An investigation of vocabulary learning strategies of the english major students at baclieu university

This present study, conducted in the context of a provincial university, investigates vocabulary learning strategies used by English major students to find out 1 the frequently used voca

INISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HO CHI MINH CITY OPEN UNIVERSITY

wy

AN INVESTIGATION OF VOCABULARY LEARNING STRATEGIES OF THE ENGLISH

MAJOR STUDENTS AT BACLIEU UNIVERSITY

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT

OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF ARTS (TESOL)

Submitted by LIEN TRONG NGHIA Supervisor: Dr NGUYEN VAN LOI

No other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the main text of the thesis

This thesis has not been submitted for the award of any degree or diploma in any other tertiary institution

Ho Chi Minh City, 2012

Lién Trong Nghia

as a wholehearted supervisor I would not have finished my study without his enthusiastic guidance

I am also grateful to the Faculty of Education at BacLieu University for their

help in offering opportunities for fulfilling my thesis

My special thanks are reserved for Mr Nguyen Thanh Duc who provided me useful information and reference books relating to my thesis, and my family, and classmates, who shared the happiness and difficulties with me during the

time, I carried out the research.

ABSTRACT

Today in teaching and learning English, research has shifted from a focus on lecturers and teaching to learners and learning There have been many studies on how learners learn a language in general and vocabulary in particular

In some Asian countries like Japan, Taiwan, China, Iran, Hong-Kong, Malaysia,

Thailand, South Korea, plenty of research on vocabulary learning strategies has

been conducted However, in Vietnam little research has been done on

vocabulary learning strategies This present study, conducted in the context of a provincial university, investigates vocabulary learning strategies used by English major students to find out (1) the frequently used vocabulary of the English major students, (2) The difference in the frequently-used vocabulary learning strategies in terms of learners’ grade-level and achievement- level of English (3) the correlation between the achievement and the use of vocabulary learning strategies The research tools for this study are a questionnaire and a semi-structured interview The subjects of the study are one hundred and nine English- major students from 3 classes (forty six freshmen, thirty six

sophomores and twenty seven juniors) The data collected from the

questionnaires and interviews are calculated by using SPSS 19.0 The findings revealed several important issues: for example, the English- major students often used a limited number of vocabulary learning strategies related to rote- learning, there was a significant difference in terms of VLS between the freshmen and the juniors; and there was a correlation between the achievement level of English and the use of vocabulary learning strategies Some pedagogical implications were drawn from the study and several suggestions were proposed for future research

TABLE OF CONTENTS

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP :cssscsscsssesssssssesescescsrsesssenseensennsensezeeanees ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 55555ĂĂssẰ S99 9991190101188 n0 iii .V: ý 0:2 0 TS Ôn iv LIST OF FIGURES - <5 <5 < +5 239 995 8588580880818 viii LIST OF TABLLES -<5- << <2 3939558 3305199188800 1900 ix LIST OF ABBREVIA TION . << << <Ă55ĂSSĂ 595.0800194 X Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION -. -<«<5<<s+seseeeeeereeterterteresesesererree 1

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1.2 Purposes of the study . -«-«eeeeeeesesesesessseieririiieseseressee 4

1.3 Research quesfÏOIS -. -5 =<=ss=seeseseseseeseseseeieriiesersesesee _ 1.4 Significance of the study . -e«e-«e-eeeeeeeeeestertrrertrtesesesereersee 5 1.4 Outline of the sfudly .- -<<-<<-<<=<eeeeeessessessesseieesssee 6

Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEYW «.« eeeeeeeeeeerrrsrirrrrrseerreie 7 Inineariirorr 0 ố.ố aa 7 2.1 Definitions Language Learning Strategies . «-««-<««eseseseseeeeseereerseseersee 7 2.1.1 Features of language learning strategies - ‹ + V5 2.1.2 Classifications of language learning sfraftegles . - e

2.2 The importance of LLS in language learning and teaching 14 2.3 Vocabulary knowledge and vocabulary learning síratepies_ 16

2.3.1 Knowing a Word .- -+c+cscseeeierrrrerrrrrrrrirrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrirrirrrrree 16 2.3.2 Definitions of vocabulary learning strategies - 21 2.3.3 Classifications of vocabulary learning strategies - 22

2.3.4 Some studies on vocabulary learning strafeg1es - 26 2.4 Conceptual frame WOFÌK « ==<=sseseseseseetessseenesrreiiesrseseeee 32

Chapter 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOG Y . -e-eceeeeeeeeeeeeereeee 35

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3.4 Research ins(rumenfS . -<<<<5<<555=<<<9558eeeesessssesseseeeeseeseseee 38

3.2.1 Vocabulary questiOnnia1T© - «5+ +esetetteretrertrerrerrerrrrrre 38

°c na 2 38 3.5 Pilot phìaSe 555 5< S<S< se nennee0000000000000000010000000000010101P 39

3.6 The main study phase -. -5-s+stsetetertttttrtrtrtrrrrrrrtrrrrrrrre 40

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3.6.1.1 Questionnaire proCedUT€ -++t+t+srterrrrrrtrrtrtrtrtrtrtrrrrrrrre 40 3.6.1.2 Interview DFOC€dUT€ - 5-5*++++teetrttetrrrererrrrrrrrrrrtrrrrrrrree 40

