistic 1995 Employment ane Earnings Washington, DC:

US Department of Labor

CHAPTER 2

Differences in science and mathematics achieve

rent by sex and by aceethnicity appear a ary a le

mentary school and widen in secondary school The lig

in achievement by women and minonty students may

hinder their participation in science and engineering

higher education an careers because they have less of foundation for such pursuits, Many factors contribute to

differences in achievement, including course taking,

family background, and school characteristics such as

tacking, teachers" judgments about ability, number and

quality of seience’ and mathematics courses offered

s2c056 10 qualified teachers, access 10 soutte, ni

furicula emphases This chapter examines precollege

Science and mathematics course taking, achievement,

factors influencing achievement, and the transition to

higher education,

Mathematics Course Taking

Women

‘The number of courses taken in mathematics and

science is an important indicator of preparation for

Undergraduate majors in science and engineering as well

sof general scientific tracy Female student are sin

iar to males in mathematics course taking at ll level,

sccording tthe 1992 National Education Longitudinal

Study Transcripts More than half of bo male and

female high school graduates in 1992 had taken algebra

1 algebra Th and geometry, but far fewer had taken

twigonometry and callus in high school Nevenheleex

the same percentages of mae ad female students had

taken these advanced courses: 21 percent of both had

taken tgonometry and 10 percent of both had taken cal ulus Similar percentages of male and female students

had taken advanced placement calculus: 6 percent of

males and S percent of females, (See appendix table 2-1.)

Minorities

Ravillethnie groups difer greatly in mathematis

course taking Black and Hispanic highschool raduates

jin 1992 were far les Tikely than white and Asian st

dents to have taken advanced mathemati courses and

far mote likely to have taken remedial mathematics

courses, Thirty-one percent of blacks, 24 percent of

PRECOLLEGE EDUCATION

pared with about 15 percent of whites and Asians, had taken remedial mathematics in high school Although shout 60 percent ofboth white and Asian students had taken algebra IL less than half f blacks, Hispanics, and

‘American Tndians had taken this course, Asians ere tot likely of any racaletnic group to have taken vanced mathematics courses Almost-one-thind of

‘Asians had taken wigenometry and one-fifth had taken calulus By contrast, 22 percent of whites, 13 percent of blacks, 15"pereent of Hispanics, and 10° percent of

‘American Indians had tkea wigonomety, ad far sll-

fr poreenages took precaleuus or ealeuts (See appen disable 21) “Although substantial dtferences in course taking by racillethnic groups remain, the percentages of black Hispanic, and American Indian Students taking many basic and advanced mathematics courses doubled between 1982 and 1992 For example, 30 percent of black high schoo! graduates in 1982 had iaken geomet), and 1 percent had taken calenlus, By 1992, this had Increased to 60 percent and 7 percent respectively (See anpendixable 210)

92 percent of males and 94 percent of lemales hal aken biology, and 54 percent of males and 57 perceat of females had taken chemistry, Male stants, however, were more likely than females to have taken physies: 28 petcent of males and 21 percent of females had taken Diysies, Male students were also more likely than Females to hive taken advanced placement physics, Female stents have made pains over the las several years, however: in 1982, only 9 percent of women had taken physics in high school (See appendix table 2-2) ‘A study undertaken by the American Instiute of Physics indicates female students are increasing their share of physies enrollment, Women constituted 43 per- of high school physics enrollment in 1993, up from

10

though, of physics students in the more advanced class=

«es For example, female students were 46 percent of st

dents inthe physies for nonscience students lasses but

‘only 27 percent of the caleulus-based advanced place-

‘ment course enrollment in physics (Neuschatz and

Alpert 1995},

Minorities

Racialethnicdiferences in scence course taking

age pronounced Black and Hispanic students are farless

Iikely than white students fo have taken advanced si

fence courses Although Black and Hispanic high school

tradvates are about equally Iikely as white and Asian

Students to have taken biology they are much less lke

ly than whites and Asians to have taken chemistry oF

physics Only 46 percent of black 43 percent of

Hispanic, and 33 percent of American Indian ‘high

school graduates had taken chemistry compated with $8

Percent of white and 67 pereent of Asian high school

fraates, (See appendix table 22.) Although 42 per-

ent of Asian and 26 percent of white students had taken

physics, less than 20 perceat of Black, Hispanic, and

‘American Indian students had taken physics in high

sehonl ‘Although the gap in sence couse aking between

‘whites and underepresented minaiies remains, blacks,

Hispanics, and American Indians are taking more se

ence classes than they tok in the past The percentage

fof blacks and Hispanics taking chemistry and physics

‘Soubled between 1982 and 1992 In 1982, 23 petent of

black and 17 percent of Hispanic high school graduates had taken chemistry By 1992, this had increased to 46

