Basic organic chemistry by snigdha singh, aarushi singh ramesh chandr

Various variable materials comprise majorly of the organic compounds and are formed by the organic reactions Figure 6.1.. The organic chemistry also lists all the uses and applications

BASIC ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

BASIC ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Ramesh Chandra, Snigdha Singh

and Aarushi Singh

www.arclerpress.com

ARCLER

P r e s s

Basic Organic Chemistry

Ramesh Chandra, Snigdha Singh and Aarushi Singh

of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission has not been obtained If any copyright holder has not been acknowledged, please write to us so we may rectify.

Notice: Registered trademark of products or corporate names are used only for explanation and

identification without intent of infringement.

Arcler Press publishes wide variety of books and eBooks For more information about Arcler Press and its products, visit our website at www.arclerpress.com

© 2020 Arcler Press

ISBN: 978-1-77407-359-9 (Softcover)

Prof Ramesh Chandra is an outstanding scientist, revered teacher and an exceptionally

successful administrator He is currently heading Department of Chemistry, University

of Delhi, where he is serving as Professor for the last more than 26 years and Founder Director of Dr B R Ambedkar Center for Biomedical Research, University of Delhi, since March 1991 He has been Vice-Chancellor, Bundelkhand University, Jhansi for six years (1999-2005); Member, Planning Commission, Government of U.P, India as well as the President of the Indian Chemical Society (2004-2006) Professor Chandra started his research career at the University of Delhi, thereafter he went to The New York Hospital-Cornell University Medical Center and the Rockefeller University, New York; State University of New York at Stonybrook, USA as Assistant Research Professor He conducted advanced research at the Harvard University Medical School- Massachusetts General Hospital, jointly at MIT, Cambridge, USA Over the last 38 years, Professor Chandra has contributed largely in the field of Chemical Sciences and particularly in New Drug Discovery and Development as well as Drug Metabolism He has to his credit several patents, published more than 300 original Scientific Research Papers/ Review Articles in International journals of repute and six of his internationally acclaimed scientific Books Prof Chandra is the recipient of several professional national/ international recognitions; these includes: Millennium Plaques of Honor (Life Time Achievement Award for Contribution in Science & Technology) by the Indian Science Congress Association (ISCA) for 2017-2018, Award of the Highest Honor of Soka University, Tokyo, Japan (2000); J William Fulbright Scholarship (1993); The Rockefeller Foundation USA-Biotechnology Career Award (1993); and several others.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Snigdha Singh completed her M.Tech degree (Chemical Synthesis and Process

Technologies) in 2016 from University of Delhi, India After that she joined Prof Ramesh Chandra group at Department of Chemistry, University of Delhi for her doctoral studies She is involved in miscellaneous projects for development of novel hydroxyethylamine molecules as potent multistage Antimalarial Her sincere efforts and excellent performance has culminated her into a keen researcher Currently, she

is working at University of Siena under the supervision of Prof Maurizio Taddei

on Synthesis of novel 8-hydroxyquinolines as Gli-1 Hedgehog Inhibitors She has successfully optimized complex organic syntheses during her doctoral research Her research efforts are directed towards the synthesis of bioactive heterocyclic molecules She has already published 9 papers in international and national reputed Journals and also presented her work in many conferences.

Ms Aarushi Singh completed her Masters degree in chemistry (2013) from

University of Delhi, Delhi, India Thereafter, she joined as senior research fellow at Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa, Delhi, India Then, she joined Lingaya’s University, Faridabad, India as Assistant Professor in Chemistry.