3.7 Analytical frameWOrFk -eeeeeeseeeeeeserersrsrrrrtrrreesrsrretrerrrrrrrsneee 41

Chapter 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 42 4.1.The frequently used VLS of the English major SfUderitS «.e.eeeeosseeeeee 42 4.2.1 The differences among the freshmen,sophomres and the juniors interms

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43 The correlation between the use of VLS and the achievement - 60

Chapter 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . - 64

5.1 Summary of the findings .-. -e -<s+<*eeeereretterertterrrsrtrererrrrererensee 64

5.2 pedagogical implicatiOnS -eseseereetrettttrterterserttrtertrrrrrrrrterrtere 65 5.3 Limifa(iOIS <5 << 5< 5< 9 S9 599191 9 9309000088810 66

5.4 suggestions for further researCh: . -eeeeeeeeseeesereeertrrerttrtereereee 67 5.5 ConeÌuSÏODRS <5- <5 5< 5< 39 99 99999555085885538080010010001900990090004 67

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: The _interrelationships between the direct and indirect strategies and among the Six strategy ĐØFOHDS << << << << nh nh th th nh nh th v ự 14 Figure.2: A conceptual frame work for the Study cccceccesccessccceersscoers

Table 4.6: The comparison of five subcategory VLS between the high-fairly hieh performers and averà€ DeTÍOTIH€TS - -+ -+++++++*++++t+etttettttttttrrtttrtrereree 53 Table 4.7: The twenty one most-used VLS of the high-fairly high performers 55 Table 4.8: The seven most-used VLS of the average performe€rs . - 59 Table 4.9: The Pearson correlation between the overall mean score of VLS use and the achievement level of English -++ + =+*++*+*t+*r*tr*t+tr*tr* 61 Table 4.10: The Pearson correlation matrix of five subcategory strategies with the achievement level of English_ ->**++*++*r+*tettrtrtttree 62

: Determination strategy

: Discovery

: Vocabulary learning strategy

: Vocabulary learning strategies

Language learning strategies : English as a foreign language

: English as a second language

: French as a Second Language

: And others

: First language

: Second language

Memory strategy Meta-cognitive strategy : Productive

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

At present, learning another language beside mother tongue is compulsory for students Mastering a foreign language especially, English help people gain so many benefits in communication, doing business, working with foreign companies, learning abroad English plays an important role in social life Teaching and learning English are considerably cared for and develop quickly

Although English has developed with such a quick speed and the number

of English learners has increased fast in quantity, their English basic knowledge has not yet met the demand In reality, they can hardly communicate with foreigners They met difficulties learning English One of the main reasons is their lack of vocabulary stock From the mentioned-above difficulties, the researcher carried out an interview to gain deep insights of what problems English-majors in Bac Lieu University faced most frequently Data obtained from the ten interviewees revealed that most of students lacked vocabulary

stock and they had difficulty reading, writing, speaking and listening English

In fact, vocabulary plays an important role in learning a language Widening vocabulary is the key to improving communicative competence In other words, vocabulary seems to be a fundamental step in learning any language Learners may experience this, “when people travel, they don’t carry strongly favored the essential role of vocabulary, stating that vocabulary constitutes major aspects of meaning in any language Verhallen & Schoonen

(1993) also confirmed the crucial role of vocabulary when pointing out that English learners who experience low vocabulary development are less able to

x

comprehend texts of English at their grade level than their peers and more noticeably, they may be at risk of being diagnosed as disabled in learning due to their limited vocabulary and poor comprehension which results partly from

limitation of word knowledge Laufer’s (1996, P.20-22) summary of second

language research on the role of guessing in reading provides some interesting conclusions regarding the important role of vocabulary in reading comprehension and strategy use:

L2 language learners tend to rely heavily on words as landmarks of meaning

in text, less so on background knowledge, and to virtually ignore syntax Vocabulary knowledge has been consistently shown to be more strongly related

to reading comprehension than other components of reading Even if a reader has and uses good meta-cognitive strategies in L1, they won’t be able to use them in second language until the reader develops a solid language base (cited

from (Dycus, 1997, Thanh, 2010)

Though vocabulary is said to be basic to communication in any language, and especially necessary for success in real life, L2 learners have unexpectedly been shown to be impaired in word knowledge, even for frequently used words As a result, they meet difficulties in understanding English or even are seen as learning disabled (Verhallen & Schoonen, 1993)

Wilkin (1972, P.12) stated that “without grammar, very little can be conveyed Without vocabulary, nothing can be conveyed” (Wilkin, 1972, Thanh, 2010)

Moreover, although vocabulary is of extreme importance and is in great

need, the teaching and learning of vocabulary has not been paid due attention or

taken into consideration It is considered as an extra part beside grammar, pronunciation, and other skills Because of that misconception, teaching vocabulary is strategically limited to Vietnamese translation Lecturers read new words, students listen repeat Seven years ago the Ministry of education and training initiated change in methods of teaching English towards a more

communicative orientation The teaching of vocabulary has changed

significantly; the teacher has applied some new strategies to teach vocabulary

such as: games, contextualization, visuals, or aided software, but there is no

research for vocabulary learning strategies Until recently a growing interest in this field has led to a number of researches into this sub-category of second

language acquisition (e.g., Gu & Johnson, 1996; Hogben & Lawson, 1996; Schmitt, 1997; Kojic-Sabo & Lightbown, 1999; Kudo, 1999; Fan, 2003)