percent and 43 percent, respectively In 1982, approxi- Matly 7 percent each of blacks and Hispanics had taken

physics: by 1992 18 percent of blacks and 16 percent of Hispanics had taken physics (See appendix table 2-2.)

Science and Mathematics

Achievement

Given the differences in course taking differences

in science and mathematics achievement are no urpes-

ing Trends in science and mathematics achievernent

since the early 197Ds reveal persistent dilferences by

race and sex at ages 9,13, and 17 despite the narrowing

‘of many gaps."

Women

“Male students score slightly higher than female stu

dents om the National Assessment of Educational

tee in Nase Caer far Econ Sa’ NAEP aes ức

Sees Be alan Sis oe tees eee i ees

Prclape Easton Progress (NAEP) scence and mathematics acievernent tests ata ages (See figures 2-1 and 2-2.) Atage 17, the zap between males” and females’ mathematics and sci- fence scores is smaller than in the 1970s, but the narrow Jing ofthe gap is ot statistically significant ‘Male and female students have similar mathematics proficiency at ages 9,13, and 17, although males" aver age scores are slighty higher In previous yeas, female Students at age 9 had a light edge over male sudents, but

in 1992, male scores edged higher than those of females, (Gee figure 2-1) Although mals showed the most gains tage 9, female students improved most at age 17 The

result ofthese increases isa similar percentage of males

8nd females scoring ator above selected anchor pons

In 1992, 82 percent of males and 81 perent of females

scored a or above 200 at age 9,78 peteent of bo sexes

Scored at or above 250 at age 13, and 60 percent of males

tnd 58 percent of females scored at or above 300 at age 17 (See appendix able 26.)

Female stents also score lower than male students

fon the NAEP Sclence assessment at ages 9,13, and 17

(Gee figure 22) “Although the differences are small

(from Ì 19 3 percent lower), they ae statistically signi

icant and have béen persistent since 1970 (US

Deparment of Education 1994) The gap between

males and females’ science achievement is greatest at

age 17 although female students” scores have increased

‘Sgnificanily since 1982 In 1982, 48 percent of male and

30 percent of female I7-year-olds scored at or above

300 0n the NAEP science assessment In 1992, SI per-

ont of males and 42 percent of females in tht age

froup scored ator above 300: a é-pereentazepoint

Increase for males and a 12-percentagepoint increase

for females (See appendix able 2-11.)

Minorities

‘The diferences in mathematics and science achieve

ment by race/ethnicity are much more prenounced than

differences by ex, although they have narrowed during

the past decade, Mathematies scares improved for white,

black, and Hispanic stadents at ages 9, 13, and 17

between 1978 and 1992 (See figure 2-11) Gains for

black and Hispanic stadens were higher than those for

white students For example, 13 percent more black 17-

yearolds and 18 pereent more Hispanic 17-year-olds

Scored ator above 300 compared with 12 percent more

white 17-year-old (See appendix tble 2-6.)

‘ix bles 2-3 t 2-6) The median scores for black std Hispanic students a ll tree age levels are lower than the 25th percentile scores for white students, The gap between white and black mathematics scores at ages 2,

13 and 17 narrowed between 1978 and 1992, although it is sill substantial The gap between white and Hispanic

‘mathematics scores narowed a ages 13 and 17, but has remained constant at age 9 (Se figure 2-3.) ‘As with mathematics scores, differences in science Scores persis across racialethie groups Scores for Whites are substantially higher than those for blacks and Hispanics at all age levels, and differences are greatest at age 17 (See figure 2-4)" Sclene scores inreased for Students at all three ages between 1982 and 1992, although scores for some groups increased more than

‘others, The gap between black and white and between Hispanic and white sence sores narrowed for 9-year

‘olds between 1982 and 1992 Fifty-one percent of Back S.yearolds scored at or above 200 in 1992, compared vith 39 percent in 1982, 12-percentage-pont increase

