Tài liệu Constituent Structure - Part 2 doc

3rd third person A movement Argument movement same as NP movement A answer A-bar movement non-argument movement typically the same as wh-movement Adj’ ‘‘Adjective bar’’, intermediate adj

This book has beneWted from the input, advice, and feedback from a number of people, ranging from answering simple email quer-ies to reading all or some of the manuscript Here’s a partial list,

in alphabetical order: Anne Abeille´, Ash Asudeh Andy Barss, Bob Berwick, Tom Bever, Sherrylyn Branchaw, Jean Carnie, Fiona Carnie, Morag Carnie, Robert Carnie, Robert Chametzky, Noam Chomsky, John Davey, Andrea Dauer, Malcolm Elliott, Yehuda Falk, Georgia Green, Heidi Harley, Michael Hammond, Richard Hudson, Peter Kahrel, Tibor Kiss, Simin Karimi, Tracy Holliway King, Terry Langendoen, Shalom Lappin, Howard Lasnik, Tel Monks, David

P Medeiros, Stefan Mu¨ller, David Pesetsky, Massimo Piatelli-Palmar-ini, Chloe Plummer, Carl Pollard, GeoV Pullum, Sumayya Racy, Ivan Sag, Maggie Shade, Yosuke Sato, Robert Van Valin, Steve Weschler Thanks to you all Special thanks go to my family who let me work on this book while ignoring them over the 2006 winter holidays

AC Tucson, February 2007

General Preface

Oxford Surveys in Syntax and Morphology provides overviews of the major approaches to subjects and questions at the centre of linguistic research in morphology and syntax The volumes are accessible, crit-ical, and up-to-date Individually and collectively they aim to reveal the Weld’s intellectual history and theoretical diversity Each book published in the series will characteristically contain: (1) a brief histor-ical overview of relevant research in the subject; (2) a crithistor-ical presen-tation of approaches from relevant (but usually seen as competing) theoretical perspectives to the phenomena and issues at hand, includ-ing an objective evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of each approach to the central problems and issues; (3) a balanced account of the current issues, problems, and opportunities relating to the topic, showing the degree of consensus or otherwise in each case The volumes will thus provide researchers and graduate students con-cerned with syntax, morphology, and related aspects of grammar, communication, and cognition with a vital source of information and reference

Andrew Carnie’s Constituent Structure surveys one of the most fundamental areas of syntax It encompasses a variety of views and proposals, both within the Chomskyan tradition and outside of it, and

in this regard it is a quite unique and valuable contribution to the study of syntax

Robert D Van Valin, Jr

General Editor University at BuValo, The State University of New York

Heinrich Heine University, Du¨sseldorf

3rd third person

A movement Argument movement (same as NP movement)

A answer

A-bar movement non-argument movement (typically the same as

wh-movement) Adj’ ‘‘Adjective bar’’, intermediate adjective category Adj Adjective

AdjP Adjective Phrase

Adv’ ‘‘Adverb bar’’, intermediate adverb category Adv Adverb

AdvP Adverb Phrase

AFD in RRG, actual focus domain

agreement agreement feature

AgrIO Indirect object functional projection

AgrIOP Indirect object Agreement Phrase

AgrO Object agreement functional projection

AgrOP Object agreement Phrase

AgrS Subject agreement functional projection

AgrSP Subject agreement Phrase

ARG in RRG, arguments

Aux Auxiliary

AVM attribute value matrix

bar bar-level feature

BPS Bare Phrase Structure

C’ ‘‘Complementizer bar’’, intermediate

complemen-tizer category

C Complementizer

category category feature

CF context free

choˆ choˆmeur (relational grammar)

comps complement feature

Condition A the requirement that an anaphor must be bound in

a local domain Condition B the requirement that a pronoun must not be

bound in a local domain

Condition C the requirement that an R-expression must not be

bound Conj Conjunction

COP copula

CP Complementizer Phrase (¼ S’)

CS context sensitive

D’ ‘‘Determiner bar’’, intermediate determiner

category

D Determiner

DAG directed acyclic graphs

def deWniteness

DOM Domain-of-word-order feature in HPSG

DP Determiner Phrase

DTRS daughters feature in HPSG

ECPO Exhaustive Constant Partial Ordering

EPP Extended Projection Principle

EST Extended Standard Theory

FCR Feature Co-occurence Restriction

FFP Foot-Feature Principle

fin Finite

Foc Focus

FSA Wnite-state automata

FSD feature-speciWcation defaults

GB Government and Binding Theory

gender gender feature

GKPS Gazdar, Klein, Pullum, and Sag (1983)