List of Figures xi

List of Tables xv

List of Abbreviations xvii

Preface xix

Chapter 1 Introduction to Chemistry and Organic Chemistry 1

1.1 Introduction 2

1.2 Branches of Chemistry 3

1.3 Importance And Scope of Chemistry 5

1.4 Organic Chemistry 9

1.5 Origin of Organic Chemistry 10

1.6 Applications o Organic Chemistry 13

1.7 Conclusion 19

Review Questions 21

References 22

Chapter 2 Organic Molecules and Functional Groups 23

2.1 Introduction 24

2.2 Functional Groups And Reactivity 25

2.3 Role of Functional Groups 27

2.4 Alcohols 30

2.5 Ethers 33

2.6 Aldehydes And Ketones 34

2.7 Carboxylic Acids 36

2.8 Physical Properties and Characterization 37

Review Questions 40

References 41

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 3 Nomenclature of Organic Molecules 43

3.1 Introduction 44

3.2 History of The Nomenclature of Organic Molecules 45

3.3 Basic Steps For Nomenclature of The Organic Molecules 49

3.4 How To Name Organic Compounds Using The Iupac Rules 51

3.5 Guidelines For The Nomenclature of Organic Molecules 57

Review Questions 60

References 61

Chapter 4 Acids And Bases 63

4.1 Introduction 64

4.2 Acids

4.3 Bases 69

4.4 Neutralization 71

4.5 Arrhenius Theory 74

4.6 Bronsted-Lowry Theory 77

4.7 Lewis Theory 81

Review Questions 84

References 85

Chapter 5 Understanding Organic Reactions 87

5.1 Introduction 88

5.2 Types of Organic Reactions 89

5.3 Principal Methods of Forming The Organic Reactions 91

5.4 Role of Organic Reactions In The Modern World 94

5.5 Importance of Catalyst In Organic Reactions 95

5.6 Organic Chemistry Is All Around Us 98

Review Questions 104

References 105

Chapter 6 Stereochemistry 109

6.1 Introduction 110

6.2 Historical Perspective of Stereochemistry 111

6.3 Fundamentals of Stereochemistry 115

6.4 Chirality 116

6.5 Stereoisomers 117

6.6 Absolute Configuration And The (R) And (S) System 121

6.7 Fischer Projections 124

Review Questions 127

References 128

Chapter 7 Amino Acids And Proteins 131

7.1 Introduction 132

7.2 Proteins 135

7.3 The 20 Amino Acids And Their Role In Protein Structures 140

7.4 What Is The Difference Between A Protein And An Amino Acid? 150

7.5 What Are Essential Amino Acids? 151

Review Questions 153

References 154

Chapter 8 Carbohydrates 157

8.1 Introduction 158

8.2 History Of Carbohydrates 160

8.3 Carbohydrates 161

8.4 Classification and Nomenclature 162

8.5 Carbohydrates as The Monosaccharides 165

8.6 Disaccharides 167

Review Questions 173

References 174

Chapter 9 Alcohols And Ethers 175

9.1 Introduction 176

9.2 Physical Properties of Alcohols And Ethers 178

9.3 Chemical Properties of Alcohols And Phenols 186

9.4 Preparation Of Alcohols 188

9.5 Nucleophilic Properties: Ether Formation 190

9.6 Some Commercially Important Alcohols 192

Review Questions 194

References 195

Chapter 10 Spectroscopy 197

10.1 Introduction 198

10.2 What Is Spectroscopy 200

10.3 Different Types Of Spectroscopy For Chemical Analysis 200

10.4 What Is Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR)? 207

10.5 Basic Components Of Spectroscopic Instruments 208

10.6 Spectroscopy Based On Absorption 211

10.7 Conclusion 212

Review Questions 214

References 215

Index 217

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Representation of the branch of chemistry

Figure 1.2 Representation of organic chemistry

Figure 1.3 Frederich Wöhler provided a breakthrough in the field of organic

chemistry

Figure 2.1 Glucose structure

Figure 2.2 Coffee contains caffeine

Figure 2.3 The representation of an alcohol group

Figure 2.4 Structure of an alcohol group

Figure 2.5 Representation of ether group

Figure 3.1 Different methods are being followed for the nomenclature of

organic molecules in the modern world

Figure 3.2 There is a history for the development of the guidelines of the

nomenclature of the organic molecules

Figure 3.3 There are certain guidelines that have to be followed in the naming

of the organic molecules

Figure 3.4 As the saturated hydrocarbons, there is a different set of rules for the

nomenclature of the alkanes

Figure 3.5 While naming an organic molecule, it is important to recognize the

number of branched chains

Figure 4.1 pH scale with examples of every pH level

Figure 4.2 Blue and red litmus paper

Figure 4.3 Titration using burette and beaker

Figure 4.4 Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius who gave Arrhenius theory Figure 4.5 3D diagram of Bronsted and Lowry theory