‘The percentage of Hispanic year-olds scoring at or hove 200 increased from 40 percent in 1982 to 56 pe

‘ent in 1992, a L5-percemage-point increase, The com- parable gui for white 9-year-olds was from 78 percent

In 1982 lo 86 percent in 1992, 4 7-pereentage-poi increase (See appendix table 2-11.) No narrowing of the gap was evident for black or Hispanic 13-year ods

‘or LT-yearclds

Factors Influencing Achievement

‘Some of the differences in mathematics and science achievement by racelthniity can be explained by fam ily background characteristics and sshool characersis

ÿÿÿïÿ§EÿƒP

aa

2 Prcotene Easton Fore 24 [AMAEP sconce scores at ago 9, by racolthncty: 1977-1982, seloctod yours, B NAEP sconce scores ee

‘alago 13, by racelethniy: 1977-1802, sect years, NAEP science scores by age 17, by eetthniely: ‘reeset ers

fier than the role of course taking already cited

“Minority students are more likely than white stadents to

come from families in poverty o have pareats with low

salteaion levels, and 1 attend “disadvantaged” schools

(eng etal 1995),

Family Background

Family background characteristics havea consider

able influence on minoriy parieipaion and achieve

‘ment in science and mathematics education,

Family Income

Children from poor families have less access to

learning materials and educational activities (Oakes 1990a)"and are less likely to complete high school

Socioeconomic staus (parental occupation, education,

and income) aocounts for @ substantial amount of the

Alitferences in mathematics achievement (Ekstrom eta 1988) Persistence in high school is song associated

with family income Students from low-income files

ate more likely to repeat a grade and to drop out of high

chool than students from higher income families One

‘hind of low-income stadents who repeated a aade were

<ropouts in 1992 (See appendix table 2-12.) "A lager percentage of minority students than of

‘white students come from families in poverty with less

‘access to leaning materials and educational activites

(ong et al 1995) Black children, in particular, are

‘more likely than other ehilden to Tive in single-parent

families and to live in poverty Only 34 percent of black children under 18 live with Doth parens compared with

19 percent of whit, non-Hispanie children (See appen:

dix table 2-13) Thirty-nine percent of black failies with children under 18 are below the povery level com

pared with only 12 percent of comparable white, non-

Iy to go w college oo graduate school are those whose parents went 1 callege or o graduate school The p=

“SN serve as Tole models and mentors in encoursging their children to have high edveational aspirations (Oakes 1990a) Minority students are more likely than white oF Asian students (0 hive parents with low educational attainment: 32 perent of Hispanic, 15 percent of black, and 12 percent of American Indian eighth graders, but nly 6 percent of white and 8 percent of Asian eighth faders, had parents or guardians who didnot finish high school Pavel eal 1995, p 13) Stents all age levels whose parents had less han igh school education scored lower in science and mathematis than students

‘hose parents had higher levels of education Among Students ages 9 and 13, however, the science and math matics scores of students whose parents had less than & high school education improved more since 1978 than those whose parents attended school longer (See appen độc table 214.)

Immigrant Status, -Mathematies achievements also related to parental immigrant status Asian students, regardless of imi fran sftus, score higher than white students in mathe- Mates at grades 4,8, and 12 (See appendix table 2-7) Asian eighth graders whose parents are immigrants (i.e the children are fst or second-generation immigrants) have higher grades and higher mathematis scores than those whose parents were born in the United States (Kao

‘and Tienda 1995)

Characteristics of Schools

‘Many factors contribute to unequal participation of

minorities in sclence and mathematics education,

Including tracking, judements aboot aby, number and

‘quality of scinoz and mathematics courses offered, Access 10 qualified leachers, access to resources, and

‘curricula emphases Schools, particularly” sccondary Sebools in urban areas with «high proportion of eco

nomicaly disadvantaged or minority students offered

fess access to science and mathematics education

(Gakes 19908),

Ability Grouping

Many sehools continue to group students according

to ability levels Grouping students by ability level is

more prevalent in mathematies than in science and is

‘more prevalent in grades 9-12 than i the lower grades

{Weiss 1994) In Both science and mathematics, classes

With a high proportion of minority students aze more

Tikely to Be “low ability classes than ate classes with 9

low proportion of minority students, For example, in

prades 9-12, 29 percent of the classes with a Tow pro-

Porton of minority students are labeled “low-abiliy

asses, but 42 percent of the classes with atleast 4 pcc-

tent minority students are <0 labeled Conversely, 6 percent ofthe classes with a Tow proportion of minority

udens, but only 9 percent ofthe classes with a high

Poponion of minority students, are Tabcled "high

hit” classes, (See figure 2.)

