Tài liệu educating scientists and engineers grade school to grad school doc

The Federal role in sclnee and engineer ing education ls moat signiicant at the graduate level, more diffuse tthe undergraduate level, and mall in elementary and secondary education ca

Recommended Citation:

US Congress, Ofc of Teshoology Assessment, Educating Slentts and Englncers Grade Scho te Grad Schuh, OTASET-377 Washinton, DC: US, Government Printing Ofc, dune 8,

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 88600525

Fa sle by the Superintendent of Docoments

US Government Printing Orfce Washington, DC 304029525 {order form con be found Inte Buck ot hs epont

Foreword

‘The Nation relies on tients and cngineer to eondeet research and development,

‘st vcratile and well-rined peopl poses several challenges Amers’s formal eueetion

ence, Space, and Technology asked the Office of Techaology Assessment analyze the

Tae thái wil affect the rupply of sintats and engineers inthe foreseeable fuute

‘sional play «role, The sale this teport—Grade Sshool ta Gred Xehdol- emphasiree thi ty flrs and iosaatin mess be wadersiood ay all one agate

“The advisory panel, workshop participants, and other contributors 4 this study ere (OTA thanks them for their sommiment of energy and sense of purpose, Their partiipa tins does not accesurllyrepreseat endorsement ofthe cogtets af this ceport, for WE (OTA hears sole responsbiiy

Zoli Mflthou

KpxtfGmsoe

Educating Scientists and Engineers: Grade School to Grad School

Advisory Panel

‘ArGfical Ineligence

Deputy Deere

New Jersey Commision on Science and

The New Lincoln Schoo!

Peter B Syverson

Washington, BC Professor of Physiology

‘The George Woshington Universit Washington, BC

Melvin R Web ology De Clark College

NHI: DỰA sywsie su rfl forth ats st Ser TR pl dur gx howe eel prone: dapper enone Or ep OTA snes Ml Sapo Ủy so se rigs pn by he aun a eam fee actrsey of ts com

Educating Scientists and Engineers: Grade School to Grad School

OTA Project Staff John Andelin, Assistant Director, OTA

Selon, Bdncation, end Tranaportatin Progiom Manager

Daryl E Chubin, Project Direcor Lian Hing, Anat

Duncan Bowne Edivor®

christopher Clary, A

Madeline Gross, Sere

Michelle Haan, Secretar

OTA Contributors

` hort Cook-Deegon Gacy Elis Michael Feuer

Kahler Pelion Kathi Hanna Murtha Hanis Naney Late

Linda: Roberts

Special Thanks To:

Alan Fechiee, Narlonal Research Counclt Shirley Malcom, American dstocation for the Advancement of Selene

‘Tas rport is dedicated to the memory of Eugene Frankel OTA Projet Bisson, Devember 988-May Tớ

Applied Systems tnstiute, Ie

University of

on Reuss Consultant Towson Stte University

‘Teshnalogy Horizon Reseach, Inc

Contents

Ch, Ie tntrodnetion ?

CCh, 8: Elemenary and Secondary Education: Shaping the Pool

Ch, 4: Polisy sues and Options

‘A’ Alphabetical Listing of Leading Undergraduate Soutees of Seience 20d Engineeting PhDs in Two lasiational Categories, 1930-75 1B Major Federul Scenes and Engineering Education Programs

6, Comtrator Reports

B Workshop Parpaats

E Acknowledgmens

Summary

the capacity to provide enough reietnts aod en

here Uo mest the Nation's nesds, Histrkslly

Hedenis and insGtuions have satisfied changing

boom of the late 1970s, H

{ature supply wil be inadequat

OF college-age slndentsaltboegh some ine

be eapeaed before the tim af the costary Mere

Important, fewer dudent, Parieular ở

males who have been the mainstay of sien, see

Women's interest in scence and engineering, alter

rising fora long time, seems have platensed Non

Asian minoitks, wadiinally pootly represented

in sience and enginesting, will orm a seal i

teasing proporion of American schoolhilden

the labor market will gontinae to adjust, albeit with

pluses, The Federal Government tay need 19 play

a espoused: polivenn Aix Wy prepare Sadie ot

fishing caters, invest i an educational system

force nd ensuze opporiunkis forthe pansipation

‘The Federal Government has ha both drs and

tengineets, but it is only one of many ators inthe

stem The Federal role in sclnee and engineer

ing education ls moat signiicant at the graduate

level, more diffuse tthe undergraduate level, and

mall in elementary and secondary education

cation and vaining is undertaken for many teasons

there is ro single objective or mission One clas of

Othe investments are made in neter, developing

in undergraduate and preolege education, Feral

tions and students, parilybesavse ofthe onserain, tnd geographical balance oth shor and longer forthe workforce

The educational process from grade schoal 10 graduate schoo 20 years long Tis teams there ace many posible Federal options for enriching the

fs presents a discussion of policy areas for possi

"le eongressinnal ation, developed under Iv Two Federal management iesnes are also Went

“Taos are leadership and coordination amon, Fed

‘abon, The nverarsbing policy issue ts whether the Tedenl Government allows the market for seen tai aid engineers to take ie course Sr aterpts ta intervene ore hold

sent complement each ots and mould operate Gujgeduute and graduate welenh.Serb đem