Figure 4.6 Image shows the reaction between ammonia and boron trifluoride

(BF3)

Figure 5.1 According to many researchers, the life and all the life-related

functions were started on the planet earth after the initiation of organic reactions

Figure 5.2 The direction of arrow plays a very crucial role in displaying the

direction of the reaction

Figure 5.3 The role of the catalyst is to alter the rate of the reaction and assist

in the completion of the reaction

Figure 5.4 The understanding of the organic reaction is very necessary in the

medicine industry

Figure 5.5 Various variable materials comprise majorly of the organic

compounds and are formed by the organic reactions

Figure 6.1 1-Bromo-1-chloroethane

Figure 6.2 Orientation of D-glucose and L-glucose

Figure 6.3 Orientation of D-glucose and D-altrose

Figure 6.4 A meso compound and a regular chiral compound

Figure 6.5 Relative priority as per the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) rules

Figure 6.6 The stereocenters are labeled as R or S

Figure 6.7 Comparison of glucose and galactose

Figure 7.1 General structure of amino acid

Figure 7.2 General structure of alpha-amino acid

Figure 7.3 Classification of the amino acid and proteins

Figure 7.4 Structure of glycine

Figure 7.5 Structure of alanine

Figure 7.6 Structure of valine

Figure 7.7 Structure of leucine

Figure 7.8 Structure of isoleucine

Figure 7.9 Structure of proline

Figure 7.10 Structure of phenylalanine

Figure 7.11 Structure of tyrosine

Figure 7.12 Structure of tryptophan

Figure 7.13 Structure of serine

Figure 7.14 Structure of threonine

Figure 7.15 Structure of cysteine

Figure 7.16 Structure of methionine

Figure 7.17 Structure of asparagines

Figure 7.18 Structure of glutamine

Figure 7.19 Structure of lysine

Figure 7.20 Structure of arginine

Figure 7.21 Structure of histidine

Figure 7.22 Structure of aspartate

Figure 7.23 Structure of glutamate

Figure 7.24 Chemical structure of amino acid

Figure 9.1 Nomenclature of alcohol

Figure 9.2 Isomeric representation

Figure 9.3 3-methyl-2-pentanone synthesis

Figure 9.4 Synthesis of metronidazole

Figure 9.5 Williamson-ether-synthesis

Figure 9.6 Ether peroxide formation

Figure 9.7 Ether

Figure 10.1 Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy

Figure 10.2 Infrared spectroscopy

Figure 10.3 Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy

Figure 10.4 Electromagnetic wave

LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1 Some acids and their conjugate bases

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

IACS International Association of Chemical Societies

IR infrared

ISO International Organization for Standardization IUPAC International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry IUPAP International Union of Pure and Applied Physics

SI International System of Units

Subject and Content

Organic chemistry is a field of chemistry that deals in the study of the compounds containing carbon It deals with the structural analysis, properties, composition, reactions related to those compounds, and the processes related to their preparation The organic chemistry also lists all the uses and applications

of the compounds that fall under the field of study.

Organic chemistry plays a significant role in the preparation of various materials and products in the field of manufactured and processed goods It explains the various phenomena related to the synthesis of compounds and the manner in which they can be reacted with each other to form new products.

The motive of this book is to elaborate on the various aspects of organic chemistry and the related fields It dwells on the preparation of various organic compounds and discusses the ways in which those compounds may be used further to form new products and goods that can be applied in various sectors.

Salient Features of the Book

• The book introduces the readers to chemistry and explains them the various aspects related to the subject It discusses the various elements related to the field of chemistry It explains the several applications of chemistry and its uses in their daily lives It also explains the various fields that originate from the main chemistry and dwells upon their classification and fundamentals related to those fields.