In addition, many researchers have proved that to learn vocabulary

better, the use of vocabulary strategies should be considered Schmitt (2000)

suggested that learning vocabulary in the second language requires the use of vocabulary learning strategies which have received much attention in the field

of second language learning However, expanding vocabulary isn’t always easy for all language learners without knowing and applying a variety of vocabulary

learning strategies That is why Nation (2001, P 222) insists “A large amount

of vocabulary can be acquired with the help of vocabulary learning strategies and that vocabulary learning strategies have been proved useful for students of different language levels”

Thus it seems undeniable that vocabulary learning strategies may, to a

substantial degree, be the determinant of success and failure in acquiring a language and it is improbable to segregate vocabulary learning from the development of language skills (Gu, 1997,Thanh, 2010)

More noticeable is that, in my teaching, I have experienced many cases

in which learners at Bac Lieu University spent too much time learning English

vocabulary but could not use or remember it in a long-term Besides, they have

learned many English words with a strong desire to improve their English learning since they recognize their lack of English words Unexpectedly, they fail to use English to communicate And they often forget a number of words that they have learned In addition, most of the learners I asked considered vocabulary as the main difficulty of English learning but they were not confident in their strategies for learning English words

Moreover, although vocabulary and vocabulary learning strategies play

an important role in acquiring a language, researchers have ignored them for years Due to the fact that vocabulary learning is also the key problem of most learners and also a fundamental stage in any language learning, studying vocabulary learning strategies is promising to find out good ways that successful Vietnamese learners do to face unknown words and improve their stock of vocabulary in order to help poor language learners Thus having knowledge of what learners do to learn vocabulary gives lecturers a very important understanding of their students’ learning so that they can adjust their method and help weak students

In recent years, in accordance with the world trend of language learning strategies, Vietnamese lecturers and researchers have paid more attention to language learning strategies, specifically English learning strategies There have been more studies on the strategies that good language learners use as well as those that poor language learners lack The present study seeks to contribute to this field, expecting to expand understanding in vocabulary learning strategies 1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The objectives of this study include:

- Investigating to what extent do the English major students at Bac Lieu University use vocabulary learning strategies?

- Investigating whether the frequently-used vocabulary learning strategies differ in terms of learners’ grade-level and achievement- level of English

- Determining whether there any correlation between the vocabulary learning

strategies use and the achievement level of English

3 Is there any correlation between vocabulary learning strategies use and the

achievement level of English?

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The study contribute to enhance quality of teaching and learning English especially, vocabulary learning of the English — major students What is more, the study helps lectures gain deeply inside understandings of the positive as well as short-comings of the English- major students’ vocabulary learning The study was carried out with the hope to solve the special problem of vocabulary learning that English major students at Bac Lieu University faced

1.5 THE OUT LINE OF THE STUDY

This thesis consists of the following parts:

Chapter one addresses the introduction, which introduces the background to the study, the aims of the study and research questions

Chapter two introduces and establishes a conceptual and theoretical framework for learning strategies, definitions, features and classifications of language learning strategies as well as vocabulary knowledge, definitions, classifications of vocabulary learning strategies Moreover, it reviews studies relating to the thesis

Chapter three specifies research methods related to the research design, the research questions, the participants, the instruments, the procedures of data collection

Chapter four presents data analysis about the quantitative and qualitative results and discussion

Chapter five offers conclusion, limitations, pedagogical implications and suggestions for further research

Finally the references and appendices of the study are provided

Chapter 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

In this chapter, the definitions, features and classifications of language learning strategies and of vocabulary learning strategies are presented Some studies on vocabulary learning strategies are also discussed Finally the conceptual framework was set

2.1 DEFINITIONS OF LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES

Within second language or foreign language field, some definitions of language learning strategies have been presented by some famous researchers Tarone (1983) defined a language learning strategy as “an attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language - to incorporate these into inter-language competence” (P.67) At first the product of LLS was stressed particularly in terms of linguistic and socio-linguistic competence whereas Weinstein and Mayer (1986) specified language learning strategies as

“ behaviors and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning which are

“intended to influence the learner’s encoding process” (Weinstein and Mayer

1986 , Takac, 2008) To make the term more clearly, Weinstein and al (1988)

stated “language learning strategies are considered to be any behaviors or thoughts that facilitate encoding in such a way that knowledge integration and

retrieval are enhanced,” (Weinstein and al 1988, Takac 2008) More concretely

these thoughts and behaviors constitute organized plans of actions designed to

achieve a goal For example LLS include actively rehearsing, summarizing,

paraphrasing, imaging, elaborating, and outlining A change overtime can be noted here that there is a shift from the early focus on product of LLS (linguistic and socio- linguistic competence) to the process and characteristic of LLS

With the same viewpoint, O’Malley and Chamot (1990) presented a definition that has something similar to the one of the mentioned-above researchers (Weinstein, Mayer et al, 1989, Takac, 2008.) For these researchers,