Policy Options To Improve Science and Engineering Esucation ezrin nrg the Post

= OB cette Chế on pte ates ty art ro

“rate ch a nem con mg thi sé Netely Gck “eter

cơn egaromes, tr eafse ưubryadisp eaachsppiceipe ord cope

- ẼẺẺẺẼẼố

ngnen Federal Scioee end Enianing Eden Earls 7

ty tveugh Sean ard Engrg Easton Dctean Re sung tru RRS sere Ean eat at coterie he wity ot mene sr

recrsitment i = long-term strategy to enlarge the

base of potential ainda and engineers by resi

ing more and different stodents into science and

fnginecring Such 4 strategy entails working vi

nooks and alleges along with children, teachers

I the Nation wants ore sient and enginsers

relavely quekly, then raining sollege and grad

tate stidente in science and engineering tthe most

‘see policy strategy Many able su dents env si

tense during sollgs, alter earning haccalauteate

50 percent of baccalaureate ssense and engineer

nearly balf of science wil engineering doctoral can

fidates never earn Ph.D Soave los ir inevitable

land, indeod, beneficial to ether elds, bat those

tho Yeave unwillingly an prematurely are ic

Tesoarcethat could he tapped Becae ateitin rater

esearch tien

fe a0 high and the population

vin and englncers ie oatively sal light improve

‘ments in retention could Increase signiinatly the Federal policies could work at al levels to retain Many factors affect student’ eateer choice and fptitude, pereptions aboot careers leaned fom iniversiy faeuly, peers, and jobs: aad antepated sarnings and other, aonmonetary rewards, Sidents

‘considering academic careers must also weigh the Irdee of undertaking and Titaneing graduate ve ing, The Federal Governanent affects these career Aesisions throwgh targeted support of student, sive influence on the American evonomy and te teorsh agendas, Tae extent and form of Federal sup:

“alfects the attractiveness of further study Fedcral

Feseatch and development (R&D) support and ma tonal euisions fa eal, apace, tense shape

students peresptions of the job matket for sen

Which sudente se educated, "

volve esablshed mechanisms that could be ex

tates and graduate students wh, with the proven

incentives of fellowships and RAD-xapported hs

“The hasc gout of roctuitment i640 expand and

lementary shoo! through te it years of cllege,

‘A partculsny sits se 6 theo gh 2th grade

Wen courss-tekin becomes more specialized and

fscelerate of improve the education of & smal

Sieuceorientod popelation Suen who take

Carly, enhusiasie Uikings 0 ssience and mathe

Interest are sill developing

fseidemte preparation foreleg, thei iclinond

Dt graduating from college, and their ability de

tive the greatest Sonefe fom a ellege edtcation

sridustes, and utimately Better selenite and eng

fide the traltiona stereotype of cllegebound sie

‘ence or engineering majors, auch w= many minors

reparation, awareness, nd interest They must fist

‘he prepared for and drown nto sllege and iene

Iajore before they ean respond t graduate ans

R&D programs The continning lowe proportion of

dhe grep loi na chgEeEg DBEsiei

thatthe ebrrent educational system and creer in

ments and research fending will require wnivers

Hesvemploers, and the Federal Government to ad-

ust theie models and mechanisms of seiense and

‘There are two domonsteablstosessth] ways to

Fer special ctnoe and mathematics edweatonal en

live] students good catusiastic teaching, An area

ef lechinnovaton i inforadl edscation- actos

‘usouins, television poogras imps, and ether ex periences oatside the formal school system,

Inthe near tr polices can ony be inplemeoted with exiting teuchers, schools, textbooks, and cvipment in a aystem with muliple educations)

‘objectives, In the longer frm, substatilimprove

"ranh yestlincal wight come roagi flees Tovsion of elementary and secondary cuticlt aching ering, and coerae srs ctute, Such owsep ing change should be undertaken with all stodents

sd all purpoues of edvcation in mind (aot ese {ence and ehginecring) and will be hard to aehlewe

‘The heath of the US, economy, technologie shiangia and ailing goverment protien, mene

ff which can he peojctd with any etal depree

ff sotracy all affect Tature demand foe scents

‘World Warland most analysts expect that growth

tw coninve; but prom will ary significantly from Feld to fed, The somplesity of analyzing changes

in demand for the relatively sal scence one neering work fro confounds Vorecarts, especial,

St ihe level of individyal fields, Federal actos, bs

ily Ot nce pesianva tle the Suy, Hi Strong fects, bout dive! and indirect, 0n thệ demand

Auhough comprising ony 4 percent of American

ills thot are wil «the natlonal welfare: the,

‘iden human underssnding by doing basis retsarch fad by teaching they develop and apply ne foc Aologies nf every Kind aud they keep the nations! 2hycial infuurtore ad manh(acbrine ae ụn neers, but not actively employed in research o prod wellbeing nother oesupatons Mistrial, the de mand for scintsis and engineers has Beek rising

Chapter 1

Introduction

llarge photograph in original manuscript omitted because of poor scan qualiy]

CONTENTS

‘The Demographic Outlook sn Composition ofthe Taleo Pool 4

The Seienes and Engincerine “Pipeline «

‘Calving the Porrayal of Sepply

Anliipaing Futrs Demand for Seats and Bogincers

ods: Federal and State Roles Federal Infence ofthe Production of Seiensts and Engineers

eration ofthe States and the Federal Government National Nos andthe Gals of Science ang Engineering Edcation

