4. Arrange the independent and dependent sequences in order. Use this sequence to construct a lesson that will systematically facilitate the learning of the terminal objective. Once you have analyzed the objective and discovered its component parts (independent and dependent enabling skills or learning sequences), these parts will provide an entry point of learning for all students. The enabling skills themselves become objectives that you use to help students learn the terminal objective. As an example, let’s return to the putting lesson. The teacher determines that the grip and stance are independent skills that can be learned in any order, but they should be mastered before the backswing and follow- through because you need to know how to grip the club and how to stand in order to practice these dependent skills. Because the grip and the stance are independent skills, the teacher may decide to teach the grip fi rst because it may be easier to teach the stance when students are holding a golf club.
It is doubtful that you will be able to identify all the prerequisite enabling skills before implementing a lesson and consistently emphasize the most important ones. As you teach, your judgment will allow you to adjust, to add other skills to the list, and to emphasize certain skills with particular students. Keep notes about such skills in your daily lesson plan book. These notes will be a handy reference for your next class.
5. Sequence specifi c tasks for students. Before you do this step, you must fi rst plan the sequence in which you will conduct the class. As Chapters 3 and 4 explain, there are some tasks that you must accomplish every time you prepare and implement a lesson. You must (1) identify the instructional objectives; (2) plan the appropriate educational activities or experiences;
ORLICH_1060375_Ch05_p133-168 pp4.indd 146
ORLICH_1060375_Ch05_p133-168 pp4.indd 146 11/19/08 7:29:58 PM11/19/08 7:29:58 PM
147
Section 2 ◆ Models of Lesson Organization
(3) obtain the materials; (4) plan the strategies that you will employ in the teaching act; (5) evaluate the students; and (6) develop a student assessment—that is, decide how you would improve the lesson. But now you need to establish the sequence or order in which specifi c dependent tasks will be taught. This sequencing plan ensures student success.
Task analysis is especially useful in planning instruction for children with special needs (Reigeluth & Beatty 2003), integrating topics in a multidisci- plinary unit, and designing multicultural activities. As you identify each task, you can analyze it for content that is culturally biased, skills that are diffi cult for students with special physical or learning needs to accomplish, and skills and knowledge that were not covered previously. You might even be surprised to learn that a task analysis approach can be used to help students write bet- ter papers (Bailey 2001). In the same vein, task analysis principles are used for creating lesson plans (see Baylor et al. 2001). To identify commonalities and differences in word identifi cations between Chinese and Korean students in an English as a Second Language class, task analysis was used (Wang & Koda 2007). Also, task analysis is being used to identify grammatical features that are functional for particular kinds of writing tasks (Schleppegrell & Go 2007).
Susan Black (2001) uses an adaptation of task analysis in describing her “backward design” for key curriculum concepts, instructional activities, and planning. When introducing new material, you may fi nd such an analysis benefi cial for student understanding.
Example: Density One of the authors of this text, a science educator, has observed that teachers often have diffi culty teaching the concept of density. By observing student errors, he inferred that if the tasks associated with learning the concept of density were identifi ed and structured, some of the problems could be reduced. Table 5.2 lists the various tasks or elements that are prereq- uisites to mastering the concept of density.
On examining Table 5.2 carefully, are you surprised at the number of op- erations and prerequisite skills that are needed to learn about density? Several teachers were, and so were we.
Task analysis ideal for special needs and ESL classes.