LLS are behavioral and mental while Wenden (1987) confirmed LLS is behavioral Rubin (1981) conducted a study to show the distinction between direct and indirect LLS, and then Rubin (1987) gave a very general definition

that LLS “are strategies which contribute to the development of the language

system which learners construct and affect learning directly” (P.22) She also suggested that LLS should include any sets of operations, steps, plans, routines used by learners to facilitate the obtaining, storage, retrieval and use of information This definition focuses on direct and indirect impact of LLS on language learning

Oxford (1990) proposed a more specific definition of LLS as “specific actions taken by learners to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more

self-directed, more effective, more transferable to new situations” (P.8)

MacIntyre (1994) shares some similarity with Oxford with the definition that

“language learning strategies as the actions chosen by language students that are intended to facilitate language acquisition and communication” According to Stern (1992), “the concept of language learning strategies is dependent on the assumption that learners consciously engage in activities to achieve certain

goals, and language learning strategies can be regarded as broadly conceived

intentional directions and learning techniques” This definition suggests that LLS are conscious and intentional Ellis (1994) said that “the concept of

‘strategy’ is somewhat fuzzy one not easy to tie down and brings to light many

problems” (P.22.)

The definitions presented above have some overlap and lack of precision

in their selection of crucial terminology and they are open for us to question

whether language learning strategies are behavioral, mental or both Oxford and

Wenden consider them as behavioral while (Weinstein et al) see them as both

behavioral and mental For Ridley (1997) and Purpura (1999), they share some

similarity with Stern with the definition that “TLS are conscious and unconscious techniques used by a person to reach a goal” (p.49.) The new trend can be recognized here that there is a shift from behaviorism to cognitive

theory

In brief, the definitions of LLS discussed above can be defined as

specific actions, behaviors, steps or techniques that learners often deliberately use to improve their progress in the development of their competence in the target language These strategies can have direct or indirect effect on language

learning, they are conscious, unconscious, observable and unobservable

2.1.1 Features of language learning strategies

Wenden and Rubin (1987: P 7-8) proposed very deliberately concrete features of LLS According to them, language learning strategies compose of following components:

They are specific actions or techniques

They can be observable or non-observable

They can be behavioral or mental

They are problem-oriented

They can contribute directly or indirectly to learning

They may be consciously employed and become automatic

They are changeable

These two experts gave very deliberately specific features of LLS However,

Oxford (1990: P 9) offers a more comprehensive list of the features of language

learning strategies, providing very comprehensively detailed features of LLS that synthesized the ones of most experts in the field so far

They contribute to the main goal of communicative competence

They allow learners to become more self-directed

They expand the role of lecturers

They are problem-oriented

They are specific actions taken by the learner

They involve many aspects of the learner, not just the cognitive

They support learning both directly and indirectly

They aren’t always observable

They are often conscious

They can be taught

They are flexible

They are influenced by a variety of factors

From these two lists of features, it is clear that LLS are specific actions,

techniques taken by learners They support learning both directly and indirectly, they are problem-oriented, they are conscious, subconscious, observable and unobservable

2.1.2 Classifications of language learning strategies

Recently, a number of studies have been done on LLS There has been a shift in focus from lecturers to students in second language as well as foreign language learning Different authors will have different classifications of language learning strategies based on their personal viewpoints about LLS, and this necessitates an adequate taxonomy and classification of LLS O’Malley (1990) classified language learning strategies into three types:

Meta-cognitive strategies “beyond the cognitive” help learners to

regulate their own learning to set goals, make plans, monitor as well as evaluate

their progress Cognitive strategies are useful for understanding and retrieving

new information Socio-affective strategies are frequently classified into the same set, so this is the reason why the concept “socio-affective” is formed

However, in Stern’s (1992) classification, he made some adaptation, and

divided language learning strategies into five main types: (1) Management and

planning strategies (2) Cognitive strategies (3) Communicative-experimental

strategies (4) Interpersonal strategies (5) Affective strategies

Management and planning strategies are similar to meta-cognitive strategies while communicative-experimental strategies help learners overcome limitations in communication However, interpersonal strategies also have some overlap with meta-cognitive strategies such as monitoring the learner’s development and evaluating their performance Affective strategies concern with managing emotions, anxiety both negatively and positively The relationship between affective strategies and learning is unclear, but a positively affective environment helps learning in general

However, the classification of LLS into cognitive, meta-cognitive, social

and affective is the most widely agreed and accepted (Cohen, 1998; William & Burden, 2001) According to Oxford (1990), all language learning strategies are oriented towards the broad goal of communicative competence, hence the development of communicative competence requires realistic interaction among learners using meaningful contextualized language Learning strategies help learners participate actively in authentic communication Such strategies operate in both general and specific ways to encourage the development of communicative competence

Oxford provided a very deliberately comprehensive classification of

LLS, dividing language learning strategies into two main kinds: direct and

indirect strategies which are further divided into 6 subgroups Direct strategies

consist of 3 main types: memory strategies, cognitive strategies, compensation

strategies Indirect strategies include 3 main strategies: meta-cognitive strategies, affective strategies, social strategies Direct strategies which involve

the new language directly are divided into memory, cognitive and compensation

strategies

Oxford (1990) said, “All direct strategies require mental processing of the language” (p 37) Memory strategies entail the mental process for storing new information in the memory and for retrieving them when needed These

strategies consist of four sets that include: (1).Creating mental linkages (2)

