Scanlin (1998:6–7) points out that communication consumes about 75–90% of a project manager’s time so information therefore needs to be current and available on demand.
He (Scanlin) explains how organisations should establish project management centres of excellence to communicate standard processes, templates and tools; inform internal clients about training classes, internal video conferences and networking opportunities;
share lessons learned and recognise outstanding performance through their website.
By amalgamating technology with the project management body of knowledge, it is possible to provide online, timely, instant, precise cost and schedule information from anywhere, and even deliver this in varied formats to suit stakeholder needs.
Information technology is part of the essential infrastructure of the knowledge revolution. While the knowledge revolution is inspired by the new information systems, it takes human systems to realise it. This is because knowledge requires the utilisation of information as building blocks. To leverage knowledge, it is necessary to enhance both thinking and information. The most natural way to do this is to build knowledge communities that cross teams, disciplines, time, space and business units (McDermott, 1999:116).
Four key challenges are involved in building such communities in organisations:
1. technical challenge: to design human and information systems that not only make information available, but also help community members to think together. The term ‘technology’ involves many elements when applied to project management applications. It can include methods, metrics, facilities, techniques, processes, hardware, other software and anything used in the production or support of a software-intensive system.
2. social challenge: to develop communities that share knowledge and still maintain enough diversity of thought to encourage thinking rather than sophisticated copying.
3. Management challenge: to create an environment that values sharing knowledge.
4. personal challenge: to be open to the ideas of others, willing to share ideas and to maintain a thirst for new knowledge (McDermott, 1999:116).
Meredith and Mantel (2000:422) indicate that the globalisation of industry has led to a sharp increase in the number of projects that are carried out in places far from some of the project team members. These virtual projects can be managed from remote locations only because the virtual meetings involved in planning and controlling the
projects are conducted through electronic media. Use of the Internet and websites for projects allows communication of and response to the most complex information.
Even the tracking and controlling of multiple projects through electronic systems is quite feasible.
With the development of specific applications of technology, organisations are now creating vast knowledge networks and communications skills based on virtual environments. This has involved providing opportunities for interaction, either face-to-face or electronically. Examples include chat rooms, team websites, forums, learning communities and company universities.
Management of new technology is a critical challenge for the novice team. Project managers are often skilled in the present technology, but have only a limited knowledge of the new ones or how to make the transition to these. This makes it difficult to assess risks, costs and benefits and to plan. To guide the use of new methods, software, tools and techniques, the team needs a technology strategy. This implies that the team must have knowledge of what is needed, what is feasible, and what is available, proven and applicable to the project. It also requires the development of a methodical, well-thought-out plan. The technology must be easy to use, support customisation, be based on operating standards, and have the ability to encompass databases, process data, link tools and provide for the establishment of a team and organisational interface.
Pellissier (2001:115) provides the following classification of information delivery systems useful to organisations:
y system applications
y database applications (i.e. Oracle, MS Excel, MS Access, Lotus Notes, dBase)
y business intelligence (information warehousing)
y office automation (email, Internet, desktop publishing, word processing, facsimile transmissions, video conferencing, etc.).
It is not the intention here to provide an overview of all the various information delivery systems available to project managers. What is important though is to focus specifically on office automation and software applications to facilitate project and organisation integration, and to assist project managers to track and manage projects.
6.5.1 Web-enabled project management
The Internet has revolutionised the way organisations conduct their business. This is also true about project management. The Internet and associated technology has
established a platform to facilitate access to and the distribution of project-relevant information to stakeholders around the globe, and to inform project planning and execution.
The Internet can be regarded as a computer-based worldwide information network with a global broadcasting capability. It is composed of a large number of smaller interconnected networks that link millions of computers, enabling them to share information with each other, and to share various resources and databases of information.
The Internet is influencing the way in which projects are managed and its potential and advantages are undisputed. The Internet makes it possible for project teams all over the world to communicate with one another effectively and inexpensively. Each team can communicate with other teams on the Internet, publish ideas and sell products with a minimum overhead cost. The Internet has brought new opportunity for project teams to offer goods and services online. It offers the ability to schedule, track and manage projects online, and provides the project manager with a virtually unconstrained medium in which projects can be managed. Timely information and feedback can be gained by the use of the various features that project management software packages offer.