• The book goes on to explain organic chemistry to the readers It explains how the various molecules group themselves together to form certain structures in the organic chemistry It explains various kinds of shapes and forms that the compounds form and also enlists several functional groups that exist in the organic chemistry The book dwells upon the classification of the organic compounds based on these functional groups and the structures they form resulting from it.

• Moving further, the book dwells upon the procedures that are used for the nomenclature of the organic compounds It lists all the standards that

PREFACE

need to be followed while naming a compound It also enlists various groups that are referenced when naming a compound and the use of bonds while doing so.

• The book goes on to explain the meaning and relevance of acids and bases in the organic chemistry It elaborates upon the significance of both the types in the compounds and explains how the various properties of the compounds vary according to what group they belong to.

• The book dwells upon the subject of understanding how the reactions go through in organic chemistry In the organic chemistry, there is generally rue to the way reactions happen, and the book explains the methods and rules to the readers in detail.

• The book further goes on to define the roles of ethers, alcohols, aldehydes, amino acids, carbohydrates, and other such groups in characterizing several compounds in organic chemistry It dwells upon the significance

of each of these groups in the organic chemistry and establishes ways

in which they react with each other and form various compounds and products.

This book has been compiled to elaborate on the subject of organic chemistry and its relevance in the modern world It lists various aspects related to the field

of organic chemistry and tries to discover the aspects related to this field of chemistry in detail.

• The field of chemistry.

• The various branches of chemistry.

• Importance and scope of chemistry.

• The sub-discipline of organic chemistry.

• The history of organic chemistry.

• Applications of organic chemistry.

Basic Organic Chemistry

2

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Chemistry is defined as a branch of science that studies the matter and the reactions it undergoes Other branches of science like physics, biology, and geology also deal with the study of matter But chemistry

is the only branch that deals with the reactions that matter undergoes

It includes a study of the composition of the matter, its structure, properties, and its reactions Chemistry is a complex and fascinating subject

Chemistry provides an answer to most of the questions regarding how or why something is in the natural world For example, the reason behind the sky appearing blue The color depends on the chemical composition of the substances and the light they reflect Example of another simple question related to chemistry is how an insect walks on the surface of the water without drowning The unique properties of water provide a high surface tension, which does not let small objects sink Chemistry surrounds us and anything that concerns matter has its answer in chemistry (Figure 1.1)

Figure 1.1: Representation of the branch of chemistry.

Source: http://www.picpedia.org/highway-signs/images/chemistry.jpg

Chemists make new compounds by understanding the reactions between elements and compounds Chemistry finds its applications in

Introduction to Chemistry and Organic Chemistry 3

the chemical and pharmaceutical industry It is

used in making plastics, ceramics, fillers, alloys,

drugs, etc

The target compound is synthesized using

chemical reactions under conditions that are

determined optimum so that output is produced

in a cost-effective manner The compound is

purified after the best conditions are identified

and finally identified by chemists The process

of identification is to ensure that the compound

contains all elements in the right proportion and

also the determination of the three-dimensional

structure of the compound.

1.2 BRANCHES OF CHEMISTRY

Chemistry is divided into many branches or

disciplines since it is a vast subject Dividing it

into manageable topics helps more accurately

The main branches are organic chemistry,

inorganic chemistry, analytical chemistry,

physical chemistry, and biochemistry

1.2.1 Organic Chemistry

It involves the study of carbon and its compounds

that make up living things It is basically the

chemistry of life

1.2.2 Inorganic Chemistry

Inorganic chemistry covers the study of

compounds that is not a part of organic chemistry

Its studies compounds that are inorganic, and

does not contain a C-H bond Many inorganic

compounds contain metals

Compound means

to combine;

a compound is a combination or mixture of two or more things

Basic Organic Chemistry

4

1.2.3 Analytical Chemistry

Analytical chemistry is the analysis of chemicals, their properties, and reactions It also includes developing tools and techniques for the purpose

of analytical work Analytical chemistry is used

by chemists of all disciplines, but some experts focus on the development of analytical methods

1.2.4 Physical Chemistry

This branch of chemistry comprises of the study

of physical principles of atoms and compounds

In other words, it is a branch of chemistry which uses principles of physics and can be called as the physics of chemical compounds

It involves the study of how particles move, how energy is used in reactions, the interaction between light and energy, and the speed of reactions It includes the applications

of thermodynamics and quantum mechanics.