Applying images and sounds (3) Reviewing well (4) Employing actions

Cognitive strategies entail conscious ways of handling the target language

And fall into four sets which include practicing, receiving and sending messages, analyzing and reasoning, and creating a structure for input and output

Compensation strategies enable learners to use the language either in speaking or writing despite knowledge gaps These strategies are divided into 2 sets: Guessing intelligently and overcoming limitations in speaking and writing

According to Oxford (1990), compensation strategies are employed by learners when facing a temporary breakdown in speaking or writing Indirect strategies include meta-cognitive, affective and social-strategies These strategies provide indirect support for language learning by employing different

strategies such as focusing, arranging, evaluating, seeking opportunities and

lowering anxiety

Meta-cognitive strategies enable learners to control their own cognition They are strategies which entail over-reviewing and linking with material already known, paying attention, delaying speech production, organizing, setting goals and objectives, planning for a language task, looking for practice opportunities, self-monitoring and self —evaluating

Affective strategies assist students to manage their emotions, motivation,

and attitudes associated with learning They can be achieved through lowering anxiety, encouraging oneself, and taking emotional temperature Oxford synthesized the classifications of all experts in the field so her classification was the most applicable and used in Language learning strategy researches Based

on a number of studies in the field, Oxford provided strategies for inventory language learning (SILL), an instrument to assess language learning strategies This instrument is widely used and accepted by many researchers (Brown,

Robinson & Rosenjka, 1996; Cohen, Weaver & Li, 1998; Nyiko, 1990; Olivare

& Cuhat, 2002: Wharton, 2000) and vocabulary learning researchers (Schmitt,

1997 & Kudo, 1999) also adapted the classification of language learning

strategies as the framework for their studies

The reciprocal relationships between the direct and indirect strategies

and six strategies groups were displayed in Figure.2.1 (Adapted from Oxford,

1995, P 15)

Figure 1 The interrelationships between the direct and indirect strategies and

among the six strategy groups (Oxford, 1995, P 15)

2.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES

IN LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LEARNING

Since the amount of information to be processed by language learners is high in classroom, learners use different kinds of language learning strategies in performing the tasks and processing the new input they face Language learning strategies are good indicators of how learners approach tasks or problems encountered during the process of language learning in other words, language learning strategies, while non-observable or unconsciously used in some cases, give language lecturers valuable clues about how their students access the situation, plan, select appropriate skills so as to understand, learn, or remember new input presented in the language classroom

According to Fedderholdt (1997, P.1), the language learners who is

capable of using a wide variety of language learning strategies can improve his language skills in a better way Meta-cognitive strategies improve organization

of learning time, self-monitoring, and self- evaluation Cognitive strategies include using previous knowledge to help solve new problems Socio-affective strategies include asking native speakers to correct their pronunciation, or ask a classmate to work together on a particular language problem Developing skills

in three areas, such as meta-cognitive, cognitive, and socio-affective help the language learners build up learner independence and autonomy whereby he can take control of his own learning

Lessard-Clouston (1997, P.3) states that language learning strategies

contribute to the development of the communicative competence of the students Being a broad concept, language learning strategies are used to refer to all strategies that language learners use in learning a target language and

communication strategies are one type of language learning strategies It

follows form this that language lecturers aiming at developing the communicative competence of the students and language learning should be familiar with language learning strategies

As Oxford (1990, P.1) states, “language learning strategies are especially important for language learning because they are tools for active, self-directed movement, which is essential for developing communicative competence.” Besides the developing communicative competence of the

students, lecturers who train students to use language learning strategies can

help them become better language learners Helping students understand good language learning strategies and training them to develop and use such good language learning strategies can be considered to be the appreciated characteristics of a good language teacher (Lessard-Clouston, 1973 P.3)

2.3 VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE AND VOCABULARY LEARNING STRATEGIES

2.3 1 Knowing a word

It is usually believed that learning a word means simply knowing its meaning Vietnamese learners frequently learn words just by remembering their meaning They usually ignore spelling, pronunciation, and other aspects of word knowledge Because of this, they are not able to pronounce words correctly or use words appropriately Knowing a word requires learners to know more aspects of word knowledge than just its meaning Linguists have presented a number of definitions of knowing a word McCarthy and O’Dell (2001) make some guidelines for knowing a word It is insufficient to know only the meaning of a word It is also necessary to know its collocations, its

distinctive features and its pronunciation, in addition to other aspects including its formal, informal, neutral degrees In more detail than McCarthy and

O’Dell’s guidelines for knowing a word, Nation’s (2001) formulation made a clear-cut distinction between receptive and productive knowledge of a word as shown in table 2.1

Form Spoken R What does the word sound like?

P How is the word pronounced?

Written R What does the word look like?

P How is the word written and spelled?

Word parts R What parts are recognizable in this word?

P What word parts are needed to express the meaning?

Meaning | Form and meaning R What meaning does this word form signal?