Figures

LÍ, Si of 18-Year-Old Population, by RaelEshniity, 1979-2005,

#2, Popultion Projctions of 5- to H-Year-Olds by Race/Ethnicity, 1982-2020, 3 Projedons of Natu! Sciunce/Enginvering B.S Awands

1-4, Natur Science/Enginssring ipcline: Following @ Clas From High School

‘Through Graduate School

Tables

To, Pacts Associated With Students) Majong iv Seienee and Engineering

12! Factors Influencing Demand for ad Supply of Scientists and Engineers

[EB Major Fedral Programs Mfecing the iain of Foture Setentsts and

Enginers

Chapter 1 Introduction

Skills vita 10 the national welfare, They wien hw

teaching, they develop and apply new technologies

‘of every kind, and they Keep the nation! manufac

turing base punning smoothly, Many people tained

as scientists and engineers, but not actively employed

i resoarah of produst development, aso conte

te 19 the wellbeing of the United States by bring

‘of science 10 other oseupations and fields The Nar

supply of people exipped and sble wo work ia sci

Recent treads have rised doubts in some minds

he

Deering work forse” Decining birth rates portend

lower cllege and university envollenta and the

sive college-age ooh also contains a larger propor

tion of ethnic and cial migortes, which or

cally have heen ponly represented sence and Engineering Forthermore, the numer of women piinim Seaner ai engineering majoras a ade of steudy merevaes peaking in the Ute 1970, tas plate Thei pans in science and enginese ing baccalaureate depreetaking have oo! compen

om by white males the mil 1970s, Many hit mmalet ho in the past waull have been likly to

ecome sient 7 engineers, in ocont years have preted majors Basiness nateas women are now Following sit) In gonera, interest mscientiie od nginecring creer as indieated by anna surveys Slightly forthe last 3 403 yours although The an” ing depres i hing steady 8

These rends, combined with he past decade's sts tained growth in ssience and engineering employ inthe science and engineering work free The be lif that te pattern nf births determines the men

br of ftie sentists and engineers dermogcanbic umber of ground

Women (and, to a kaser extent, Blacks and Hispanis raised thelr rats of particpation seience and engineering dering the 197i while hve gus sem to have leveled fin te 198s, tant he further inercased

cholee of major and caưeer plans change tre Spire even up the septs pear of Tege, and thse shoices are ifivenced hy mar- Elementary and secondary schools could do & belter jo of enenuraging stents in science sod mathematic, thas expanding the talent

ID production has never tacked ether the Sve he hình sahorl the nunhet dí bac"

calaureate degoss granted, The number of ns

teh yen small, etweon 12000 and CLE

‘Thus, programe that make the Ph.D more a

trative, or other fatore lending t tuations

jn Pa.D awards, ean have sizable inflvence on

TA conelulss hụt the changing demographics

fof the college-age population, snelading i racial

tnd clinic composition, are aot nccessaily prc

sive of wither the size or quality of the fare

Science and engineering talent pool, There are

ways ineease paripation of a ins of st

dents at cach fsvel of the American ejuealonal sgstom, This system is more flexible and ess pre

SN than te deplosraphlet sugasaD HN ôm!

đo Tạ to meet soiety's fare needs fr cients

teering be judged desirable there H evidenee to aide approprste policy actions This assessment forcrsting an adequate ftere soppy of sientite

THE DEMOGRAPHIC OUTLOOK AND COMPOSITION OF

THE TALENT POOL, Like many other professions in US seit vi

members fom the white malo segment ofthe op

Shrinking wile its minority somponent—o hich has

never doen wellzepresened i ctonoe and engine

ing—is owing The size ofthe nee popula

by, tnce they have alteady bees bora Census

Berea projections show thatthe neanber of U8

bora I8eyeneclts wil fall wai he mid-t090s be

fore recovering substantially the succeeding deo

ae, As seen in figure Il, some descrite this pa

tern ab a roler coaster” At the sume time, the

tigorty proportion of eich cohort wil rie slowly

Sa teu I8 gue 2) ln abe fms the

on BH ae hit The nme of span

Youth icing hy he yar 200 one 28 prs

A simple estimate of fataresiemixs and engineers

Isebtaied 8 natipiying he population of lege Peopl the bith cohort hy he Astrea pro:

Portion of cllege st

graduate senoo) and the mine and engineers, This fort of simple extapootion predicts deslining oat

particvlarly Blsk males, who apply for and enol

Large highschool deopontenes pers among Hie

panic (ooly 6 e 70 percent of who compete high

‘os, Life experiences of Macks vary betwee the

an aren, The Buck idle closets growing and

since educational suseas series more closely with

oil clase than with race, Blk pariipation vate

‘may tise The experiences of Hispunies vary son"

aggregate demographic werds alone (see figure 1

3) TU ác important 10 disaggregate and examine how students of diferent talents, sexes, 368, and nity Mlow tough the education system to de Termite how the Gent pool for seieie and fginceria,careers is formed and how degree

‘spirations ave realized

‘The fare sence an engineering work free be ins with individual devisions to solest and prepare for aed 4 ereet Among te flor Hai eeealth: cts cite as heing importa to thie devision (sm fad tae af ender ae ni, ieesonomie stat, kind of schoo sitended and