1.2.5 Biochemistry

It is the study of the chemical process that happens within living organisms It includes large biological molecules like carbohydrates, DNA, proteins, and lipids

Chemistry can be divided into categories

in other ways These five are the main topics

in the study of chemistry These branches

overlap in certain areas Organic chemistry

and biochemistry, for example, share a lot in common An organic chemist may be required

to have knowledge of the rate of reaction of organic compound, which involves physical chemistry Similarly, an inorganic chemist may

Introduction to Chemistry and Organic Chemistry 5

use analytical method to understand the crystal

structure of inorganic matter

Besides these broad categories, there are

many other specializations in this branch

Environmental chemistry is concerned with

the chemical processes occurring in nature A

geochemist is concerned with the composition

and chemical processes of the earth, soil, rock,

etc Other branches include medicinal chemistry,

polymer chemistry, and even chemical

engineering

1.3 IMPORTANCE AND SCOPE OF

CHEMISTRY

Chemistry is important for the day-to-day life

and has a huge scope

1.3.1 Supply of Food

Knowledge about chemistry has led to the

manufacture of chemical fertilizers like urea,

sodium nitrate, calcium superphosphate, and

ammonium sulfate These fertilizers have

played a significant role in increasing the

yield of vegetables, fruits, and other crops and

address food security issues Use of fertilizers

helps to cater to the ever-growing demand for

food Pesticides and insecticides help to protect

the crops from pests and microbes

Another way by which chemistry has

addressed the issue of food spoilage is by the

discovery of preservatives These chemicals help

increase the shelf life of food items Moreover,

Organic chemistry

is a subdiscipline

of chemistry that studies the structure, properties and reactions of or- ganic compounds, which contain carbon in covalent bonding Study of structure determines their chemi-

cal composition and formula.

Basic Organic Chemistry

6

chemical tests also help in detecting the presence

of adulterants in food and determine the quality

of many lifesaving medicines The discovery

of penicillin saved millions from death due to pneumonia, and the discovery of sulfa drugs made a cure for dysentery

Other lifesaving drugs include taxol and cisplatin for cancer patients and AZT for AIDS victims Some common medicines that help to solve the various health issues include:

• Analgesics: Helps in control different

types of pain

• Antibiotics: Cures infection and

diseases

• Tranquillizers: Reduce tension and

eases mental diseases by making the patients calm

• Antiseptics: Prevents infection of

cuts and wounds

• Disinfectants: Destroys microbes

present in toilets, floor, and drains

• Anesthetics: It has revolutionized

surgical operations and increased their success rate

• Insecticides: Such as Gammexane

and DDT has minimized the risk of diseases caused by mosquitoes, rats, and flies

Introduction to Chemistry and Organic Chemistry 7

1.3.3 The Scope of Chemistry in Saving

the Environment

Chemistry has also contributed immensely

to make chemicals environmentally benign

Organic chemicals are environment-friendly

and help in protecting nature For example,

the substitution of CFCs as cooling agents in

refrigerators

1.3.4 Comfort in Daily Life

Advancement in chemistry has made day-to-day

life more comfortable in various ways:

• Synthetic Fibers: These materials are

comfortable, attractive, and sturdy

Examples of synthetic material are

nylon, rayon, etc They are easy to

handle as well, can be washed easily,

dried, and used without ironing

The chemicals provide bright and

fast colors, which increase the

attractiveness of these clothes

• Building Materials: The construction

materials have been invented with the

help of chemistry The invention of

materials like steel, cement, etc has

made the construction of homes and

multistoried buildings possible These

materials are durable and are used

for the construction of infrastructure

facilities that has led to urbanization

• Supply of Metals: Metals like gold,

copper, silver, aluminum, zinc, iron,

and the various alloys have been

discovered by chemists These metals

have various uses in our daily life like

Basic Organic Chemistry

8

making ornaments, utensils, coins, plants, and equipment for industries, etc

• Articles of Domestic Use: Chemistry

has vast applications in domestic purposes It has made life comfortable

by providing many articles for domestic uses like oils, detergents, sugar, paper, plastic, glass, cosmetics, cooking gas, etc The chemicals used