P What word form can be used to express this Meaning?

Concept and referents

R What is included in this concept?

P what items can the concept refer to?

P what other words could we use in stead of this one?

Use

Grammatical functions R In what patterns does this word occur?

P In what patterns must we use this word?

R What words or types of words occur with this one?

Collocations P What words or types of words must we use with

this one Constraints on use R Where, when, and how often would we expect

to meet this word?

P Where, when, and how often can we use this

word?

Table 2.1 General aspects of word knowledge (adapted from Nation,

2001:P 27)

The ability to understand a word in reading or listening is receptive or passive knowledge On the contrary, productive or active knowledge is associated with the ability to use word in speaking and writing This classification of word knowledge bears a resemblance to the distinction between receptive skills of listening and reading and the productive skills of speaking and writing In line with productive and receptive skills, three fundamental criteria of knowing a word are suggested involving knowing its form, its meaning, and its use (Nation 2001) Each criterion comprises separate aspects but they are closely interwoven with one another

2.3.1 1.Form

The term “form” not only refers to spoken but also written form of a word Knowing the form is considered as the ability to recognize the word through reading, and listening and the ability to pronounce word exactly with stress and to write it with correct orthography

Word parts deal with the ability to recognize the components of forming

a word and to associate them with word meaning for example (overwork, under clothes ) students can see that these words compose of over- work, under- clothes and can link these parts with their meanings The ability to realize the connection between word parts and word’s meaning is essential in language

learning because it is ascertained that learners’ knowledge of word parts and

how the parts are built change as their achievement level of English develops

(Nation, 2001)

2.3.1.2 Meaning

Besides knowing form, it is worth knowing how to connect the form with the meaning of a word Baddeley (1990) posited that the strength of connection between the form and its meaning influences the retrieval of the meaning when seeing or hearing it

Relating to word concept and referent, it is claimed that the relationship between the two isn’t always one to one A Word has more than one meaning Words that have the same form but convey unconnected meanings are referred

to as homonyms (book-book, see-see) Words that have the same form and their meanings are closely related, we call them polysemies, for example the noun

“head” as in a person’s head and the head of a department (Nation, 2001) In order to cope with homonymous and Polysemous items well, it is necessary to

be aware of the concept behind words and master words’ meaning in different contexts

Associations refers to the relationship between words such as synonym, words that have the same or closely similar meaning ( start-begin, right-true), antonym- words have opposite meaning (true-false, rich-poor, tall-short) and hyponymy referring to the hierarchical relationship between words ( bird is heteronym, a lark is hyponym) It is suggested that understanding these relations is helpful in explaining the meaning of a word and developing tasks to deepen learners’ understanding of words (Nation, 2001)

2.3.1.3 Use

In order to use words exactly, the learners must master knowledge of the

form and meaning as well as that of grammatical functions relating to the

words’ part of speech and what grammatical patterns they can fit in

The way in which words are regularly used together is referred to as collocations including rules on how we use words together for instance which prepositions usually go with a particular verb or which verbs and nouns are used together For example the verb “perform” is used with the noun operation (

Richard & Schmitt, 2002)

Apart from these aspects of word knowledge, knowing whether a word has high or low frequency and how to use it properly Nation (2001) stated the importance of knowing the frequency constraint “If a teacher spends a lot of

time on a word and overuses it, this affects the learner’s use of this word If

time is given to words according to their usefulness, then this can be avoided”

(Nation, 2001, P.57)

The appropriateness of word use is sometimes contingent on culture

Nation (2001) concludes that constraint on use can’t be similar across cultures

Some words are appropriate in this culture but inappropriate in another

In short, in order to know and use words well, it requires being knowledgeable of form, meaning and use but other aspects of word knowledge

shouldn’t be ignored, McCathy’s & O*Dell (2001), Nation’s (2001) definition

of knowing a word is more specific and comprehensible

2.3.2 Definitions of vocabulary learning strategies

Vocabulary learning strategies are a subset of language learning strategies There are a lot of various definitions of vocabulary learning strategies cited from the language learning strategies One of the definitions

adapted from Rubin (1987, cited in Schmitt, 1997, p 203) is that learning

strategies are defined as “the process by which information is obtained, stored,

retrieved, and used” and “therefore vocabulary learning strategies could be any

which affects this broadly-defined process” This definition depends on the

view-point of cognitive theory which considered LLS, especially VLS is a process Moreover, Cameron (2001) stated a very general definition that vocabulary learning strategies are “actions that learners take to help themselves

understand and remember vocabulary”

However, Nation proposed a definition that is different from Rubin with some adjustment but it is still broad According Nation (2001), vocabulary learning strategies are defined by the following important features:

They involve choice

They are complex (consisting of several steps)

They require knowledge and benefit from training

They increase the efficiency of vocabulary learning and use

On the contrary, Catalan (2003) proposed a more thoroughly concrete definition of VLS as “knowledge about mechanisms (process, strategies) used

in order to learn vocabulary as well as steps or actions taken by students to find

the meaning of unknown words, to retain them in long-term memory, to recall them at will, to use them in oral or written mode” (P.25)

2.3.3 Classifications of vocabulary learning strategies

Gu and Johnson (1996) classified vocabulary learning strategies into 7

subcategories:

