Rice production
Rice production has the longest history and is of the greatest importance in the Mekong Delta. The sector takes both national food security and international trading missions. Formerly, rice production prevailingly relied on the floating rice variety as it was suited to local flooding (Nguyen Huu Chiem 1994; Kọkửnen 2008). Floating rice production required little input and a low investment; however, farmers only yielded one crop per year (from July to January) (Howie 2005). The introduction of high- yield varieties (HYVs) into the Delta since 1967 together with short-term varieties development and the improvement of dyke and canal systems have enabled farmers to intensify from single to double and triple crops (see Appendix 2.1 for the delta’s rice crop patterns and locations). In some high-dyke protected areas, farmers even manage seven crops over two years (Howie 2005).
Rice intensification has been challenged by pest outbreaks, increased use of fertilisers and pesticides, environmental pollution, land degradation, added value, and a fluctuated market. It is now under the State promotion and farmers’ self-direction that crop diversification is gradually more practiced.
Another challenge in rice production in the Mekong Delta is the use of verified seed as a replacement
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of degenerated varieties and increased productivity. Verified seed socialisation has been promoted with the establishment of networks of verified seed clubs and trained farmers. These networks are intended to produce and supply verified seed in their areas. However, many farmers are still stuck with old varieties, for example the 504 varieties, since they do not see convincing advantages of this new method in terms of input-output comparison.
To produce high-quality rice, farmers have to use verified rice varieties. However, many of them tend to be hesitant to apply these varieties due to the more expensive seed. Verified rice varieties bring higher productivity, but their rice selling price is not much higher than the old varieties.
Thus, many farmers remain using unverified seed of old varieties (Interview 260, extensionist, male, Phong Dien, 22.11.2010).
Rice research in the Mekong Delta has shifted its focus from higher-yield, shorter-termed seeds to brown planthopper (BPH) resistance varieties, high quality varieties, and salinity-tolerant varieties.
Also, participatory rice research has been encouraged. Farmers are trained to undertake some phases of the research process, and some of them even become rice breeders.
Crop diversification
Crop diversity has for decades been supported by the State’s agricultural programs. It is also a traditional practice of Mekong Delta farmers as a risk reduction strategy.
Farmers in our locality used to cultivate three rice crops per year; however, they earned little profits from rice production. Under the State’s policy, they decided to perform crop diversification by planting different types of vegetables or doing aquaculture. Their current models of production are two rice crops-one vegetable crop and two rice crops-one aquaculture crop. Thus, their incomes have remarkably improved (Interview 89, senior official, male, Co Do, 19.8.2010).
In the past, I cultivated one rice crop per year, then two crops per year, in which the winter- spring rice crop is the main one. I have decided to diversify my crops by integrating vegetable planting or aquaculture with rice production (Interview 196, farmer, male, Thot Not, 23.10.2010).
Crop diversity can be implemented by rotational crops or added production systems. Very often, farmers include vegetable or fruit planting, livestock rearing, and aquaculture in addition to their rice production (cf. Wilder and Nguyen Thanh Phuong 2002). Another crop diversity approach is the adoption of integrated farming systems, for example, integrated models of rice-fish, rice-shrimp, mangrove-shrimp, mangrove-rice, rice-upland crops or VAC, a symbiotic farming system of horticulture, pisciculture, and animal husbandry (cf. Miller, Nguyen Viet Thinh, and Do Thi Minh Duc 1999).
Beside their economic benefits, integrated systems are environmentally sustainable and small-scale household applicable. Since the system is complicated in terms of effective adoption and operation in the long run, rather than technological understanding and acceptance, on-the-spot and post-project consultations and support are required, as this need is hardly satisfied by a centralised project and its resource constraints. Besides “hard” technological issues related to subsystem installation and arrangement, production activities require further multidisciplinary and multi-stakeholder efforts. It is always challenging for both scientists and farmers to address the basic question: Which kinds of plants,
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animals, and fish need to be grown within the integrated system, taking into account the dynamics of local conditions, needs, pest and disease outbreaks, as well as market demand? Furthermore, even when intensive dissemination is needed, it is crucial to keep in mind that the system is under investigation, theoretically and practically, for optimisation over the time-space axis (cf. Wieneke 2005, 24). Farmer-initiated farming diversification models thus need to be discovered and disseminated.
Pest management
In the Mekong Delta, farmers have a habit of exceeding use of seed and fertiliser and more pesticides than necessary as they believe that high seed and fertiliser inputs result in higher yields (Nguyen Huu Huan et al. 2005, 457). Pesticide misuse and overuse have caused serious air pollution, soil degradation, contaminated water, and human ill-health (Dang Minh Phuong and Gopalakrishnan 2003).