GPSG Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar

GT generalized transformation

HFC Head Feature Convention

HPSG Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar

IC immediate constituent

ID/LP immediate dominance/linear precedence

IDC immediate dominance c-command

IF in RRG, Intentional Force

InX the functional category of InXection, later

replaced by Agr, AgrS, AgrO, TP inv inversion feature

IP InXectional Phrase (often the same as TP or S) label set of category labels

abbreviations xiii

LCA Linear Correspondence Axiom

LCS in RRG, the layered structure of the clause

LF Logical Form

LFG Lexical-Functional Grammar

LSLT Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory

M mothership relation/immediate domination max set of XP categories

MP Minimalist Program

MSO Monadic Second Order

MTS Model-Theoretic Syntax

MUB Minimal Upper Bound

N’ ‘‘Noun bar’’, intermediate noun category

Neg Negation

NP Noun Phrase

NUC in RRG, the nucleus of the CORE

num number feature

obj in LFG, object function

OSV Object-Subject-Verb order

OVS Object-Verb-Subject order

P’ ‘‘Preposition bar’’, intermediate preposition

cat-egory

P Preposition

P&P Principles and Parameters Theory

person person feature

PF Phonetic/Phonological Form

PFD in RRG, potential Focus Domain

PM phrase marker

PP Prepositional Phrase

PRED in RRG, the predicate; in LFG, the predicative

content of the f-structure PSG phrase structure grammar

PSR phrase structure rule

Q Question

QP QuantiWer Phrase

R-expression referring expression (most nouns, excluding

pro-nouns, anaphors, and other elements that typically get their reference from linguistic context)

RG Relational Grammar

xiv abbreviations

RRG Role and Reference Grammar

S Sentence (often¼ IP or TP)

S’ ‘‘S-bar’’ (¼ CP)

SAI Subject-Aux Inversion

SCT structure-changing transformation

slash ‘‘slash feature’’ (indicates a gap in structure) SOV Subject-Object-Verb order

subcat subcategorization feature

subj in LFG, subject function

SVO Subject-Verb-Object order

T’ ‘‘Tense bar’’, intermediate tense category

T Tense functional projection

TAG Tree-Adjoining Grammar

TG Transformational Grammar

Tns in RRG, tense

Top Topic

TP Tense Phrase (often the same as S)

UB upper bound

v ‘‘little v’’ or ‘‘light v’’

V’ ‘‘Verb bar’’, intermediate verb category

VOS Verb-Object-Subject order

vP ‘‘little v’’ phrase

VP Verb Phrase

VPISH VP-internal Subject Hypothesis

VSO Verb-Subject-Object order

X’ some intermediate category headed by category X X’’ ‘‘X double bar’’, usually equivalent to XP or Xmax

Xo head (word) indicating category X

xcomp in LFG, predicate complement

Xmax maximal (usually phrasal) category associated

with category X, usually equal to X’’ and XP

XP a node of category X, of indeterminate phrasality

XP some maximal/phrasal category headed by

cat-egory X, often equivalent to X’’ and Xmax

abbreviations xv

Symbols Used

# Before an example sentence, indicates semantic oddity

Or pragmatic infelicity

& Conjunction (and)

_ Disjunction (or)

: Negation (‘‘it is not the case that’’)

! Two uses: (a) in logical formula: conditional (if

then); (b) in phrase structure grammars ! means

‘‘rewrites as’’, ‘‘projects from’’, ‘‘consists of ’’ or ‘‘is li-censed by’’, depending upon the approach

$ Biconditional (if and only if)

8 Universal quantiWer (every)

9 Existential quantiWer (some)

List addition

() In phrase structure rules indicates optionality In

syn-tactic forms may indicate structure In logical forms may indicate functional application or structure, as in the usual usages

("subj)¼ # In LFG, metavariable indicating node bears subject role

of dominating category (similarly for (" obj)¼ #, etc.)

"¼# In LFG, metavariable indicating featural identity

be-tween node and dominating category

* Kleene star In phrase structure rules, indicates zero or

more Before an example, indicates ungrammaticality / _ In phrase structure rules, ‘‘ _ is in the context of ’’

? Before an example sentence, indicates marginal

gram-maticality

[] Constituent boundaries

^ Span; in the right-wrap rule, indicates linear

concaten-ation {NP/CP} In phrase structure rules, indicates choice between NP

and CP

{x, y} Unordered set of x and y

j Such that (in set descriptions); boundary in immediate

constituent analysis

 Approximately

þ Kleene plus In phrase structure rules, indicates one or

more In other contexts, indicates addition

<A Rule of Backward Application (Combinatorial

Categor-ial Grammar)

hx, yi Ordered set of x and y

 Precedence

s Sister precedence

¼ Equals

¼def Is deWned as

> Greater than

>A Rule of forward application (Combinatorial Categorial

Grammar) + Plus or minus in binary feature values

2 Element of (set membership)

[ Set union

 ‘‘Is a’’ relation

6¼ Does not equal

# Lesser than or equal too

$ Greater than or equal to

 Used in feature coocurrence restrictions (FCRs) for

‘‘entails’’ or ‘‘requires’’

/ Immediate domination

/* Domination

/þ Proper domination

) In TG, this indicates a structure changing

transform-ation; in GPSG it indicates the application of a meta-rule or a meaning postulate

a, b, c, Constants

i, j, k, l, Indices

w, x, y, z, variables

N Set of non-terminals

NP# Substitute an NP in this position (Tree-Adjoining

Grammar)

P Set of production rules

S Start symbol

S/NP In Combinatorial Categorial Grammar, look right for

an NP to form an S

S\NP In Combinatorial Categorial Grammar, look left for an

NP to form an S

symbols xvii

T Set of terminals

ºx Lambda operator (indicates following string is an open

function unspeciWed for x)

P Projection path

SP Polarity Phrase

xviii symbols

Proper words in proper places

Jonathan Swift, Letter to a Young Clergyman, 9 January 1720