‘races lake, teaching proces employed students

Table 1-1 Factors Associated With Students’ Majoring in Seienes and Engine a

The non net aeioa that conus Te aides mjrng in alnce and engineering

TH, 1 deening nen and atomic,

TT an An ter an

an Premier clet cdmee ơi em mí

Tiệc ng ety and sata expanse o some se uty pote fo how scenes tay

Cuteiy ston rahenan and scene onion

Factors tat may conibule lo sadnts majoring n sdene si sngneefng

tna reg en tw hai a

ee ng wing mary sconce extn (ard

ing good tock

Sileomiieree ea “hing 2 vou ety eaiaen ooops ton cư Alerslve to chemoen:'Elare" spexieree blle

svaibity of graduate fading While he probabil

science or enginecring Is inany thes lower then that

oft while males gel ery bo expres and ene

fre cxscly whar Kis about being fetal, 2 mem

ber ofan ethic minority ora white male that lads

of vali vai etbnie, and xen dtferenoes that

“underlie the propensity to major in slene ad eng resting bole seeking to take changes to the sys tem, is elpfl, however, understand how com though the talent poo forms as satya jon high

‘shook its compostion evolves trom sadents eho

‘ic,grades and attend eile, to thoy who maior

in slense or engineering and actualy earn degrees

THE SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING “PIPELINE”

‘Tne formal education system seen by many a8

‘kind of pipeline” Ihrovgh which students pss

fm thet way te aclence and engineering careers The

pioeline ea moder ofthe proces tbat eines abun

thant “crue” talent ite select “inished™ products

doctorate degrees {foe an example, see figure 1-4

According «0 this mode:

‘maximums size before high school, migration

‘through (2 However afer high schoo, mi

conoimic stata (parenal educations! attain

Bert ociphion mi means) aie sien

influcnee this sage affecting valves and for

tal and informal sivcationsl activin that

childsen’s interests and abies

ln high school] he inflzence of apse and

sease of sorapetence are vical Pani

larly orc are the decvons ste anake ce

sucding ehrolnent advanced mathematics

ent pool ear during the college years This auahiy of undergraduate programs—the extent facut, the balance betwen surreal designed

ro weed students out and earicva designed (0 +The tanston from wodergraduste © gradu ate school is another big fxs point.» Sb

‘The availabilty ot jobs mcome potenti oh

‘The pipsine modal emphasizes the links between Aisply and reeygition of alent i essen With

‘ut the sadional preparatory mathematics und 36

‘nse courses stidents ate lt Behind, unable ts

SG op Họ aspire tient incor gioi

‘arecr, Yet ets af aspiring sence and engineer ing students occur at each junstre inthe pipeline

‘While an atiods of exclsivity has typified the et base of lerners has always been posible, The Ne

tional Acidemy of Ssiences onelades:

[very edactional and developmenal stages poteital pont of intervention uta comprehen Tice speach to mururng scence an enpnceig

on mạn ress th hole pipeline,

Tre 1Á.—Neil SdenceEngioteing Pa: aIoxin s se From High Schoo

Big chai xưa

Clarifying the Portrayal of Supply

In eat each te of oystion has to work wth

[Nevertheless te tsk sto do the Best withthe aval

ond laying blame." OTA finds thatthe pipeline i

mọt filed slely by the determined core oF om

tiged seudente who splay early promise, high

Schievement, and drive Estimates” sug

te-guariet of those who eventually g0 on 1 ri

Jor in science and engineering come fram ouside the academe (collegepreparatory) eursiculom

track,

and quality of the science and engineering work

isthe shook that interest and prepare, or fl 10

prepare students with the necesstry background in

‘many thing or stedents,nsleding sping on

freciston for Lnowledge and inating good ody

Rabie for is psi One of thelr ask i ent

Aege study, which targets students for certain careers

culture; as well 2s being gatekeepers 19 the profes

This Sault expres competing Gestes

peste 1 aremge programs fe the “pfed and a

and farming dinaled, Again! thee objectives, the

“Content at the slementary level pedagogteal teh tiques in high school The taining sĩ kiEnts tease

Mancing of snd enthuslem for seience 244 procese

St inquiry an mot just a Bundle of Leta” The pipeline mode! i ail «black Hox he cứu ational process that acts upon students I portrays Ihe net effects ofthis proses se ade Indling sup,

forte and guided toward future carers that rogue

‘ditional aducavion At an ualydei toi the pipe Tine ilsminates eee and motions bth win ipating a marke that will match se and inte cus to expec employment needs ANhongh thề Thatch is pert, the funding of tess needs cre Anticipating Future Demand for Solentists and Engineers

“The healh of thế eeonomy,lenslogiol chang, and shia, goverment prieties, which cannot

be projected with any vsti! degree of accuracy ll

‘fet tutor demand fr slemse and engines oe ings and many analysts expet that growth 10 on

"EESHB Haneda Mery, “ile a

Supply of Scentes and Engincors

checeeng ‘2Sialegcal sephisiaien of US manuscuing and sewies din to son tem taenas an engreting Tan for mea ight cám im cmuảm hề CChang øì Himtmed