Farmers use more agrichemicals than needed. For example, it is recommended that farmers mix a bottle of 50cc pesticide into 16 litres of water, yet farmers often dissolve 70-80 cc of the agrichemical with the same amount of water as they do not want to have to carry out a second spraying (Interview 199, farmer, male, Co Do, 25.10.2010).
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) was one of the first sustainable approaches to pest management introduced in Vietnam and the Mekong Delta to connect ecological principles and social scientific perspectives into traditional crop management (Hồkan Berg 2001, 898). The IPM program in Vietnam provides farmers with farming knowledge to make better pest-control decisions (Nguyen Huu Dung and Tran Thi Thanh Dung 1999, 9). In addition, several programs including “Three reductions three gains” (Ba giam ba tang), “Four right things to do” (Bon dung) and “One must five reductions” (Mot phai nam giam) were formulated and promoted through trainings, conferences, consultation sessions, and the mass media in order to encourage farmers to reduce seed and fertiliser use (Nguyen Huu Huan et al.
2005).
Many farmers start to reduce seed and fertiliser rates in their first crops and carefully monitor their crops to take appropriate measures. However, some continue using high seed and fertiliser rates. Those who cultivate rice in a large area or live far from their rice fields often take the
“preventive” pest control method. In spite of no sign of pest outbreaks, they spray insecticides every ten days. Thus, their expenses for production are very high (Interview 161, farmer, male, Vinh Thanh, 13.10.2010).
Pest management in a sustainable manner is often complicated and different from farmers’ perceptions of pest – that they should all be killed right away. Moreover, it involves multiple sources of knowledge, including researchers, extensionists, and agribusiness, even with conflicting messages. Therefore, IPM and the like should be “sustainable” in terms of repeated and extended programs of knowledge transfer and “integrated” in terms of transferred knowledge.
Fruit production
Fruit production has a long tradition in the Mekong Delta, well-known for garden strips (miet vuon).
However, the sector has only made significant development under the government policy of agricultural diversification. The delta’s total fruit production area increased from 92,000 ha in 1985 to 175,000 ha in 1995 and reached over 300,000 ha at present with a total fruit output of over 3,000,000
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tons per year (Van Mele, Nguyen Thi Thu Cuc, and Van Huis 2001; DCSVN March 27, 2014). Tien Giang and Vinh Long are the two main fruit production provinces in the delta, with specialities such as Hoa Loc mango, Lo Ren star apple, and Nam Roi pomelo.
With the establishment of a fruit research institute in Tien Giang, fruit production research and technology transfer has been consolidated. Effective agricultural cooperative and global GAP application models can be widely observed in the fruit sector. However, recognition of global GAP is technically and administratively expensive. Many fruit cooperatives are becoming brand dependent to large companies for exports (Interview 314, farmer, male, Vinh Long, 9.3.2011).
Non-aligned farmers are prominent in the Mekong Delta fruit production landscape. They have to manage seedling and caring technologies based on their own experience and market evaluations.
When Hoa Loc sweet mangos were in vogue, I had about 120 mango plants. Recently I have started to plant star apple. Sweet mango farming required intensive labour and high investment but did not create high yields and income. I have planted off-season star apple.
This kind of star apple is large, and planned to be harvested in solar November; its quality is very good. I have learned techniques of star apple farming from my relatives who are growing star apple trees in the Phong Dien district, Can Tho City. Universities have not deeply studied these techniques yet (Interview 248, farmer, male, Binh Thuy, 15.11.2010).
I had heard about “yellow” longan through the mass media. My brother and I went to Tien Giang to buy yellow longan seedlings. My fruit garden has an area of over 2 hectares. Yellow mango monoculture may bring many production and market risks for producers, so I decided to combine the planting of longan with Hoa Loc sweet mangos and yellow durian (Interview 250, farmer, male, Binh Thuy, 16.11.2010).
Pest and disease management in fruit production is another problem. IPM has been promoted, but the results are still far from what is expected. What Van Mele and his colleagues recommended more than 10 years ago is still relevant to the fruit sector in the delta: “It is imperative that participatory research and mass media campaigns be commenced to show farmers that alternative, more sustainable approaches for pest and disease management are possible (Van Mele, Nguyen Thi Thu Cuc, and Van Huis 2001, 14).
Aquaculture
The last decade has witnessed an aquacultural boom in the Mekong Delta, with escalating commercialised aqua-farms, fishery industries, and company workforces. The region has become the most productive region of both coastal and inland aquaculture under favourable conditions of water and fisheries resources and economic integration with new international market access (Tran Thanh Be 2007; Wilder and Nguyen Thanh Phuong 2002).