TABLE 5.2 Task Analysis for Teaching the Concept of Density I. Using the metric system A. Weight B. Linear measurements
II. Understanding two-dimensional measurements: computing the area of a rectangle and a circle
III. Computing volumes A. Rectangular objects B. Cylindrical objects C. Irregularly shaped objects 1. Those that fl oat in water 2. Those that sink in water
IV. Defi ning and using a “unit standard” A. Linear B. Volumetric
V. Using mathematics skills A. Division B. Multiplication C. Linear equations (a = b/c) VI. Knowing that the mass of water in grams approximates the volume of water in
cubic centimeters (cc)
VII. Deriving that density is mass per unit of volume
ORLICH_1060375_Ch05_p133-168 pp4.indd 147
ORLICH_1060375_Ch05_p133-168 pp4.indd 147 11/19/08 7:29:58 PM11/19/08 7:29:58 PM
Chapter 5 ◆ Sequencing and Organizing Instruction 148
Once this table was created, it became apparent that it is inappropriate to teach this concept before the seventh grade. Students simply do not have the necessary intellectual background until that time—and some may not have it until one year later.
As researchers and teachers, we often wonder why students cannot learn certain concepts or principles. The truth is that, in many cases, teachers have to revise even the order of the text pages students read so that the material is understandable. To maximize the benefi ts to the learner, you may have to sketch rough hierarchy charts for every chapter, unit, or module you teach.
Thus it is benefi cial to set aside a few minutes to prepare a task analysis chart for each new unit you plan.
When you observe student learning defi cits, you can construct your own hierarchy chart to determine whether key elements of instruction are missing.
No doubt other charting modifi cations can be devised using three techniques.
Try your hand at creating such a chart for, say, a concept in English grammar, biology, mathematics, or social studies. We believe that if more teachers used this technique, teaching would improve immeasurably. Both teachers and students would be happier in school—and more successful!
When students can’t learn, sequencing may be faulty.
Examine a complex textbook in your area. To what extent is the content
◆
structured hierarchically?
Why would you make the eff ort to use task analysis? What benefi ts would you
◆
expect to derive from it?
Prepare a chart showing the relationships of various facts, concepts, and
◆
generalizations you have learned in previous education courses. Use the concept of dependent and independent sequencing.
Refl ect
Analyzing Learning Tasks
1. Select an appropriately diffi cult instructional objective.
2. Identify enabling skills.
3. Subdivide independent and dependent skills and sequences.
4. Arrange independent and dependent sequences in order.
5. Sequence specifi c tasks for students.
Key Ideas
Concept Analysis Model
Teaching Concepts The teaching of concepts encompasses a substantial portion of all instruction. For example, science requires students to under- stand the concepts of systems, energy, plants, and animals; language arts applies the concepts of communication, paragraphs, parts of speech, and punctuation; mathematics requires students to apply the concepts of sets, commutative property, and inverse operations. A lengthy list could be com- piled for every subject area.
ORLICH_1060375_Ch05_p133-168 pp4.indd 148
ORLICH_1060375_Ch05_p133-168 pp4.indd 148 11/19/08 7:29:58 PM11/19/08 7:29:58 PM
149
Section 2 ◆ Models of Lesson Organization
When you teach concepts, you must use both sequencing and task anal- ysis. As the example of the magnetism lesson illustrated, you have two se- quencing options: (1) start the lesson by describing the concept and follow this with an analysis of characteristics (facts) and a series of illustrations or examples (facts) so that the students gain a thorough understanding of the concept, or (2) provide examples (facts) related to the concept and allow stu- dents to discover the concept themselves. As we observed earlier, when you start the lesson by defi ning the concept, you are teaching deductively; when you begin with examples and expect students to discover the concept, you are teaching inductively. In either instance, a procedure called “concept analysis”
is helpful.
Example: Proper Nouns For example, if you were teaching the concept proper noun, it would be helpful to develop a conceptual hierarchy of the content to illustrate the characteristics of the concept (show its uniqueness) and its relationship to the larger body of content covered by the course. An example of this kind of chart is shown in Figure 5.4.
A concept hierarchy provides the teacher with a sequencing technique. To teach the concept proper noun, for example, the teacher must demonstrate the characteristics that make a proper noun both “proper” and a “noun.”
Thus, the teacher provides examples that illustrate the characteristics of a proper noun—in this case, the names of two persons, Jim and Mary.