The growth of handheld devices such as digital scanners, personal digital assistants (PDAs), tablets and smartphones further revolutionised the project management arena since these devices enable the project team to keep track of project progress irrespective of where they are. New software development in the form of computer programs and applications (apps), wireless technology (Wi-Fi), Pocket web clipping, as well as the building of new operating systems, such as the Android operating system and iPhone operating system (iOS), transfigured the way project managers manage projects. These technologies generally can reduce people- and communication-related problems that typically lead to project failures. According to Milinusic (2002:19) the Rosetta model is a useful model designed to aid the alignment of project teams, software, modern communication and data-processing hardware for the execution of projects. The more effectively these elements are integrated, the more successful the project can be managed, as each element supports and reinforces the other.
Project teams, even in distant locations, can work together by using an organisational website as an information management platform. The project website (accessible through user ID and password) typically provides access to all project-related information, such as progress reports, feasibility studies, budgets, minutes of meetings and so forth.
6.6 proJect ManaGeMent coMpUterIseD sYsteMs anD soFtWare appLIcatIons
The compatibility between computer hardware and software for project support can have serious technical consequences that could prevent project managers from accessing and managing project information. This challenge is mainly caused by the lack of standardisation of project information and computerised systems that can facilitate the flow of information between hardware, software and human input such as project documentation. The mixing of electronic and hard copies in organisations makes it difficult for project managers to process the right information as and when required. Therefore, system hardware and software applications should be aligned with organisational needs in general and project requirements in particular. Computerised information systems are needed to assist project managers in planning and managing complex projects.
6.6.1 Project management information systems (PMISs)
Organisations that have matured project systems which are integral parts of the functional processes and procedures of the organisation, find it extremely useful to design, develop and maintain management information systems for project support (Pinchot & Pinchot, 1994). A project management information system (PMIS) is a specialised, usually computerised, management information system for the specific use of project managers. Information systems are generally either manual (paper-based) or computer-based. According to Starling (1993:555–556) and Griffin (1993:551), any such system must have five basic components:
1. Inputs: the raw data that enter the information system. They provide the capabilities needed to get project information into the PMIS. It is necessary to establish where, when and how the data will be collected. Once the data, such as performance indicators and activity costs, has been input, it must be validated to ensure that it is correct. Networking protocols, the type of operating system, as well as the data and database standards, are important issues to consider.
2. processing: the ability to manipulate, organise, sort and perform calculations on the data. Processing transforms the data into a form useful for project managers.
As changes to project scope and schedules occur, these changes in information should be adjusted on the system. Transaction processing, basic documentation standards and the desktop environments are elements to consider.
3. storage: the system function in which data is stored in an organised manner for future processing or until needed by system users. As new data is brought into the system, it is often desirable to archive historical data for auditing purposes and to ensure a track record of proceedings – especially in cases where there are potential legal ramifications such as contracts with third parties and labour disputes.
4. control: a device for determining whether the information system is delivering information of sufficient quality, timeliness, completeness and relevance for users.
The entire information system is operated by a control system. Host organisations could incorporate, for example, a project performance indicator tracking system (PPITS) to use performance indicators to track and monitor the status of the project. The status could, for example, reflect the following:
a. accomplished successfully
b. being achieved (i.e. project is on course as per schedule)
c. experiencing minor problems (i.e. plans are in place to address the issues) d. experiencing major problems and rescheduling of target date required e. not yet due.
A PPITS usually has a graphic interface to update progress in terms of each status indicator. All project actions are recorded and status reports are automatically compiled with all the up-to-date information.
5. outputs: project documentation such as feasibility studies, progress reports, adjusted budgets and scope changes. These are the useful, relevant and accurate products that you need to make informed decisions in projects. The type of information and reports retrieved from the system should be adjusted to suit the specific information needs of the particular project.
A PMIS typically should make provision for a hybrid kM system in which both software applications and human knowledge are accommodated. The host organisation and the project team should also consider the governance structure of the PMIS, which includes the hierarchical management system for maintenance and project system integration.
Management should decide what kind of information will be recorded on the system and whether elements such as invoices, purchase orders, cheques, reports, drawings, faxes, notes, minutes and so forth, should be stored. The physical dimensions of the system should therefore be considered. They should also consider the so-called ‘strategic fit’ of the system. In other words, they should consider the level of support the system should provide for strategic decisions. The system should make easy information access possible and measures should be taken to ensure security of data.
6.6.2 Software applications
The software industry has seen an exponential growth in recent years. Software applications are generally aimed at providing solutions to management problems and functions within business, industry and government. As such, software applications significantly improve the ability of project teams to plan, forecast, implement and control activities.