TH ĐI han dưng

actors that ant demand btneen dưepEnee nh cưng wrk more arse oat Ans, which rect some docs

elon a cagauteg intone ty ans corpus des ant arc tor inlomsing spot

Tae sary tongs for sar ond oop be fet

S05 mane tl an Satan vụ ngưng

swould.“Nevertheoss, polly 6 aecded to ensure &

Raeelne capacity ta adjust Lo market changes

Historically, sentstsand enginests have experi-

saced lower vnemploymen than ther professionals

Brsed on employer reports and slay ors to new

radustes, at present, ao hg-term shortages ore oparent Solaris are an Indicator of demands

Salary itereasos i a led or iustey signal «need

to attract more trained personnel, Poth new gr

fates and thone elsewhere in the werk force, For

example spot shortages crit engineering spe

Sinlties uch a thore supporting the energy oom

ẤP hệ 191 ond the eletrones boo ot the early

19a) acenionaly drive salaries wp sapily before

‘deemed to Iw in give eld, os comparcd

‘than aatiipted ead for heir servis, poli Aakers ca deploy suteges designed 1 laereee Ths muse oul speking these stele Seek ts increase the percetag of stents that age Seis and eniaeragcoursevnk ste mete ee ‘aly asd than eld specie ati

TÑ plmỘy sung nhọ âu te en Coie Pave Cat

STRATEGIES TO MEET FUTURE NEEDS:

FEDERAL AND STATE ROLES

leaders have linked efveathonal nesds to improving

iy Sever strategies exist to hedge

national needs and any

matches etween increasing future demand for

Scientists and engincers ad the supply thal would

‘sult om vapsstrhed historical tends irate

es that emphasize the supply of alot must focus

‘ipl paley sets ave Fader and Sste Gover

Statics are of te

ents interested in a science es

by nalueine thếr ailon from the talent pool

and rooming new students to eolarge the pool

‘ot the kind that have traditionally entered these

farcers,pregominanty highly able white males,

Shs from their euzent careers [ chÖke Laệch

busines] bee selene cod enginerting elds

‘Another ito enthuse ube vast majority of udente

who are now disafeste from science i elementary

end secondary eduction fr whatever fexson—pooy

teaohing, ondemanding carievla or belefthạt

Srategy isto provide mote sippor ta women and

hic tose # nov cmetyiags in pier 4 er

‘tube bod empirical koowleage othe things

ities to stedy sience and eogincering, Stsh ations

include the mtrodvetion of tole modes, the use of

intervention programs, Emilariins eáchee£ XI

and b,gender, and cresting a laseroom climate of

high expecttlons and selt-stom among students

aschimttoPogra ta Fc

fists and enginers, melodingeeducing spending on Sse of echnicans orlaking R&D oversee and th05

Federal Influence on the Production

‘of Scientists and Engineers,

iy a8 personnel development programs—

he renacels job marke, the avsiablty of ships and consequenty, the demand for PhDs These sects ae amplified hy the private sector's programs influence industry RAD decisions, Under aduate enrollments also respond « other Festa fttives the GU NI le to morenses especialy of tale veterans returning home attr Werk! War THe Tide VI of the Civil Rights Act of (964

boosted college utendance by minory students,

The most demonstrably effective direct Federal

investment in sconce and engineering education

OF PhDs isthe Tunding of graduate fellowships

tn specific ids of std The few i mime,

Fellowships and trieehips help produce Ph Dis

and encourage students to sift heir postdoctoral

at” There are few timely sotions to shorter

‘A long-term program to increase the poo of po

iy of those who eventally become sient and

ipeasores wight aude 1+ Federal support of peda intervention programs

to recait and rtuin women and minoridee fn

‘sience and engineering and eventally 4 i

ductive of bacralurestes wh eventually Bain

PhDasin sience and engineering These env

‘valuations, nn the National Science Found

shn’s (NSF) Science and Engineering Eavea-

tion SEE) Directorate

Interaction of the States and the

Federal Government

though the Federal role inthe national eda

tion atom iold hough the Novthwext Ordinance

‘slvcation js power reserved fo the Stes and the

peopl and, au such taken very seriously by Site

đem ef Sate spending” Sites, in ture delegate

‘ele Fesponsiblies for education to other bois,

the provision and some uf the fonding of edveston

‘hich bite thei own teschere and Mai and make

tian, curiuler dcesons- Public university and eo

lege systems have extensive avtonomy over higher

Tho Federal agencies, NSF and te Departmet

of Edacition, specifialyaddees scenes and eng

seeing edaculoi The mision agencies through

R&D and a potpourri of programs, slo contibite

tmighily Under its enabling legislation, NSF is spe

Slfely charged ekh montoring and maintining

fore Ki authorized and divested

to inate and support base seat resarch

{envi und science education programs all evels

inthe mathemati phys: wesc, Pilg

‘cnginerring, soci ind other scenes

partment of Edveation through lair amendments

fd seauthorzaions, the peomation of bask ee

"US Die of Compas, a cn oe

Sin the NSE mandate Un ery my

th mandate has hoon arvwlyiterpeed by te

ch community andthe NSF leadership as Intnl the prov kow of Federal sk esas fds

‘The Department af Education it responsible Gor

‘oversting the general Bealth of the entice national

‘duce ssien Wepertes mand map progiens Thất lê scl yene 1988, will provide 820 lion to Sates, school distri, college, and wnverstes— approximately 10 7 pevsent of the national foal pent on education." ls eharter cals forthe cl Tevlon of @ huge variety of dat, sats, and re search on educition, and categoria spon fo st dents, The dù biên of lncions between NSF and the Departmen of Bdweation is mirored in Con ess, bere diffrent commis have oversight and