One way to describe the relationship of concepts formed using a concept hierarchy is in terms of superordinate, coordinate, and subordinate concepts.
These terms refer not only to the scope of inclusiveness of a concept but also to its relationship to other concepts. For example, the concept of parts of speech is inclusive and subsumes the concept of noun, which in turn subsumes the con- cept of proper. In this respect, proper is a type of noun, which is a part of speech.
Related concepts such as these form a hierarchy, or ordered arrangement.
In Figure 5.4, the concept parts of speech is superordinate to the concepts noun, verb, adverb, and adjective. The concepts common, proper, and pro- noun are subordinate to the concept noun. The connection among the con- cepts noun, verb, adverb, and adjective is called a “coordinate relationship.”
Describe how concepts relate to one another.
FIGURE 5.4 Concept Analysis
Parts of Speech
Verb Common Proper Pronoun
Place Person
Jim Mary
Thing Adverb
Adjective Noun
ORLICH_1060375_Ch05_p133-168 pp4.indd 149
ORLICH_1060375_Ch05_p133-168 pp4.indd 149 11/19/08 7:29:58 PM11/19/08 7:29:58 PM
Chapter 5 ◆ Sequencing and Organizing Instruction 150
Analyzing Seven Dimensions In preparing to teach a concept, the teacher must have a thorough understanding of that concept. A concept analysis is a thorough examination of the different aspects of a concept, which is de- scribed earlier in this chapter, plus the concept hierarchy. A concept analysis includes the following components: (1) concept name, (2) defi nition, (3) char- acteristics, (4) exemplars, (5) superordinate concepts, (6) subordinate con- cepts, and (7) coordinate concepts. Concept analysis is a planning tool that has proved valuable to teachers in structuring their concept-learning activi- ties. Each dimension of concept learning describes a different and unique as- pect of the concept. This process not only provides teachers with a thorough understanding of the concept to be taught but also can serve as a plan for instruction. An example of concept analysis for the concept “parallelogram” is provided in Figure 5.5, which shows each step.
In the second phase of teaching a concept, the teacher determines whether the lesson should be taught inductively or deductively. Should the students be given the concept and then be provided with examples of its characteristics, or should they be given examples from which to induce the concept? Whether the lesson is taught inductively or deductively, a thorough analysis of concept characteristics and examples is necessary. The concept analysis hierarchy is an excellent procedure for accomplishing this task.
The teaching of concepts is often a prerequisite for the teaching of gen- eralizations. For example, a civics teacher might want to use the generaliza- tion “Incumbents usually win elections” in a unit on politics. For students to understand this generalization, they must understand the concept in- cumbent. Although incumbents may be older or wealthier or even more ex- perienced than challengers, these are not characteristics of the concept of incumbency. If the students don’t correctly understand the concept, they will not correctly understand the generalization; they may think incum- bents usually win because they are older rather than simply because they are incumbents.
One of the most effective methods for teaching concepts is the use of examples. In planning a lesson, the teacher must come up with enough ex- amples to illustrate all the dominant characteristics adequately. For concrete concepts such as dog or verb, it is easy to fi nd good examples. For concepts Select inductive or deductive
approach.
FIGURE 5.5
Concept Analysis for Parallelogram
Source: From Paul D. Eggen, Donald P. Kauchak & Robert J. Harder, Strategies for Teachers: Teaching Content and Thinking Skills, 1st ed.
Published by Allyn and Bacon/Merrill Education, Boston, MA. Copyright
© 1979 by Pearson. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
Definition: A parallelogram is a four-sided geometric figure whose opposite sides are parallel.
