It is argued here that manifestations of sport spectatorship and support (see Table 6.1) are, to varying degrees, built upon the search for authentic expe- riences of sport. Event spectators attending Olympic events seek authentic competition in which uncertainty of outcome is uncompromised by bribery, corruption, cheating or drug use (Jennings, 1996). Sports fans seek the authenticity of championship teams competing in balanced and intense leagues. Sports gamblers place bets because they expect authentic competi- tion without undisclosed bias in preparation or performance. The authen- ticity of sport competition, which can be so compromised by blood doping (e.g., Tour de France cycling), use of anabolic steroids (athletics), bribery of officials (e.g., boxing) or overbearing commercialization (e.g., player strikes and the intrusiveness of sponsors interests), is clearly very relevant to the attractiveness of sports to tourists.
In terms of sport tourism, then, it is important to theorize sport specta- torship as an authentic experience of place. Such a theorization is attempted in detail in Chapter 8 (Authentic experiences), and central to this discourse is the role of commodification in the professionalization of spectator sports.
Sport Spectatorship and the Search for Authentic Experiences 109
Globalization has given rise to debates surrounding the imposition of global forces in sport and tourism and whether commodification leads inevitably to a homogenization of local culture and regional landscapes (Mowforth &
Munt, 1998). This line of argument suggests that the commodification process destroys, or at least significantly alters, the culture of a destination community. In doing so, the authenticity of culturally based tourism prod- ucts and attractions at the destination is lost (MacCannell, 1976). In the absence of a strong stimulus to travel, the competitiveness of such destina- tions will be compromised.
In light of this debate it has been argued that sport spectatorship has unique advantages over other types of cultural tourist attractions when considered in the context of commodification (Hinch & Higham, 2006). The key characteristics of sport attractions include uncertainty of outcomes, the role of athletic display, the kinaesthetic nature of sport activities and the visceral nature of many types of sporting engagements. As a consequence, experiences of sport, be they spectator or competitor experiences, can be of high intensity and engagement. These characteristics may explain why sport spectatorship, more than many other types of tourist attractions, is able to withstand many aspects of commodification and, therefore, provide specta- tors with authentic experiences.
Alternatively, sport spectatorship may require little or no movement in space beyond ones living room, local pub or online betting agency (Weed, 2007). If the activity (sport) can be experienced equally in the company of the appropriate people in a local pub, sports club or public live site, (i.e., the destination/place of competition is irrelevant) then the need to travel and the interests of the destination are drawn into question. However, sport remains a powerful force that invokes travel to places of competition, as in the case of
‘event goers’ and certain manifestations of sport fanship (Giulianotti, 1996).
Sport spectatorship, then, should be theorized as a composite of an activity (a particular sport), people (athletes, fans, supporters, spectators and local residents) and place (the destination/place of competition) (Weed, 2006).
Central to this discussion is the role of ‘place’ in this tripartite.
The interplay of travelling sport spectators and the place of competition is addressed most usefully by Morgan (2007), who adopts a sociological perspective on the management of sport spectator experiences. Morgan asserts that understanding the tourist experience is critical to the status of the destination in the aggregate of the spectator experience. In doing so he highlights two perspectives on the management of spectator experiences:
1. Managerial view: An experience as a type of product or service to provide an added-value offering
2. Consumer behaviour view: An experience as having emotional, symbolic and transformative significance for the individual involved (Morgan, 2007:362)
The former perhaps best describes a commodified product where sport tourists are viewed as a homogeneous group that can be caricatured and catered for in general terms. One size fits all. The latter, by contrast, views the sport tourist experience as a ‘subjective emotional journey full of personal, social and cultural meanings’ (Morgan, 2007:361) Such an approach, it is argued, is critical if the destination or place of competition is to achieve a standing within the tripartite of ‘activity, people and place’ that cannot be devalued or dis- missed. The commodification of sport experiences through controlling and stage-managed experiences may relegate the live experience of spectator sport to little more than the television viewing experience. Elevating the subjective and emotional elements of the experience as an interplay of a unique sporting occasion, taking place in a local place-situated context that is central to the occasion and in association with the interactions of travelling supporters and local hosts, renders the sport spectator experience unique. In the process, and contrary to concerns about globalization, place competition and the mobility of people and products, the place of competition achieves non-transferable status.
In illustrating a sociological perspective of the visitor experience, Morgan (2007:363) presents an experience space model (Figure 6.1) to explain that
‘the experience is created by the interaction between the activities and the
FIGURE 6.1 The experience space: Interactions between organizers and sports tourists (Source: Morgan, 2007).
Sport Spectatorship and the Search for Authentic Experiences 111
places provided by the destination and the internal motivations and mean- ings brought by the visitors’. The upper portion ofFigure 6.1illustrates the classic motivational pull factors centred on the physical attributes and image of the destination, which are mediated by destination management and marketing activities. This represents the destination setting within which tourist experiences can be played out. The lower portion of the model depicts the motivations, meanings and identities that tourists bring to the place of competition. In the case of sport tourism, the visitor experience will be heavily influenced by personal meanings and the collective social identities of communities of supporters (Morgan, 2007). The experience space allows for the co-creation of experiences based on social and cultural interactions that represent the interplay of activities and people in a setting that is place- situated.
Morgan (2006, 2007) highlights three internal elements of the spectator experience. The first relates to the personal benefits ofhedonistic enjoyment and achievement. Novelty, impulse, entertainment and surprise are essen- tial elements of experience that can be achieved in the tourist space. So too, according to Morgan (2007), is total absorption in an activity, which can give rise to the elevated state of ‘flow’ (Csikszentmihalyi, 1992) (see Figure 6.1). The second is social interactions, which lie at the heart of the intense collective experiences of spectator sports. These interactions provide a setting in which individual and social identities are forged and where social and environmental circumstances may give rise to a sense of group identity or ‘communitas’ (Hinch & Higham, 2006; Weed, 2006, Morgan, 2007; see Chapter 8,Authentic experiences). Interactions with local people, both in terms of integration (shared experiences) and differentiation (development of social identity), may be critical elements of the sport tourism experience (Weed & Bull, 2004). The third key element ismeaning and values. The meanings and values associated with a sport spectator experience are derived from the cultural background of the visitor and their subjective understanding and interpretation of the historical and cultural context of the sport and place where it takes place. ‘Sporting allegiances and cultures are therefore deep-set and subtle expressions of personal identity’
(Morgan, 2007:368).
Thus, in terms of sport tourism the significance of the place of compe- tition (the destination) vis-a`-vis the spectator experience rests with the social and cultural interactions that occur when people travel, tour and gather at places of competition (Weed, 2007). The social experience is place- situated and derived principally from the interaction of hosts and guests.
Within this context, hedonistic enjoyment and achievement, social inter- action and meaning and values lie at the heart of the sport tourist experience
(Morgan, 2007). This point corroborates the findings of studies of sports fans, which demonstrate the importance of the social experience in terms of travelling for sport spectatorship (Fairley, 2003). It adds emphasis to understanding sport spectatorship in terms of the local experience as a strategy to counter the transportability of sports, sport spectatorship and sport experiences in a global and mobile world (see also Chapter 11,Modern landscapes and retro parks).