‘The overall Federal role in scence and engines: Ing education, excited through NSF the Depart: ment of Eatin, andthe mission agencies, most Prominent athe undergraduate and graduate levels [occ uble 1-3, Gradvate education rele benily on Fer stodent, instvrtional, nd research au ppt Financial aid programs, Feral research sappor and the successive mounting and abundonmrent of Fesearchintensive domesti¢ and military progsoms influence the supply of and the demand for kiem fated engincers I particular there is ample ov

he showahe” by offering fellowships, tuineeshins,

Tobie 1.3-Majr Federal Programe Acting te ienlo of Fur Sine and Ensners Tip Bes Fondation GR mm SE pe rie Sa as cmc as, AeA ISSA Sera ire, covers an HA g vi

EES SEN Re leap ay onde

treat ets (nt spechealy tmgshd fo sehncs and erghweregh: aheretonar "poarans

8 Gepemon d Datee Reoete Ofe Trnhy Cops (ROTC) bo 7S pcr llr pet 29sec ed

7 game oF Hen and Homan Sơvree Hanh vers Cypser Progam ch

don of const sinante While fing them tah

Sic apprenicshipe aa they progres ward te de

roe túc ng tern the stp i probably he

"mot dfesine vay lo ereeeheonttsf Ph Đà

neers nthe lger er resuch suppor and

ent oF all spending on elementary and secondary

‘education "NSE programs bave focused prin

ng en canlenhia derdlopii tổ ache tri

Ing Since The yeu 1984, budget support for insihe-

‘The national goal of maintsning and invigors

ingia science and engineering work fore demands

policy eflorts on thre fronts to create adequate

Dutnbers of well prepared stndentsavadable to serve

ple must he welouned throughout the educational

process Second, their lens mui he ustared by

rnd sccondary schools and ineitions

Semen

ot bigher

ployment opportunities that wilize el tants by

Providing tailing work,

The pos! of poeta taeat needs wo be urge and

versatile, whether of not there i reason 4 fear &

itive shortage of sien and engineers To the

‘tent thatthe edvcation system unday bie the

Brophecof denogaphis determinism Using the

shortage in these olds, for etample, is & counsel

tensily desta sil and intellectual sharacier

Ines of scents amd eogincer, seasoned with the

seeatypes and tnuges that permente American et

tare the formal ection system sets many oer

Wis clear that American schools, colleges, and

universities ave the capacity (0 provide enough

Sion’ needs, However, there is evienve that the

system may not be working as well ast could Our shoots con lear to ieotfy tent Better and 0 Science and engineering, Stents who tow fll the formal system and by inforval means Alt of

mace ahenger pool

fy In serving its furs technological nceds

c les of 4 potential selentit or engineer to

‘We would hops that ve education system weal prepare stents for careers hat wil hen demand But the market is too Unpredictable to target spe

‘ie personnel needs, 0 the goal of eduction, Sing tht for science und engineering, should he

te prepare students Toran uncertain ature 8m patting # range of sills This means hat the skis

eincers must he both speciale

he demands of astahle mae

et for scence and engineering faculty and indue tial researchers and general enough (© qualify degree-hoiders for special oRfentoplie that arise farther afield from their trating But grow ceo tral 0 the national intrest

te Văn Been i iboats or Saba &

nh Fed set TH Pol ũ

Boxes

5 The Unchanging Image of he Stet 4 1 3m The Stila Te tu Amaion Gale Thing Progan 73

Be eet Mente epee Ta wo W

35 Comer tre Advancement of euenied TiEteä ou, The án: eps Cer »

22 The Manone Eigiosing Sens Aaicsnea Đáng bì TẾ: iba tatenaa Conant ĩ

Figures

2, Suident Flows Into and Out of the Natural Seience/Boginecting Pipeline: Tp Hạ hon dệt Che 2 „ m

22 mute of Cage sas seers cau Soacenespicaag oy Canon Tad 1982 gh Sched Seno %

Chapter 2 Elementary and Secondary Education:

Shaping the Talent Pool

and fel expen

ing and placement in th

science esters, som met camps and

fuels may help remove batters 1

Box 2-A.—The Unchanging Hage of the Scisntst, hile’ ia sce he aged it oo he ps 3 ys fn 19ST, Mes od Mas seni tắc of sou 350 hp schol sae nag conse sand crates sad hen a son Pees 3 poke and neve image:

(Sec tendon drawing of sents acd on tei goss, Mead and Maus apes at be nạc ngữ should pha le re, hanan evar of

‘Sine th xo of ros an i selec ae Sees ey a ml

+ enybeire parting in he ceresm nhĩ Đo pase le sepie soy foes

{Si sstee se mma ptm msn alt, ving hing, athe mata or ‘Seb oa pea touch ae

ide teachers ni apy an are poet in ces

+ sabni ial epi cr sol ee of ue lọc al pnts ole, shh a ih oma es morass he west “ + mod ng Hoạt"Soeeoe Somiet and Te Sie Met” u's wb and ahr, nh abot nv + tmp ie sencs Roa, an ber Hag tin: @ muÌe viet mi imine wo cin

hin ofthe 18 ld nae of cece and sens tat esi apchangd fm eof the 1950 In los esse Havant Uncey« Eageatnal fevhoingy Cane ap Mea ad Sica’ motel