Meta-cognitive strategies involve selective attention and self-initiation Guessing strategies require using background knowledge in wider context and using linguistic cues in immediate context

Dictionary strategies denote to the skills to use dictionary

Note-taking strategies include skills to take notes

Rehearsal strategies require the skills to use wordlists, oral repetition,

and visual repetition

Encoding strategies involve association, imagery, visual encoding, auditory encoding, using word-structure, semantic encoding, and contextual encoding

Activation strategies involve using words in different contexts

(Gu and Johnson, 1996, P 25)

Nation (2001) proposed taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies These strategies are divided into three classes:

Planning strategies consist of the following strategies: (1).choosing words

(2).choosing aspects of word knowledge (3) Choosing strategies (4) Planning

repetition

Source strategies relate to the following strategies: (1) Analyzing words

(2) Using context (3) Consulting a reference source in first and second

language (3) Using parallels in first and second language

Process strategies can be specified as: (1) Noticing (2) Retrieving

(3) Generating

Lin (2001) classified vocabulary learning strategies into three broad category

strategies:

Meta-cognitive strategies refer to the following: (1) Advanced repetition (2)

Selective attention (3) Monitoring (4) Self-management

Cognitive strategies relate to the followings: (1) Written repetition (2) Verbal

repetition (3) Segmentation (4) Phonetics application (5) Association (6) Resource (7) Predicting (7) Elaborating (8) Recalling and Others

Social-affective strategies consist of the followings: (1) Asking for help (2)

Cooperation and Others

The classifications of VLS from these researchers have some overlaps Although strategies were named differently, they had the same function However, these classifications lacked of a systematic taxonomy of VLS Schmitt’s (1997) classification of vocabulary learning strategies provides a useful framework for study about vocabulary learning strategies

Schmitt’s (1997) taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies

However, Schmitt’s (1997) classification of vocabulary learning strategy provides a useful framework for study about vocabulary learning strategies Based on Oxford’s (1990) taxonomy of language learning strategy, he added a

new category, determination to serve the purpose of describing and analyzing

vocabulary learning strategies as opposed to Oxford’s (1990) work which was generally constructed in service of depicting language learning strategies He divided vocabulary learning into two broad categories: discovery and consolidation strategies

* Discovery strategies which include nine determination strategies and five social strategies help learners to discover meaning of new words

* Consolidation strategies which include three social strategies, twenty

seven memory strategies, nine cognitive strategies, five meta-cognitive

strategies, help learners to consolidate new words that have been encountered

Determination consists of nine strategies which can be characterized as: 1.Analyzing grammatical category, affixes and roots, pictorial presentation

2 Checking the L1 cognates

3 Guessing meaning from the context

4 Using dictionary

5 Using wordlist and flashcards

Social strategies refer to the interaction with lecturers, classmates, family

members, native speakers , they consist of eight strategies which can be specified as:

1 Asking for L1 translation, paraphrase, synonym or antonym of a new word

2 Asking for a sentence including the new word

3 Pair-works or group-works

4 Interacting with native speakers, people around

Memory strategies consist of the following:

1 Imaging word’s form and meaning

2 Associating word with its co-ordinates and a personal experience

3 Using synonyms and antonyms

4 Using semantic features

5 Using scales for gradable adjectives

6 Peg method

7 Loci method

8 Grouping words together to study them

9 Using new words in sentences

10 Studying the sound and spelling of a word

11 Saying new word aloud when studying

12 Underlining the initial letter of the word

13 Configuration

14 Using key word method

It is very difficult and complicated to make a completely clear-cut distinction between memory and cognitive strategies Both groups of strategies have some overlap that they recall words through some forms of language manipulation Cognitive strategies are not obviously linked to mental

manipulation (repeating and using mechanical means) and memory strategies

are similar to traditional mnemonic techniques (association, connecting to background knowledge and using imagery)

Cognitive strategies involve the followings:

1 Using verbal and written repetition

2 Using the vocabulary section in your textbook

3 Listening to tape of word lists

4 Putting English on physical objects

5 Using a vocabulary note book

Meta-cognitive strategies concern making a plan, reviewing, monitoring learning procedures, evaluating and testing the progress; they involve the followings:

1 Using English language media (songs, movies, news casts, etc)

2 Testing one with word tests

3 Making plans for learning

4, Evaluating the results

2.3.4 Studies on vocabulary learning strategies

The studies on vocabulary learning strategies in the world have been numerous The studies on effectiveness of key word method predominantly indicated its superiority over mechanical rote-learning (Atkinson, 1975;

Sagarra & Alba, 2006), when used by both advanced learners, who are believed

to have developed strategies (Hogben &Lawson, 1994, 1997; Lawson &

Hogben, 1998) and by weaker learners (Alvila & Sadoki, 1996; Zhang & Schumm, 2000) Participants in the experiment groups mainly found the method

efficient and interesting and were actually using it, whereas learners in control

groups opted for mechanical learning or unsophisticated learning strategies

(Hogben & Lawson, 1997)