in the refrigerators and air conditioners have been developed using principles

of chemistry

• Entertainment: Even the world

of entertainment is dominated by inventions in the field of chemistry Cinema, cameras, DSLR use films made out of celluloid They are coated with suitable chemicals to make them fir for the purpose Fireworks used in festivals and occasions are a product

of chemistry

• Transport and Communication:

The various modes of transport need fuel All vehicles from airplanes, ships, trains, and automobiles use different chemical products like coal, petrol, diesel, etc Without chemistry, the modern transport system would not have developed

• Nuclear Atomic Energy: This is one

of the greatest discoveries in the field

of chemistry This alternative source

of energy is environmentally benign

and addresses the issue of energy security

Introduction to Chemistry and Organic Chemistry 9

1.3.5 The Scope of Chemistry in Industry

Chemistry has played a huge role in the growth

and development of industries such as textile,

paper, glass, chemical, cement, textile, dye

paints, pharmaceuticals, etc Industrialization

has provided employment opportunities to

billions around the globe It has also made

economic development possible

1.3.6 The Scope of Chemistry in Defense

The defense system owes all its innovations

to chemistry It has led to the discovery of

explosives like dynamite, TNT, nitroglycerine,

etc Poisonous gases like Phosgene, mustard

gas have been invented due to advancement

in chemistry The modern defense system is

entirely a product of discoveries in this field

1.4 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Organic chemistry involves the scientific

study of the structure, properties, composition,

reactions, and synthesis of organic compounds

that by definition contain carbon It is called the

study of life All carbon reaction is not organic

Only those carbon-containing compounds are

organic that contains the carbon-hydrogen

(C-H) bond

Organic chemistry is possibly the most

important branch of chemistry since it deals

with all chemical reactions that are associated

with life The various experts who make life

easier like doctors, dentists, chemical engineers,

and veterinary doctors owe their knowledge to

chemistry

Basic Organic Chemistry

10

Organic chemistry has various applications

in daily life It is responsible for the development

of food, drugs, fuels, construction materials, and other chemicals, which have transformed human life (Figure 1.2)

Figure 1.2: Representation of organic chemistry.

Source: to/2017/10/23/01/08/adrenaline-2879838_960_720 png

https://cdn.pixabay.com/pho-1.5 ORIGIN OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

The history of organic chemistry has its roots in ancient times when men extracted chemicals from plants and animals to cure their community Although they did not coin the term organic chemistry, they maintained a record of useful properties

For example, the use of willow barks in helping to ease the pain It was later established that willow bark contains acetylsalicylic acid the ingredient in aspirin Chewing the bark extracted the aspirin Their knowledge laid the foundation

of modern pharmacology, which depended on

the knowledge of organic chemistry

Organic chemistry was first recognized as a branch of modern science during the 1800s Jon

Pharmacology is

the branch of

biol-ogy concerned with

the study of drug or

endog-enous (from within

the body) molecule

which exerts a

bio-chemical or

physio-logical effect on the

cell, tissue, organ, or

organism.

Introduction to Chemistry and Organic Chemistry 11

Jacob Berzelius was the founder of this branch

He classified chemical compounds into organic

and inorganic Organic compounds are those

that originated from living matter and inorganic

from non-living matter such as minerals Most

of the chemists during that period believed in

Vitalism It basically denoted that action of

some vital force alone could extract organic

compounds from living organisms

A student of Berzelius discovery led to the

abandonment of Vitalism as a scientific theory In

1828 Frederich Wöhler discovered that inorganic

compounds could also produce the organic

compound He made urea by heating ammonium

cyanate Urea is an organic compound while

ammonium cyanate is inorganic Wohler

combined ammonium chloride and silver cyanate

to produce aqueous ammonium cyanate and solid

silver chloride (Figure 1.3)

Figure 1.3: Frederich Wöhler provided a

break-through in the field of organic chemistry.