Egze2e

ines 3-12 mater ass by Hy

‘Seung endpecantnnarty sae

E

oy era ae

¬ Corina caked

Fewer than half of American Indian 12th graders

‘score a or above a basi achievement level in math

cemutics (See appendix table 272) American

Indians are | percent of stents tending public schools and Bureau of Init AMtirs (BIA bal

‘Schools inthe United States Fight percent of these

‘tend BlA/ital schools, 36 pereent atend public

Schools witha high Q5 percent or more) American Indian ‘enrollment, and 36 percent attend poblic

‘schools with low (less than 25 pecent) American Indian enrollment (Pavel et al 1995,p 10)

‘Schools with high American Indian enrollment dit fer from those with low American Indisn enrol

‘ment inability characterises of teachers They are tre Tiel 10 of programs and services ain

‘offer compensitory ‘offer college repertory programs, All BIAbal programs snd arc lec hàeh lo

Schools and 82 percent of public schols with high

‘ese Ne nue

[American Indian enrollment have Chapter 1 pro-

‘grams, which ate designed to address the needs of

‘educationally disadvantaged children (See appen-

ix (ble 219.) By comparison, 66 percent of Schools with low America Indian enrallment have

‘Chapter 1 programs BIAVtial schools are more likely to offer remedial mathematics (80 percent) than’ public schools with either high ‘or low ‘Amediean Thdian enrollment (61 percent and 60 percent, respectively), College preparatory pro-

‘rams are affered less Schools (54 peceat) and public schools with high by BIAAnbal

‘American Indian enrollment 35 percent) than by Schools with low American Indian enrollment (76

‘percent The teachers af BLA/rbal schools and Schools with high American Indian enrollment ae Jes likely 0 be certified, and have fewer yeas of teaching experience Boh the teachers ‘ipls in BIAsbal schools and schools with high and ihe prin-

‘American Indian enrollment see poverty parental slobolidrag abuse, and lack of parental mot

‘ment as serious problems in thelr schools, (See

TU TY

“4

sctivities, are more likely to spend time doing worksheet

problems, and are less likely 10 be asked to waite rea

Soning about Solving a mathematics problem (See

appendix table 2-16.)

Qualifications of Teachers

‘Minority students also have less access to qualified

teachers Mathematics classes with «high proportion oF

‘inonis ar les key han those with low proportion

fof minorities to have mathematics teachers with majors in the field (See appendix table 217.) Schools with & high

[Proportion of minorities, however, do not differ fom

Schools with a lower proportion of minorities in teaches”

highest degree eamed See appendix ble 2-18.)

Curriculums Emphases

‘The instructional emphases in largely minority

classes are likely to differ as well The teachers in si

tence and mathematics clases that have a high pereen-

age of minority students are more likely to emphasize

preparing stidents for standardized tests and ate less

Tikely than those having fewer minority students (0

emphasize preparing students for further study in sc

fence or mathematics (See appendix table 2-17.)

Students With Disabilities

Elementary and secondary students with disables

Ihave special neads that may hinder thee aii to pari

pate fully in cience and mathematics instruction In 1993,

Approximately 7 percent of students in public elementary

and secondary schools received services through programs or students with dsabilies See appendix able 2-21.)

Special Education Services

‘The incidence of elementarysecondary students

receiving services because of disabilities is increasing

“Approximately 6 pereent ofthe population of chien in

‘the United Stats from birth through age 21 were in fed erally” supported special education programs in

1992-1993, compared with 4.5 percent in 1976-1977

(US Department of Education, Office of Special

Flucaion and Rehabilitative Services 1994, p 7 The

increase has variously been explained se dụe lo am

increased fraction of the Nation's children living in

poverty inzeased prenatal exposure to alcohol or drugs,

fr an nerease i reporting because of changes in

eligibility enteria, ‘More thn half of the children ages 6 through 21

‘with disabilises had specific Teaming disabilities, and

another one-filth had speech or language impairments

(See appendix table 2-22.) About 12 percent are men

tally etarded, 9 percent have a serious emotional distur-

‘bance, and about 1 percent each have onhopedic, heat

ing, or other health impairments Less than 1 pereent

‘have visual impairments,

Prcoese Casson Depending onthe nature oftheir disability, students may be served in regular elasstooms and be provided With special services via a resource room, oF they may receive instruction at a variety of special sites Special