Characteristics: Four-sided, opposite sides parallel, opposite angles equal
Exemplars:
Superordinate Concept: Geometric shapes or quadrilaterals Subordinate Concept: Rhombus, Square
Coordinate Concept: Trapezoid Concept Name: Parallelogram
ORLICH_1060375_Ch05_p133-168 pp4.indd 150
ORLICH_1060375_Ch05_p133-168 pp4.indd 150 11/19/08 7:29:58 PM11/19/08 7:29:58 PM
151
Section 2 ◆ Models of Lesson Organization
such as anger, justice, or poetic, the teacher must spend considerable time developing good exemplars. Providing examples of coordinate concepts often helps students understand the characteristics of the concept being taught. For example, you might give the examples of hostility, indignation, and wrath to help students understand the concept anger. Negative examples (opposites) can also be used.
Advance Organizer Model
Teaching abstract and complex concepts such as hate, bigotry, ecosystem, di- versity, and democracy can be a great challenge. Often students confuse such concepts. For example, many students believe that democracy and capitalism are the same concept, not realizing that one is a political concept and the other is an economic concept. The advance organizer model is an effective tool for teaching such concepts. This model is based on an advance organizer, which is a statement of those elements that the learner will be required to master in the lesson. It is designed to introduce the material that follows and it must be broad enough to encompass the information. You can use this model to com- pare capitalism to the coordinate concepts socialism and communism, for example. One of the model’s primary purposes is to teach the relationships among such concepts by presenting the “big picture.” Sometimes the advance organizer is a study guide, syllabus, or list. Often, it is a visual representation such as a chart.
The advance organizer model is based on Ausubel’s (1968) classic explica- tion of deductive learning. The deductive mode of inquiry includes three basic components: advance organizers, content differentiation, and integration. It requires a body of knowledge that can be organized hierarchically. The pur- pose of the advance organizer model is to provide students with a structure so that they understand each part of the hierarchy of knowledge in the lesson as well as the relationships among the parts. The model consists of three phases:
presenting the advance organizer, content differentiation, and integration.
Presenting the Advance Organizer As an example of an advance organizer, let’s use an English teacher who is starting a unit on metaphors, similes, and personifi cation. This teacher would start the lesson with a defi nition of or gen- eralization about fi gures of speech. The teacher might follow a simple hierar- chy chart like the one shown in Figure 5.6.
Begin lessons with the big picture of what students will learn.
FIGURE 5.6
Hierarchy Chart for Figures of Speech
Figures of Speech (the advance organizer)
Metaphors Similes
(elements) Personification
ORLICH_1060375_Ch05_p133-168 pp4.indd 151
ORLICH_1060375_Ch05_p133-168 pp4.indd 151 11/19/08 7:29:59 PM11/19/08 7:29:59 PM
Chapter 5 ◆ Sequencing and Organizing Instruction 152
If each student understands the advance organizer, it will provide a frame of reference for the lesson so that each part of the lesson can be more easily understood. The organizer enables the learner to relate the lesson materials to previous knowledge. The teacher’s task is to develop an abstract statement that encompasses all aspects of the lesson and that the student can relate to previously learned material.
The teacher then has considerable latitude in organizing and develop- ing the lesson. Therefore, two teachers using the same advance organizer may develop and teach the lesson differently. A practical note is helpful here:
Record the advance organizer and brief hierarchy chart on a transparency or large sheet of paper. This allows students to refer to it throughout the lesson and thus provides direction and focus (see Forsten, Grant, & Hollas 2003;
Lenz & Schumaker 2003).
Content Differentiation After you have presented the advance organizer and are sure your students understand it, the second phase of the model be- gins. This phase, content differentiation, is the process by which the content is subdivided into narrower, less inclusive ideas, isolating each fact, concept, or generalization within a hierarchy of knowledge so that it can be learned independently. The English teacher can start a lesson on metaphors with the statement “A metaphor is one kind of fi gure of speech. The primary character- istics of a metaphor are . . .” The teacher has used a broad, abstract concept (fi gure of speech) and taken from it a narrower, more concrete concept (meta- phor). Highlighting the unique and discrete characteristics of an element of information makes it easier to understand.