‘aber scoraton pol sles Ty ei la:

Sch nis ne pet a den The eer ino sdest? dso abt cores a ars pr se iaget elg ealcracerc of many sods To exon th he reyes mk ie henly ad Ores an ois, nee, ty ay aly Slr iden om pri sence ages te eager

‘ring fpr may ste i Masa sta ce elcn phim tớ kehing mtd ren

SCHOOLS AND STUDENTS arsed enerprite sp tke Unied Sates, cosing S170

Min per yen, percent o the gros national peo:

tt, uses 25 mill teashers takes pase in ore

than 60.000 public and 4.000 private schosts, and

ccratl 85 millon students, Public education takes

lice in 1600 school distending peat

fst component of Sate spending, In IDREAS, Suter

public schools nationwide, while Ioealauthories

“The quality of school ix racial in determining

th size and g0aHly ofthe science and! enginectn

Timits Federal fluence over thi stage in the prep

aration of potential slentiste and engineers The

Coositarion “teserves to the Stas and the peor

De" many residual powers, incuding education, tn

iy 10 localities, Schoo! distids and schools,

Within the general boundaries of State edosation

‘andards, dovite which mathematics a eience

ourst wil hollered Teachers and guidance cove

ments, decile mbich Mudenta willbe encouraged

EP: of bein cof nl Ros sd

Imvac, Conc eat Dy no Sỹ

‘lens plans fr thei ves a flected thelr a Preparing sienists and enginces ix but one of many tasks that schools are asked to do, fstead

sealing dạt those who do not ft the traditions mage of those destined for cllege andthe protee- sons by discouraging them from taking prepartoy,

‘ourscr including electives)‘AUl capable students Shovld eel weleome to sivdy science and math

‘ourast for ther future careers,

Tak fi ee ad ere be

ice oS RU er Sct ed Eger:

san ih nr Pon“

igen pt la gi teUElne he rên

tesehing, roauieted coane sffringx mổ đại ar và

‘Courage students, Ia many schools, fadens sourse

students of adequate preparation fr science and

fehuul system resists change, no improvements ae

standards are wadergoig intense serutiny and

‘he cc Ee

Formal Mathematics and Science Education

Fig tracking, poor curtis and iadeeate teach

‘ments to majo in ewlense and engineering in college

In the Nation's schools, offerings of mathematics

nl soienve courses vary widely." Many offer less

‘han fll ranges of cllege preparatory courses in

mathematics nd the sciences and afew have only

‘ery limited offerings, For exaerple, data indica

that Sk pereeot offer at last | year of physis, But

‘only 31 persnt of high schools offer ealevlr (se

Table 2h, There are also significant geographic)

‘ferences i muesli and science course offer

ings: shook inthe West and Mourrain Sates tend

9 ft fewer re snd mathemati svarse han

{hore in other regions of the county anM ren

Ibsen when soch courses are offered, enrollments sare very lw Flaings ren 9 survey 8 1982 hah Shoo! graduates fhe best avalsble date ơn the Surset that sdents actually whe) sugeted that Teas than 2 pereemt of students whom ealeulus

sun “Selene and Mahe cic hein a ye ST atft

"sf ioe 7

Sourse experiences, In 1982, 24 percent of high

fshol graduates has taken ohermstey, U1 percent

Then thete i he mater ofcourse cootent, Some

‘dev of textbooks and concern about carries in gen

rth the 19605 several efforts, many gute sóc

Slnesrooim materials, espesially in

‘mati feaearch community, t00, hác been vig

‘so efoto reform the system of elementary

nuspices of the Natkonal Research Council in Os

yeaah Set Sui) en Tacs fed

5 SỬ heo e mien ng mua?

Some school distets find i diffeut to recut

have difficalty finding high-quality teuchers, espe-

shally for subjsts auch a8 physks, Consequently

more than one subject, or what it known a8 “out

‘quality of teacher texining, Most educators think the taining that nen science and malhenatce

in TRE teaap eekceainry: eal

‘uthemtiss, but these course give them inaccurate

souzses do nt give them the informaton, Teachers

possible, negleclng time-consuming laboratory work

and svesitetin Joe thinking (whieh ¿

Sisto and lie eseurch is beiogsonduted on this

salied inservice ection Io remedy

Mi

aps in thei

‘sdstion being offered hy sna dirs rng

Soipate while those who need help the most are

‘ment nf Eaueitin andthe National Ssince Foun

Twining is only past of the piewte, The whole

abiliy,iaslading teacher sompetency’ tests and

Sistits 10h toashers of theit professionalism by

ttadvotes can io industy and government

Salaries have viseo by aboot 25 pero neal terms

re Beginning todoman evidence of the Postive

‘face of sich increases, Qualified mathematics and

Ti lệ tuill4, Á npnler of ways ot Cling

teachers! stave and confidence could be wied For

1906 for profesional geowthtbrough skort or

Iong-tem sabpatcas and attendance at professions

ronesusational duties (ooh as lancheoom supe

tee of teaching cesonnces and allow students lomove ies and Inlarens: However, auch grouping also huy powertl disadvantages, Some sugges! hat odents bolgnmlenl b ragke sen hộ

and mathematics hegins auras hind grade,"