‘education sites may not offer the same acces to science instuetion a regular classrooms, because often science instruction needs, especially in the higher grades, are

‘equipment or faciityinensive Stdents with speech oF language impairments svere most likely to spend more than half of their las time in regular education acade~ mic classes (see appendix tale 223) and ths have ccess fo science instruction similar to that of students

‘without disabilities Students with other, less prevalent cdeabilide, sich ae hearing or mobility impairments, ‘were more Hikely fo be taught in separate classes

Science and Mathematics Education Students with physical disabilities make up 4 t0 6 percent of the science students and 2 to percent of the Imathematies students in grades I-12 Students with

‘mental disabilities make up 2 109 perceat ofthe sience Students and L10 5 percent ofthe mathematics students

in grades 1-12 Studeats with mental disabilities are

‘more likely tobe included in regular science insiuction than in mathematics instruction, “The fraction of students with learning disabilities is much smaller in high schoo! than inthe earlier grades Slightly more than half of the seience and mathematics lasses in grades 14 but only 31 percent ofthe sience lasses and 24 percent of the mathematics lasses in fides 9-12 have students with leaning disabilities, (Gee figure 2.6) ‘The fraction of students with physical fnd mental disabilides is much smaller and varies less

by grade, Four percent of seience classes and 6 percent

of mathematics classes in grades 1 have lemf onc student witha physical disability, compared with 5 pet= tent of science classes and 2 percent of mathematics lasses in grades 9-12,

‘making this Uanston provides opportunites for the assessment of their progress through the stages just Completed and their readiness for future activities In this report, the tanstion points mark an important opportunity for examining the staws of “under- fepeseted groups as thy progress tough he eds:

‘onal sytem College Entrance Examinations

“Two organizations administer national college entrance

‘examinations —the Admissions Testing Program of the

1 gre 2

Percentage of sclonce and mathematics clases with one or more students wth disables, by grade: 1983

_ 228

College Entrance Examination Board, which administers the Scholastic Aptinde Test (SAT), and the American

College Testing Program, which administers the American

College Testing (ACT) Assessment Results of these exam- ination are of substantial importance to college admissions

Aecsions and hence to opportunitis fr college students A

‘lose analysis jon of women and underepresentedminosies also offers Turter insight im the precollege

Susana diterenes remain in standardized test results

among the various groups atthe extical tanstion point

from secondary school t higher education,

Women

Scholastic Aptitude Test

“The Admissions Testing Program of the College

Eniance Examination Board collects and tabulates data

fon the scores of college-bound seniors who have taken

the SAT The College Board uses the term “eolepe-

bound senior” to refer to those students fom each high

School graduating class who take the SAT Program ess

‘anytime during theit high school years ‘The SAT

{examination consists of two components: the verbal

‘component, which tests reading comprehension and ‘vocabulary’ skills, and the mathematics component,

Which assesses the ability to solve problems by using

6

‘SAT Scores and High Schoo! Classes

‘Mathematics On the mathematics component of

the SAT, scores for both sexes have risen during the

decade since 1984, a period of increased emphasis on

Inuthematies and science education at the K-12 level

[Nevertheless females in 1994 cootinued to score con

siderably below males inthe mathematics component,

the gap narowing only slighty over the decade (See

figure 27.) Since 1984, females” scores increased 11

points to 460 in 1994, whereas mals’ scores increased 6

points SOL Thus, here was a 4-point diference in

cores in 1994, down from a 46-point difference in TO984, (See appendix table 2-26)

‘This age difference in mathematics scores between

the two sexes occurred despite the similarity in many of

their high school characterises In 1994, females who

{ook the SAT exam reported completing an average of

136 yeatsof mathematics coursewark compared with 37 {years for males, Females received grade point average

{9 2.96 in mathematics, compared with a mathematics trade point average of 2.97 for males.” (College

Entrance Examination Board 1994, p 10) Verbal In 1995, females also continued to score

somewhat lower than males onthe verb component of

the SAT (See figure 2-7) This ccourred even though

females reported a higher high School grade point aver-

age than males in both English and social scienceshis-

tory Females also took a higher average number of

years of coursework in English (3.9 years for females Yersus 38 years for mals) and social scieneeshistory

