2.3. Task-based Learning in the classroom
2.3.1. Task-Based Learning Framework
Ellis (2003) and Willis & Willis (2007) emphasize that the design of a task- based lesson involves consideration of the stages or components of a lesson that has a task as its principal component. Willis (1996a) recommends that teachers should break TBL into three phases: pre-task, task cycle, and language focus. Willis‟s (1996a) task-based framework shows that the pre-task phrase is introduction to the topic and task; the task cycle includes task, planning and public report; and the language focus phase has analysis and practice.
Table 2.3. Willis‟ (1996a) Task-Based Learning Framework Phase
Pre-Task introduction to the topic and task preparation
Task Cycle task performance planning
public report Language Focus language analysis
practice
30 2.3.1.1. The pre-task phase
According to Willis (1996a), the purpose of the pre-task stage is to activate students‟ own linguistic resources to prepare them for the task cycle which means to prepare students to perform the task in ways that will promote acquisition. Lee (2000) suggests that one way of doing this is to provide an advance overview of what the learners will be required to do and the nature of the outcome they will achieve. Moreover, in this phase, the teacher, according to Willis & Willis (2007), introduces and defines the topic, uses activities to help learners recall or learn useful words and phrases to ensure that they understand the task instructions. Learners also have roles including noting down useful words and phrases from the pre-task activities and/or preparing for the task individually. There are different ways to be done during the pre-task phrase. Two types of pre-task planning have been identified: strategic planning (i.e. learners planning what to say and the language means to say it without rehearsing the entire task (Ellis, 2003)) and rehearsal (i.e.
three main stages in speech production: conceptualization, formulation and articulation).
These alternatives can be tackled procedurally in one of four ways: (1) performing a task similar to the task that will be performed later in the second phrase; (2) providing a model of how to perform a task; (3) using non-task preparation activities designed to prepare them to perform the task; (4) strategic planning of the main task performance. The first alternative means that learners complete a task of the same type and content as the main task. The second involves learners in observing a model of how the task can be performed (Willis, 1996a).
Skehan (1996) and Willis (1996a) recommended that 'observing' others perform a task can help reduce the cognitive load on the learner. The third one focuses on many non-task preparation activities that enable center to reduce the cognitive or linguistic demands placed on the learner. The final alternative, according to Willis (1996a, p. 52), supports learners to plan how they will perform the task.
31 2.3.1.2. The task cycle
According to Willis (1996a), the task cycle consists of learners participating in the main task mainly in groups, or pairs, depending on whether the task is interactive. In the task cycle, the learners use their own resources, i.e., linguistic or non-linguistic skills, to complete the task while the teacher serves as a facilitator, only providing assistance when necessary.
The task stage is a vital opportunity for learners to use language by working simultaneously, in pairs or small groups to achieve the goal of the task. In this step, learners practice using language skills while the teacher monitors and encourages them. Learners are required to understand what task they are going to do, what requirements the task need, and how long they do the task.
The planning stage, according to Willis (1996a), prepares students for the next stage, when they are asked to report briefly to the whole class how they performed the task and what the outcome was. Students draft and rehearse what they want to say or write. Individual students often take the opportunity to ask questions about specific language items. The teacher making sure the purpose of the report is clear acts as language adviser and helps learners rehearse oral reports or organize written ones. Furthermore, the teacher offers them advice about language, and support learners to understand how and what they want to say by suggesting phrases and helping them polish but not intervene to correct errors.
The reporting stage comes after the planning stage. According to Willis (1996a), a public report is “the natural conclusion of the task cycle …. In itself, it probably presents slightly less of a learning opportunity than the planning stage. But without the incentive of the report, the learning process of planning, drafting, and rehearsing would not happen” (p. 58). During this stage, learners volunteer or are appointed as their groups‟ representative to present their oral reports to the class or display their written reports. The teacher asks some pairs or groups of students to report briefly so that every student can compare findings, or begin a survey. The teacher comments the content of the students‟ reports.
32 2.3.1.3. Language Focus (or Post-Task)
The main goals of the language focus phase are to provide an opportunity for repeated performance of the task, to encourage reflection on how the task was performed and to encourage attention to form, in particular to problematic forms which demonstrate when learners have accomplished the task. This phase includes two stages: analysis and practice. The teacher is advised to use this part of the lesson to allow learners to notice new forms of language and then practice using them in various activities.