However, Vietnam’s aqua-product exports have recently faced difficulty due to claims that they were contaminated by antibiotics and/or microbiologic organisms (Vo Thi Thanh Loc 2003). Our interviews with Pangasius farmers have pointed out many cases of empty dry ponds and farmers in debt because of market interruption and high interest bank loans. Therefore, Kọkửnen (2008) is right to indicate the paradoxical role of aquacultural development in the Mekong Delta because poor farmers and poverty diminution have not received sufficient support. In response, large aqua-
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producers are applying strict quality control from the ponds to the final products. Small-scale farmers have reverted to more sustainable integrated agri-aquaculture models or/and local markets. Farmers are not encouraged to keep antibiotic diagrams.
It is a problem of drug traders when they sell the wrong chemicals or drugs for farmers, mainly because they do not make the antibiotic diagram. So, we also have inspections at the drug store to check if they buy the allowable drugs. As we find out any drugs or chemicals are forbidden by the regulations, we fine them for selling them and impound the drugs. But it is not just about the responsibility of drug traders. If farmers are confused about the chemicals they should use, they can ask the local aquaculture station for advice. Or if they experience problems with techniques or chemical use, they can contact the CTU, particularly the Department of Aquaculture and Fishery (Interview 13, senior officials, male, Can Tho, 26.05.2010).
Another problem related to aquaculture is waste water. Despite new regulations on pond system design with a compulsory waste water treatment component, in reality the adoption of this model is very low.
Some aquaculture households directly discard waste water into rivers that negatively affect water resources. Despite specific regulations on waste water treatment, aquaculture households have not abided by treatment procedures for waste water, and the management of water resources has not been properly implemented due to the lack of human resources and an appropriate control mechanism. For example, waste water is discarded into a canal, which is the main water source for the living activities of local people here. However, we cannot take any timely measures as the discharge of waste water occurs out of official hours (Interview 106, official, male, Thot Not, 23.8.2010).
Knowledge demands of the aquaculture industry are of a wide knowledge content spectrum from high- tech aqua-companies to limited resource households. However, in most cases, production technologies that meet market-required quality and environmental protection regulations need further investigation for the sector’s sustainability (see Genschick 2011).
Animal husbandry
The livestock production of the Mekong Delta is mainly characterised by small-scale households for home consumption or income generation purposes. Large (semi)industrial farmers are mainly State owned. Private commercial farms have recently emerged (Le Thanh Duong, Nguyen Duy Can, and Tran Thi Phan 2005). The delta’s animal husbandry priorities set by State management agencies include pig, poultry, and dairy cow farming (Le Thanh Duong, Nguyen Duy Can, and Tran Thi Phan 2005).
Integrated models of animal husbandry-agriculture and aquaculture are widely practiced in household backyard farms. Duck farming, especially field oviparous duck raising, is popular in the delta, which is encouraged as a natural method of pest control in paddy fields and a source of increased income for small farmers (cf. FAO 2010). However, avian influenza and blue ear outbreaks have for the last several years threatened both large and small producers.
Challenges of animal husbandry include new epidemic diseases, increased production inputs, such as veterinary medicine and food, and underpriced outputs. For example, in 2009, the selling price of a 100-kg swine was about 3.4-3.6 million dongs, while swine food was only 7,600-7,800 dongs/kg. Currently, the selling price of a 100-kg swine has decreased at 2.2-3.1 million dongs while swine food costs 11,500 dongs/kg (Interview 264, farmer, male, Phong Dien, 29.11.2010).
Swine farming is facing a blue ear outbreak. Farmers usually feed their swine with industrial food containing chemical components, and thus these swine are frequently diseased after 2-3 months.
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Breeding, feed, and water are big challenges to animal husbandry (Interview 216, commune official, male, Thoi Lai district, 29.10.2010).
It is important that farm households in the Mekong Delta get access to vaccination and veterinary services in their local areas (Mai Van Nam 2008). The orientation towards a sustainable husbandry industry thus might involve improved food safety and hygiene, competitive capacity building, and environment protection.
“Clean” agriculture
“Safe,” “clean,” and organic agriculture are different terms and different levels of agricultural production in relation to agrichemical embracement in the quest for agricultural sustainability. Organic agriculture tends to be an adoption of global knowledge that is international market-oriented while other clean types of farming are locally reproduced knowledge and targeted at domestic markets. These alternative agricultural models share environmental sustainability as a driving force, but marketability finally determines their outcome.
There are in general three groups of organic farmers, as defined by Willer and Yussefi (2006) and Simmons and Scott (2008): traditional (as normally practiced), reformed (cognitive to action change), and certified (with certificate) groups. Organic farming is emerging modestly in the Mekong Delta, as it is in Vietnam, frequently under international cooperation and for export purposes. For example, Binca Seafood, Naturland, and German Agency for Development Co-operation (GTZ) have worked together to produce organic Pangasius in An Giang. However, organic projects often neglect the participation of smallholders (Le Nguyen Doan Khoi 2011).