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/

commons/9/93/Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler_Litho2.

jpg

Basic Organic Chemistry

12

He then separated the filtered the mixture

to separate the two compounds He evaporated the water to purify aqueous ammonium cyanate Surprisingly, the substance that remained after evaporation had properties of urea and not ammonium cyanate Wohler’s experiment led to the synthesis of an organic compound from an inorganic one for the first time

1.5.1 A Breakthrough in Science History

Wohler’s observation was a breakthrough because of two reasons First, it led to discarding the theory of Vitalism by generating an organic compound from inorganic matter Second, it led

to the discovery of isomerism, which represents the possibility of two or more structures based on the same chemical formula In his experiment, ammonium cyanate crystals and urea crystals were based on N2H4CO

Post this experiment, chemists started to

experiment to find out the cause of isomerism

This led to the origin of the structure of chemical compounds By the 1860s, chemists like Kékulé were coming up with explanations about the link between the chemical composition of a compound and the physical distribution of its atom

In the 1900s, chemists were trying to develop models for electron distribution for explaining the nature of chemical bonding During this period, more organic compounds were being discovered each year In the 20th century, many subdisciplines started branching out from organic chemistry such as petrochemistry, pharmacology, bioengineering, polymer chemistry, and others

Introduction to Chemistry and Organic Chemistry 13

During that century, the innumerable new

substance was being identified or synthesized

In the present day, more than 98 percent of the

compounds known are organic A number of

organic compounds present, and their reactions

is astonishing

1.6 APPLICATIONS OF ORGANIC

CHEMISTRY

All substances having the element carbon

are called organic compounds, and organic

chemistry is concerned with these substances

The subject deals with compounds that have

carbon ranging from solids like graphite to

solvents and gases Almost all compounds that

surround us have carbon

Most of the substances that are used in daily

human life are organic This includes edibles

like bread, milk, sugar, etc Besides, clothes,

belts, shoes, tires, and medicines also come

under this category

1.6.1 Medicine

The most important application of organic

chemistry is in the field of medicine Majority

of the drugs are organic in nature Antibiotics,

painkillers, anti-cancer drugs, anesthetics,

anti-depressants, and cardiac drugs are some

examples There are three broad applications of

organic chemistry in the field of medicine

• Drugs to Cure Disease: As

mentioned, since most drugs used

to cure disease are organic, they are

bitter, water-insoluble, and moves

Basic Organic Chemistry

14

easily in the body tissues In order for the drug to access the innermost part

of body tissue, lipid solubility has

to be enhanced Change in organic ration, i.e., carbon content can ensure this

Organic chemistry is concerned with the study of drugs in order to make them more effective and ensure their reach and safety To make the drugs safe, their toxicity is minimized through metabolism Sometimes organic compounds have a varying effect on the body despite the same chemical structure due to stereoisomerism

The ‘Cis’ and ‘Trans’ isomers play a different role The drugs L-DOPA, which is used to treat Parkinson and Levofloxacin, which

is an antibiotic, have L-configuration Both of them are Levoisomers of the same substance However, Levo is more efficient than Dextro

• Pathophysiology of the Diseases:

Knowledge of biochemistry and organic chemistry is indispensable for investigating diseases Most disease progress the same way before death ensues For example, in gout, the purine metabolism is hindered, which are important moieties of DNA and RNA molecules The uric acid generated during purine metabolism does not convert to urea and instead gets stored The crystals accumulate