Integration The third component of the advance organizer model is inte- gration, which is the process of teaching students how main concepts and underlying facts are related or how underlying facts are different or similar. In this phase, you make a deliberate attempt to help students understand simi- larities and differences among the components of the hierarchy of knowledge and to reconcile real or apparent inconsistencies between the ideas presented.
In our English lesson example, the teacher makes certain that students understand the relationship between fi gures of speech and metaphors (one is a broad category to which the other belongs) and that they comprehend the differences and similarities between metaphors and similes (they are both in the same category). In most hierarchy charts (such as Figure 5.6), broader, more abstract, more inclusive concepts (in this instance, fi gures of speech) are placed above less inclusive, narrower concepts (metaphors). Metaphors, simi- les, and personifi cation are on the same horizontal level. The terms vertical integration and horizontal integration describe the way students learn these relationships.
In summary, the advance organizer model is designed to teach organized bodies of content deductively (based on Ausubel’s conception of deductive learning). The advance organizer provides the students with an overview and focus, content differentiation provides items of information that can be more easily understood, and integration provides meaningful learning by helping students understand the relationships among the elements of the content be- ing taught. Ausubel gives you a tool that helps the learner connect the known with the unknown (see Gil-Garcia & Villegas 2003).
Content diff erentiation isolates each piece of knowledge.
Integration shows relationships.
ORLICH_1060375_Ch05_p133-168 pp4.indd 152
ORLICH_1060375_Ch05_p133-168 pp4.indd 152 11/19/08 7:29:59 PM11/19/08 7:29:59 PM
153
Section 2 ◆ Models of Lesson Organization
The Steps in Interaction Although the three components are presented as sequential, in reality they interact with one another (especially content dif- ferentiation and integration). If the comparison and differentiation discus- sion develops students’ understanding of a specifi c concept or generalization, then the teacher should not hesitate to use the two steps concurrently. As with any teaching model, the teacher should use the model and its components in the way that most effectively helps his or her students learn. The model should be applied with fl exibility and not become a straitjacket: It serves as a scaffold for learning, bridging the known with what is to be learned.
Be careful not to confuse deductive teaching with lecturing. Often, lec- tures are neither deductive nor inductive. A deductive lesson can contain as much teacher-student or student-student interaction as an inductive lesson does. After presenting the advance organizer, the teacher can hold students responsible for content differentiation and integration by having them pro- vide characteristics and examples and explain relationships (Ausubel 1968).
In this instance, the teacher becomes the facilitator of the learning process, in much the same manner as in an inductive lesson. The following box provides a few suggestions for teaching deductive lessons.
The three steps can be used fl exibly, recursively.
Steps in the Advance Organizer Model
1. Advance organizer. Abstract introductory statement related to previously learned material that encompasses all aspects of the lesson. It defi nes and/or generalizes the information to be learned.
2. Content diff erentiation. Process of subdividing broad ideas into narrower, less inclusive ones.
3. Integration. Process of examining similarities and diff erences among related concepts.
Key Ideas
Tips for Deductive Lessons
1. Have students verify an understanding of the advance organizer by providing examples, defi nitions, and characteristics.
2. During the content diff erentiation phase, involve the students by having them provide examples of the concepts or generalizations being taught.
3. Develop a chart that illustrates both the relationship among ideas and their uniqueness.
For the advance organizer model to work effectively, the teacher must prepare an advance organizer that provides students with an understand- able focus for the lesson and a visual representation that illustrates the relationships among the information to be taught. When you bridge previous knowledge and materials to new learning, there are important achievement gains (see Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock 2001, p. 117). Also, advance organiz- ers have been used successfully in a number of subject areas. For example, the use of diagrams as an advance organizer helped students learn bacterial metabolism in a science class (Barbosa, Marques, & Torres 2005); pictures
ORLICH_1060375_Ch05_p133-168 pp4.indd 153
ORLICH_1060375_Ch05_p133-168 pp4.indd 153 11/19/08 7:29:59 PM11/19/08 7:29:59 PM