Good agricultural practice (GAP), defined as “the practices that farmers engage in to minimise the detrimental environmental impacts of farming operations; reduce the use of chemical inputs; and ensure a responsible approach to worker health and safety, as well as ensure animal welfare” (Nicetic et al. 2010, 1894) and its Vietnamese version, VietGAP, have increasingly been promoted in the last few years in Mekong Delta agricultural production. However, only a small number of production units have obtained a GAP certificate (La Thi Nga et al. 2012). Of particular note, certificate regranting is still in question for many current GAP producers.
Application of GAP in aquaculture is very difficult. We can ensure food, raising techniques, and agrichemicals in GAP aquaculture. However, the water environment is a challenge. We can neither construct a deposition pond due to our limited area nor rearrange three ponds as designed by GAP. It often takes us 7-8 months to harvest a crop. Any careless interventions may affect our yields and business (Interview 235, farmer, male, O Mon, 9.11.2010).
Compared to traditional rice farming, GAP-based rice production requires more labour and organic fertiliser use. The GAP yield is not much higher than that of traditional rice production, and GAP products are not very attractive to customers due to their less-competitive prices.
However, rice production with GAP principles brings many benefits to farmer's health and the environment due to the use of organic fertiliser and the reduction in agrichemical spraying (Interview 307, farmer, male, Hau Giang, 7.3.2011).
Clean vegetable groups have developed in peri-urban areas as a source of fresh vegetable to the city dwellers. They can be registered as a clean vegetable club or cooperative and recognised with a three-
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year valid certificate by the provincial department of agriculture and rural development. Alternative agriculture production needs strong supportive government policies and plans, involvement of research institutes, and the participation of large and smallholders.
Agricultural mechanisation
Mechanising farming activities is an irreversible trend of large field construction, lack of labour under urbanisation, and sector modernisation as elsewhere as in the Mekong Delta (cf. Nesbitt 2005).
Formerly, I harvested rice by myself or hired labourers to harvest crops by hand. The cost of labour was quite expensive. Two years ago, I started to use a combined harvester for rice cutting and threshing. Adoption of a combined harvester helps me reduce expenses and time. The price of the harvester is not too high, and it is effective in carrying out all steps of rice harvesting. I only spend labour on tidying up rice fields (Interview 220, farmer, male, Thoi Lai, 2.11.2010).
Regarding of the mode of production, engine-powered tractors are popularly used in agricultural production. Only field clearance is manually done. Row seeding and rice cutting are implemented by cutting and threshing tractors. Steps of land preparation and harvesting are mechanised. Only water plumping is still carried out by each household as local farmers have not harvested rice at the same time. In general, agricultural production has not been highly cooperative and specialised.
Large-scale agricultural production is still less developed. Agricultural mechanisation has been promoted; however, it has still been limited and not met the demand of large-scale agricultural development (Interview 176, official, male, Thot Not, 18.10.2010).
Agricultural mechanisation in the Mekong Delta is still limited. Truong Thi Ngoc Chi (2010) determined that the important factors affecting farmers’ use of rice harvesters and dryers include their educational level, perception of machinery, and available capital. Our interview data further suggest that natural conditions and poor infrastructure, for example, soft soil or muddy and narrow roads, also hinder the use of high-power imported machines in farming. However, several farmers have invented or improved machines based upon their daily working needs that are both appropriate with local conditions and widely accepted within and beyond their communities.
I myself have manufactured a spraying machine installed in a rolling frame. I use this machine to spray insecticides instead of traditional handmade pumps. This machine has its own advantages and disadvantages, but it helps farmers remarkably reduce their labour. Many other farmers are now taking the model (Interview 174, farmer, male, Thot Not, 18.10.2010).
Rural vocational training
In the process of urbanisation, rural inhabitants in the Mekong Delta have undergone a career structural shift when land for agriculture is gradually reallocated for industrial activities. Local farmers are encouraged to participate in vocational training courses for alternative livelihoods other than agricultural production.
The city and district give priorities to vocational training in order to make career structure shifts.
We organise two vocational training courses per year. Each course consists of 30 trainees.
However, these courses have not been successful. It is very difficult to mobilise local people to attend vocational training. Local people mainly live on small trading and unskilled labour as they can earn money quickly to spend on their daily living (Interview 265, senior official, male, Cai Rang, 1.12.2010).
We organised coin hat making classes for local women. We hope that upon training, trainees are able to make complete products to be sold in the market. The class objective cannot be achieved.
It cost us several million dong to organise a class for 30 trainees, but ultimately only a few of