(G24 yeam Tor females versus 3.3 years for males)

(College Entrance Examination Board 1994, p I0)

‘School Mathematies and Science Courses

‘The propensity for taking difficult coursework in high school may account for some ofthe differences between males and females in mathematics test scores, seconting to an analysis of the profile data reported by high schoo! seniors who take the SAT In particular, although males and females had almost the Same pet= centage taking Honors courses and had almost identical trade point averages inthe mathematics courses they took, & smaller percentage of females took 4 or more years of mathematics ’and a much smaller percentage of Temales took the most advanced coursework The discrepancy in course taking between the males and the females taking the SAT oceus in courses that

ae generally electives, ie, those following the peorne- try course For example, 96 percent of both males and females took algebra, and 95 percent of both genders reported taking a geometry course There isa gap of 3 percent, however, in maleffemale pariipation in bodh trigonometry (53 percent for females versus 56 percent for males) and precalculus (34 percent for females ver~ sus 37 percent for males) The gap widens to percent difference in the proportion taking ealeulus (19 percent for females versus 24 pereent for males) (See appendix table 227) “Tis difference in propensity to take the more i= cult mathematis courses undoubtedly contributes the

‘male-female differences in scores, Females were ich Tes likely than males to place in the top range of scores

fn the mathematics component of the SAT, ie in the

600 to 800 range In 1994, only 14 percent of females

‘scored i this top range versus 24 portent of males (See appendix table 2-28.) "A siilar paler is evident in enrollment in natural Science classes Females” grade point averages are very Sila to males’ in the courses they take: ath sexes {ake about the same numberof years of coursework: and they pate equally i be pereetage aking honors

‘Asis the case with mathematic, however, a smaller percentage of females take the mont avanced course- tvorc in the natural science fields, For example, 97 pe ont ofall students sho took the SAT, both female and tale, had taken biology, and 83 percent of both sexes had faken chemistry Only 41 percen of females took plysies, however, compared with $1 percent of males,

omen Monts an Persons tn Dasbes 82eree sứ £gpeorng T8 7 (See the related discussion above concerning stay by

Neuschatz and Alper, American Instiuteof Physics.) In

sourseworkintensiveness, 43 percent of females took 4

tr more yeas of natural science, compared with SO per

‘cent of males,

SAT Il: Achievement Tests

‘The diferences in coursework taken may also affect

the differences between males and females in scores

fecelved on the achievement tests offered by the

‘Admissions Testing Program of the College Bosd."*

“Although females took 50 percent ofthe achievement

tests in science and mathematics in 1994," female par

tiipation was concentrated in theless advanced mathe ‘matics T exam in which females took 57 perceat of the

‘otal, and in biology (35 percent ofthe tot) Males took

the majority ofall the other mathematics and science

achievement test exams Female participation was

Towest in physics, in which thy took only 26 percent of

the exams Tm the mathematics and science achievement tests

they did take, females’ mean scores were lower than the

sean scores for males in 1994, (See appendix table 2

Intended Undergraduate Major Differences between females and males in their intended preference fr degree major are striking for st dents planing wo enter college Perhaps in keeping with their lower scores on the maibemaiee SAT, relatively few females about to ener college in 1994 intended to pursue a major in engineering, (See figure 28.) Only 3 percent of females intended to major in this subject,

‘whereas 17 percent of males intended to major in eng hoerng, the highest percentage for say individual major for males (See appendix table 2-30.) “Tweny-four percent of females cited health and allied services as their most probable major Business and commerce was the next most popular field for

‘women (13 percent), followed by education (11 pee end) For males, business and commerce was also the Second most popular probable major (15 perce) ai owed by heath and allied services (13 pereenD, Education was mentioned by just 4pereent ofthe male ‘Combining ll natural science Hels, [4 percent of the males intended to pusue these majors, and 10 per

‘cent ofthe females chose these Fels probable majors: two percent of males chose agicltue/aaturl resources

as their major, compared with I percent of females, One percent of mils chose mathematics asa major and less than 0.0 pereent of females did Double the oreenage

‘of males than females also chose the physical siences (2

of colloge-bound senior by Intended undergraduate major and sex 1984