2.5.1 Definition of language teaching materials and types of materials
According to Tomlinson (1998, p.2), “language teaching materials” are defined as anything which is used by teachers or learners to facilitate the learning of a language. In this sense, language teaching materials consists of not only course books or grammar books but also videos, CD-ROMS, cassettes, dictionaries, pictures, photocopied exercise.
He categories language teaching materials into two types: published materials and prepared materials. Crawford (2002) shares the same point of view on talking about classification of materials that there are two different types of materials: pre-prepared and self-prepared materials.
According to Tomlinson (1998), materials have always been considered as the only way to supply enriched input in the language classroom, but nowadays, there are many changes relating methodological and other theoretical trends.
Therefore, Course books, because of their universal nature, cannot fit all circumstances. As a result, teachers should be helped to develop the reflecting, analyzing and evaluating powers to create successful lessons for all the students, needs and personalities there could be in any given situation.
2.5. 2 Processes of materials development
Tomlinson (1998) also asserts that materials development refers to anything which is done by writers, teachers or learners to provide sources of language input and to exploit these sources in ways which maximize the likelihood of the intake.
Therefore, language teachers become materials developers with the aims to promote language learning. There are two steps of the process of materials development mentioned: materials evaluation and materials adaptation.
2.5.2.1 Materials evaluation
It cannot be denied that the evaluation of materials plays an important part in the process of language learning and teaching. It is materials evaluation that helps language teachers to identify specific strengths and weaknesses of the material in
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use. Therefore, EFL teachers need to evaluate the effectiveness of the materials as well.
Materials evaluation is defined differently by different authors. According to Hutchinson and Waters (1993, p 96), evaluation is defined as really a matter of judging the fitness of something for a particular purpose. “Given a certain need, and in the light of the resources available, which out of number of possibilities can represent the best solution? There is no absolute good or bad- only degree of fitness for the required purpose”.
Brown (1995, p. 218) expresses different viewpoint on defining evaluation.
As far as he is concerned, “Evaluation is the systematic collection and analysis of all relevant information necessary to promote the improvement of a curriculum, and access it effectiveness and efficiency, as well as the participants‟ attitudes within the context of the particular institutions involved”. This definition requires that information be gathered and analyzed in a systematic manner and that only relevant information should be included.
Nunan (1998) states that evaluation is “a process not a final product” that means it takes place at any time of the material design. The first emphasis of evaluation is to determine whether the goals and objectives of s language program are being gained.
From the above definitions, it can be inferred that materials involve the determination of the objectives and requirements for the materials, and the judgments of the value of the materials being evaluated in relation to the objectives and requirements determined.
2.5.2.2 Types of materials evaluation
When talking about types of materials evaluations, Tomlinson (1998) classified materials evaluation into three types namely pre-use evaluation, while- use evaluation and post-use evaluation.
Pre-use evaluation is a process of making predictions about the potentials value of materials for their uses. In fact, it is making an evaluation criterion-
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referenced that can reduce subjectivity and can certainly help to make an evaluation more principled, rigorous, systematic and reliable.
While-use evaluation involves measuring the value of materials while using them or while observing them being used. It can measure short-term memory through observing learner performance on exercise but it cannot measure durable and effective learning because of the delayed effect of instruction.
Post- use evaluation is probably the most valuable type of evaluation because it can measure the actual effects of the materials on the users. It can measure short-term effect as regards motivation, impact, achievability, instant learning, etc., Post-use evaluation can measure the long-term effects as regards durable learning and application.
2.5.2.3 Criteria for material evaluation
Criteria for materials evaluation is one of the most important issues that evaluators must take into consideration before any evaluation can take place.
Criteria for materials evaluation depend on what is being evaluated and why they need to be evaluated (Dudley-Evans and St. John, 1998).
Sheldon (1998) suggests a wide range of criteria to be used to evaluate almost all aspect of materials. The criteria which is given by Sheldon consists of rationale, availability, user definition, layout, accessibility, linkage, selection/grading, physical characteristics, authenticity, sufficiency, cultural bias, educational validity, stimulus/ practice/ revision, flexibility, guidance, and overall value for money.
However, reading materials is the major concern of the study, therefore, a checklist for evaluation of reading texts suggested by Hutchinson and Waters (1993) will be specifically stated as follows.
- Offer exercises for understanding of plain sense and implied meaning - Relate reading passages to the learners‟ background
- Select passages within the vocabulary range of the pupils.
- Select passages reflecting a variety of styles of contemporary English
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