in the smaller joints, and this leads to

gout Checking the uric acid levels in

blood indicates gout

Introduction to Chemistry and Organic Chemistry 15

In case of infections like malaria, biochemical

components of the body are destroyed The

malaria-causing parasite damages hemoglobin,

which causes the hemoglobin levels to drop

This can be detected by variances in the organic

functional group when compared to a healthy

individual The variance in organic compound

indicates the severity of the disease and helps to

study its course

• Diagnosis of Disease: Organic

chemistry has its application in

diagnosis as well It helps in detecting

the organic part of the disturbed

substance For instance, increased

sugar levels indicate diabetes The

disease in severe cases is accompanied

by an elevated level of ketone Sugars

comprise aldehyde groups (CHO) and

ketones (C=O) groups

These groups are investigated Higher the

level of these groups, higher is the severity of

the disease This way, organic group helps in

diagnosis by checking the levels of the disturbed

organic functional group Similarly, for patients

with heart disease, cholesterol levels are tested

1.6.2 Food

Food is entirely made up of carbon compounds,

namely fat (CH-COO-CH), carbohydrates

(CHO) and proteins (NH2-CH-COOH) All

vitamins are also organic The body requirement

during specific conditions like pregnancy,

disease, or fitness determines the requirement

of food and nutrients For example, folic acid

Basic Organic Chemistry

16

is taken during pregnancy to maintain the fetal health

For those desirous of building muscles,

a protein-rich diet is recommended Even beverages like beer, vodka, and wine, which contain ethyl alcohol have organic content Knowledge of organic chemistry is required to ensure their flavor, quality, and handling

1.6.3 Textiles and Clothing

The cloth is made of various textures like wool, cotton, silk, polyester, etc These materials contain carbon Organic chemistry aids in the studies of textile material This enables with controlling the quality, durability, color, and cleaning methods

1.6.4 Cleansing Agents

Organic solvents are widely used in the industries for cleaning For example, when a drug is extracted from plants, petroleum is used

to remove the fatty matter from the pulp Even for domestic purpose, organic compounds are used for cleaning

For example, phenol and other agents are used to clean walls and floor These sanitizing agents are manufactured using principles of organic chemistry to remove dirt and eliminate microorganisms The organic chemistry principles provide a knowledge of solubility, polarity, and partition factors which helps in putting the solvents to better use

Introduction to Chemistry and Organic Chemistry 17

1.6.5 Sterilizing Agents

The disinfectants and sterilizing agents are

mostly organic compounds, for example, phenol,

formaldehyde, and others They are very potent

due to their solubility; pH levels etc and can

destroy microbes and human tissue cells as well

They dissolve the cell wall of the microbes

or damage their protein layers, thereby

killing them The efficiency of these agents is

increased by making adjustments to the organic

composition Gases like ethylene oxide are also

used besides these solvents They find their

application in the sterilization of drugs and

manufactured substances

1.6.6 Analytic Material

Chemical compounds like drugs, cosmetics,

pesticides undergo a test for their safety and

quality check This testing is enabled by

different techniques using principles of organic

chemistry like titrations, spectrophotometry,

chromatography, etc

The reagents used in the techniques like

acids, bases, oxidizing, and reducing agents are

organic Further, the endpoint indicators in the

titration are also organic compounds

1.6.7 Valuables

There are many carbon compounds that are

precious, durable, and amongst the hardest

substances Graphite and diamond are pure

carbon compounds and contain no other

elements They are widely used and very

expensive

Solubility is the

property of a solid, liquid or gaseous chemical substance called solute to dissolve in a solid, liquid or gaseous solvent.

Basic Organic Chemistry

1.6.8 Other Applications and Uses

Organic chemistry is applied to wide areas in the field of medicine, petroleum, pesticide, textile, etc

• Analysis: Since all organic substances

are not soluble in water, non-aqueous titration can analyze them This is done using organic solvents like acetone, pyridine, methanol, etc Many techniques like spectroscopy, chromatography, etc also use organic solvents for analysis This analysis helps to test the quality, quantity, etc

of the compounds to be investigated

• Synthesis: Organic chemistry principles are applied in the synthesis

of many compounds, which are employed on a wide scale For example, a drug molecule that is found in nature can be synthesized using principles of organic chemistry and made available for large-scale use

Many drug manufacturers apply for a patent

to synthesize the same drug using their method The same compound can be synthesized using various steps Pharma companies stick to organic methods since they cost less and can