In the analysis stage, the teacher establishes some language-focused task, based on the texts students have read or on the transcripts of the recordings they have heard. Learners underline and classify the questions in the transcript. Learners are directed towards analyzing the language forms used during the task.
Furthermore, the teacher helps students begin and then they continue on their own or in pairs or groups. The teacher offers help and the students can ask questions and then reviews the analysis in complete form. The teacher also writes a list of relevant language items on the board. Students respond and make notes. According to Willis (1996a), students should already be “familiar with the meanings expressed” since they “now have the chance to study the forms which realize those meanings” (p.
102). Therefore, the teacher reviews each analysis activity with the class, bringing useful words, phrases and patterns to the learners‟ attention, including language items from the report stage.
In the practice stage, the teacher conducts practice after analysis to build confidence. The learners practice words, phrases and patterns from the analysis activities, review features occurring in the task text or report stage and enter useful language items in their language notebooks. Students carry out practice activities as needed, based on the language analysis work already written on the board, or use examples from the text or transcript. Practice activities may consist of choral repetition of the phrases, memory challenging games. Practical activities combined naturally with the analysis stage are useful for consolidation and revision.
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There are a variety of proposals or designs (Nunan, 2004; Ellis, 2003; Skehan, 1996; Prabhu, 1987), they all have in common three principal phases, namely, a pre- task phase, a during-task phase, and a post-task phase together with feedback. The following is an explanation for these phases. The pre-task phase concerns the various activities that teachers and students can undertake before they start the task such as whether students are given time to plan the performance of the task including whether students are required to operate under time pressure. The teacher introduces the topic and helps learners to learn useful words and phrases. The during-task phase, the second one, emphasizes the task itself and affords various instructional options. In this phase, the students perform the task, mainly in pairs or in small groups, depending on the type of task to be tackled. The teacher acts as monitor and encourages students to be involved. The post-task phase and feedback, the final phase, involves procedures for following up on the task performance. In this phase, students as their groups‟ representatives present their oral reports to the class, or display their written reports. The teacher acts as chairperson, selecting who will speak next, or ensuring all students read most of the written reports. This step comes after the post task phase in which the teacher conducts a feedback session to discuss the outcome of the task and makes suggestions for improving it. He may give brief feedback on content and form or play a recording of others doing the same or similar task.
The task-based framework of Skehan (1996) and Foster (1999) includes pre- task with consciousness-raising and planning, during-task with task-choice and pressure manipulation, and post-task with public performance and own transcription. According to Skehan (1996), two issues for teachers to choose are offered at the pre-task; either emphasis on the general cognitive demands of task, or emphasis on linguistic features. The during-task or task-cycle phase turns around the task itself in which learners complete the task. The post-task phase is for the task performance.
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TBL has attracted significant interest ever since it was first implemented on a major scale in India during the early 1980s, and later published in Prabhu (1987).
Task-based research (Sakui, 2004) claims that TBL helps improve oral skills, so it is suitable for Asian educational contexts. Various experimental studies within Asian contexts (e.g., Mochizuki & Ortega, 2008; Robinson, 2001) have shown how oral tasks can be used in different ways to influence learners‟ L2 speaking skills. Willis‟
(1996a) TBLT framework also provides guidelines for teachers to use tasks in the classroom. However, for reasons already mentioned, successful implementation of TBL has been problematic in some classroom contexts in Asia. Given the desire for a more communicative approach towards language teaching, along with the issue posed by large classes, the authors were thus interested in carrying out a small-scale action research study in an attempt to improve current methods and procedures.
Specifically, the researchers wanted to see whether TBL could function effectively in a large-sized class at a university in Japan. The authors decided to design an oral interactive task that could be replicated by teachers who have limited resources, and then implement a task-based lesson that could facilitate both L2 interaction and grammar use. The targeted grammar form for this study was the use of English articles, specifically indefinite, definite, and zero articles, well known to be problematic for Asian learners (Butler, 2002).
A lot of researches show that TBL has been accepted as an alternative approach to resolve the crisis of teaching English. Oxford (2006) says that TBL is an exciting field that offers great resources if explored by teachers in their dual roles as instructors and action researchers. Muller (2006) states that by employing TBL, teachers can be confident that they are meeting institutional requirements and facilitating the development of genuine communication skills among learners.