Any search on Internet-based search engines will reveal the fact that a multitude of different project management software is available (Microsoft Project, eProject, Project Scheduler, Planview, D’Project, About Time, Gantt Tool, MinuteMan, Fast Track, etc.). It is important that the host organisation of the project should consider a package that provides a graphical network presentation of the work breakdown structure (WBS) of projects, shows Gantt and PERT charts, and enables the management of a portfolio of projects. The software should be integrated with existing ICT platforms of the organisation and the project team should ensure that it adheres to organisational ICT policies and procedures. Software should enable the team to manage data and facilitate information collection, storage and retrieval. Software should also assist in providing processes, tools and templates required to influence the success of projects within organisations.
In considering the purchasing and use of a particular software application, the project team should typically take the following into account:
y It should include the project processes required to manage time, cost, quality, change, risk and issues.
y It should be in-line with standards and best practices based on the worldwide project management standards such as PMBOk™ and PRINCE2.
y It should include tools such as templates, tables, diagrams and checklists.
y The training requirements of the application should be simple and users should be trained in the effective utilisation thereof. This is an aspect that could be time-consuming and expensive.
y It should provide the basis upon which to conduct project audits.
y It should enable reviews, quality assurance and quality control processes and templates to review the progress of each phase of the project.
y It should facilitate reporting to help the manager to monitor and control the progress of phases.
y The use of terminology should be consistent with common terminology within the particular project environment.
By applying relevant computer software a project team can not only save time and money but more attention can be paid to the finer details of the project and thus ensure a service and/or product of high quality. While no tool can ensure the success or failure of a project, knowing how to use the tools effectively can simplify your task. Currently a multitude of different project management software is available. Although many kinds of software are very functional to use, all have some kind of limitation. Microsoft Project is currently the leading and preferred software. One of the benefits of the MS Project is the fact that it easily interfaces with other Microsoft applications such as MS Word, Excel and PowerPoint. This software package will receive attention in the next section.
Microsoft Project: An overview
Microsoft Project is a full-featured tool with many options available to project managers.
The application is designed to assist project managers in developing plans, assigning resources to tasks, tracking progress, managing budgets and analysing workloads. It is a powerful application that one can use to efficiently plan, manage and communicate project information. It enables the team to efficiently deal with dynamic scheduling, manage multiple projects and resources, and support effective communication.
Project resources such as people, equipment and materials can be shared between projects using a shared resource pool. Each resource can have its own allocation or utilisation schedule that reflects the time and milestone for which the resource should be available. MS Project assists the team to compile a project budget based on these resource allocations and their associated costs.
MS Project has been extended to enable enterprise-wide collaboration and reporting and includes Microsoft Office Project Portfolio Server (2010) and Microsoft Enterprise Project Management to guide strategic project/portfolio management and online collaboration. These applications allow team members to access a project server database across the Internet and include timesheets, graphical analysis of resource workloads and administrative tools.
MS Project enables you to schedule and track project progress. Progress and resource data can be presented using features such as customisable Gantt charts and reports.
One can share information, consolidate projects, split tasks among team members and track project status over the Internet, including email and the intranet of a company.
Using MS Project the project manager can communicate important project information to every member of the team. Assignments can be made and accepted using MAPI- compliant email systems (Microsoft Outlook Express, Microsoft Exchange, etc.), the intranet of the institution, or the Internet. With the 'team assign' feature, project managers alert team members to their task responsibilities by email, the intranet, or the Internet, where they can accept, decline, or comment on tasks. Then, using the 'team status' feature, team members can provide their project managers with day-by- day or week-by-week updates. 'Team update' enables the manager to communicate changes to team members, who can then respond concerning any issues that may result from the change (van Niekerk, 2002).
MS Project allows the team to publish reports for others to view. It provides various tools, such as the 'report gallery', with a variety of predefined, text-based reports. One can customise and print any of the project views to meet specific reporting requirements, and communicate the plans over the Internet or the network of the organisation.
One of the most important menus in MS Project is the project menu. The project menu controls the features associated with tasks and other information pertaining to the tasks. Tasks can be sorted according to start or finish date, cost of tasks and identification. Tasks can also be filtered to display only the tasks specified. The 'outline feature' allows for the indent and outdent of tasks in order to determine the level of the different tasks (e.g. main tasks, subtasks and sub-subtasks). Tasks can also be shown and hidden according to their level of functionality.
The network diagram is the graphical presentation of the life-cycle of the project. The network diagram in MS Project will automatically draw and indicate the Critical Path of the project and is usually indicated in red.
This concludes the basic outline of MS Project. Examples of some of the charts discussed here are available on the Juta Academic website. It is important to mention that MS Project should not be viewed in isolation. One can only fully utilise this program if all knowledge areas and critical success factors pertaining to project management are understood and applied.