‘aly disriboted among acts (legs prepare this level, movement between tracks ran

But theres some evidence that she strangle

‘ent of college sophomores in 1984 whe planned

mnucademie tracks in bigh school,

ftom courses they have the ability to master, Ad

Special School Environments

its potenti eneis ate schools that

Theos types of auch school

hen high schools ee stil comparative at,

ity Gach a the Broo Tigh Soho

—

Carolnay and

magnet schools, which, akhough designed

make imiportnt contibstions co sstnce ed

taton in cases of schools that take selene and

winnin,convers to sience and engineerin, sarees

or thet are no dạy anp por or efit is ow

‘fers cs to be eapected tha the students whe

muathematice than most, These schools are genes:

ll ver populit with Teachers and stulens, a Bre olen oversubseribed, They are probably 0

fo OF thre tes ws expensive lo operate 38 com

‘entional schools, Issue simile w those ase by tacking are eased haspecia science schools, These iesues include the Pcie caning of stot an teaching ant tom regular schools, andthe diminution of cunfculat 9 ppotuniies at regular schools, Whether special iene shook hake brn eet som ode ost on the specie polities! ana orsanizational poets oftheir implementation in cach commiy Some programs have Sven very eraversis and have ao done well, while aters have heen great svesestes, most slays the ale choice

To parents and chien by the oppor fo en roll in special science schools encourages commu: nites to think about what they want from public dvcation and to seek improvements from

designed ta being majoeiy childen lata

are pre Duck, sometimes

cess t them, due than are

tajenhy hien aston

gue 2-1 Student Flows into and Out ofthe Nabil sceeeEngresting Ppt

igh Sehol Seler Cine of 1972

posed ty new ideas, teachers and experiences their

teston between eduction and employment St

feats planning to atend colle tke varity of

futses and ate often Well geepated for @ nupiber

{he pool uf students planning science oe engineer

ing majors well formes by entry to bigh schoo,

and only erodes hsreaticr, Tiss misleading New

{videncesiggess that students pin this pool even

5p to their sophomore year in solege ee igre 21,

even though overall feshinan enrollment is Rold-

ing stendy: Although most universes re net yet

aamplining of “sbortges, " student interest i

Science and engincering is waning, and interest in

the physical sciences, mathematics, and engineer

leneek Thefe are also sndicutons that smaller

Proportion of the madents with "AT or “A.” igh

Schou grade point averages (high ahievers”) a0

L8 0ã tò me la science or engineering than in

the pat; many choose cavers r bunide or hi

Instead.”

To study bow the sence and engineering talent

pool developa, OTA analyzed data from the US Department of Education's “High School and Be-

ond” (USSD) survey, whieh monitors eo nation

ily representative samples, one dra Thu thue

collect dats about their carser and educational

While most colege sophomores intending to pur soe science and entincering tnvesbovecavere ish School ahieveotent et sees, bout 20 percent do not Ferthermors, aboat 25 perce of there ropho eves Were enrlled in the general nd vocational eater thea the seaderi)caricaloen tacks fo igh school ae figure 2-2), Toss who switch peferences

in favor of science and engineering have slight, hhwer average achievement text scores ad have

those who persist in interest in selene and eng AAs many as 2 percent ofall high school prada ileal only 15 poroeat ot eologe sophomore are

sed majoring in naaral rience ane fearing Amtong tees ilds iy both the sophomore

nd savior years of highschool thee and health fener (hich inelodes medicine and health

‘reer are the mon popstar followed by engineer ing A cing numberof stvdents plan majes in the physical siences and mathematics

Staller proportions of Blacks and Hispanics than

‘majors Ba in flelds such ae mtedlcine and health,

te interested in these majors soar te that of

‘hits, There are prominent gender difersnees

‘wore women thu shen favor the lif and health sc

‘ences, while men dominate tbe group terested in

sii any Hens © Wagan Cnc sp

Faure 22 - rest of Cotege tour Sues in are Sena ngnatog

"9 Cama Tack 182 High Seo! Seniors

Overall fewer women than men are iateresed ia

‘To sxamine further the undsrying Ínkredt af

analyzed their palleras of academe preparation (i

‘luding course“akiog) and soeiocconomie status

‘When course-taking, achievement test scores, and

socioeconomic satis are saistically Held con

stant, Blacks ane actually more likely than whites

to be interested in majoring in science and chi

focrng, and females are less Iikely than males 10

te interested High school students of lower soo

‘coniomie status tre uch let Hey to plan scence

fn engineering majors han are thor of high soco-

‘anced mathematis and sleace courts id euin Female patcpatin in science and'engincering ray also be limited by an important "gateway" to cellege entrance! the mathematics postions of the Scholae Apiiude Test (SAT) and of the Ad:

anced College Testing (ACT) program Several dies have shown tht, even afer controlling st Ustaly for prior achievement test scores, course: taking patirns, and high sshool grades women tend to ft higher pads than men women receive lower seorss on these este than men, Several ob rervers argue that this dincrepan, ede to bia in the ess design and administration Tose respon sible for the SAT and ACT argue, however, thụ the tests are not biased and that diferences In sores