Thompson (1987) conducted an exhaustive survey and analysis of vocabulary memory strategies (mainly mnemonics) Although mnemonics are generally taken as facilitating faster learning and easier retrieval of lexical items, not all of them are equally appropriate to be used in learning vocabulary Their efficiency depends on numerous factors like the time the learners invest in acquiring the mnemonic, the learners’ capacity for creating images,

achievement, learning style, meta-memory, cultural element, and situation

demanding the retrieval of a given word

Luppescu & Day (1995) conducted an investigation into the use of a bilingual dictionary in reading The results indicated that, in addition to facilitating comprehension, this strategy affects learning and retention Indeed, the amount of memorized vocabulary can be doubled (Fraser, 1999) Learners find dictionary use strenuous but useful and necessary (Gonzalez, 1999) However, if they can’t use a dictionary appropriately such as looking up many words or not understanding the given information, they can become frustrated

Gu & Johnson (1996) conducted a study of vocabulary learning

strategies used by Chinese university learners of English and the relationship

between their strategies and outcomes in learning English They asked 850 sophomore non-English majors at Beijing Normal University to complete a vocabulary learning questionnaire They correlated replies to the questionnaire with results on a vocabulary size test and on the College English Test (CETBAND2) Participants reported using a wide variety of vocabulary

learning strategies In a multiple regression analysis, Self-Initiation and

Selective Attention, two meta-cognitive strategies, emerged as positive predictors of CETBAND2 scores Contextual guessing, skillful use of dictionaries, note-taking, paying attention to word formation, contextual

Chen (1998) replicated Schmitt’s survey to explore the vocabulary learning strategies of 194 college freshmen and 81 senior high school students

in Taiwan His study focused mainly on the comparison of strategy use between Japanese and Taiwanese learners The results showed that the similarities were found First, both the Taiwanese and Japanese learners reported that using a bilingual dictionary was the most favorite of discovering a new word’s meaning Second, guessing meaning from the context was also considered very helpful between the two populations Third, both groups believed that some shallow strategies like verbal and written repetition were the most helpful learning strategies

Chin (1999) conducted a study to compare the strategy of guessing meaning from context, the strategy of word formation analysis and the

combination of the two strategies used while reading (Chin, 1999, Takac,

2008) The results showed that the efficiency of each strategy depended on the tasks used in testing In general, multiple choice tasks produced better results than gap filling tasks Word formation analysis requires certain knowledge of suffixes, prefixes, and their meanings, where as gap filling tasks require a deeper semantic —syntactic knowledge of the word Learners who inferred from the context and used the both context and word formation analysis strategies were more successful at such tasks Although the strategy of word formation analysis, especially if it includes attending to etymology, that is to cognates

(Bellomo, 1999, Takac, 2008 ), can be very useful, its contribution seems irrelevant if the learner has already successfully the word’s meaning from the

context

All the above-mentioned researchers seemed to conduct studies on

individual vocabulary strategy or a group of strategies like memory strategies

No one conducted a study on vocabulary learning strategies as a whole

Studies on vocabulary learning strategies within five recent years almost happened in some Asian countries such as China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, South

Korea, and Vietnam

Lee (2007) in South Korea conducted a study on English vocabulary learning strategies of Korean university students: strategy use, vocabulary size, and gender The result indicated that students with a large vocabulary size use more vocabulary learning strategies than students with a low vocabulary size and gender differences had no effect on the pattern and frequency of VLS use

In his study he just paid attention to the students with large and low vocabulary size, while he neglected the students with fairly large and medium vocabulary

size His subject was university students

Unlike Lee, Lo (2007) conducted a qualitative study to find out the

perceptions of low-achieving Chinese EFL learners from a secondary school in

Hong Kong on what VLS they perceive were useful and frequently used The questionnaire contains a list of 19 vocabulary learning strategies adapted from

Cheung (2004) The students found the following strategies the most frequently

used and most useful: repeating spelling the words, taking notes in vocabulary text books, repeating and reviewing strategies, and analyzing strategies In this study the researcher exploited one aspect of the matter (the useful and frequently vocabulary learning strategies), the subject of his study is limited with low-achieving secondary students

In Chen (2008), vocabulary learning strategies used by 55 sixth graders

in Fuan elementary school in Taipei city was investigated This study aimed find out the impact of gender on the use of vocabulary learning strategies and the difference among four groups of students (the good, fairly good, average, and below average students) The result indicated that more proficient learners

use more vocabulary learning strategies than less proficient learners, and gender

is found significantly related to the use of memory strategies; females use memory strategies more frequently than males

Like Lo, Lip Paul Chi Hong (2009) investigated the most frequently-used and most useful vocabulary learning strategies among Chinese EFL post- secondary students in Hong Kong The result showed that the frequency use of VLS had an influence on post- secondary student’s choices of choosing the most useful vocabulary strategies The most frequently -used and useful vocabulary learning strategies were: spelling the word in the mind repeatedly, analyzing it by breaking down the sound segments, and asking classmates the meaning of words

Liu Zhi-lang (2010) conducted a survey study on English vocabulary

learning strategies for non-English majors in Independence College She wanted

to find out the difference between male and female in the use of vocabulary learning strategies The results of this study indicated that female students used more strategies than male students and they were willing to pay more time to learning vocabulary and put them into practice The good learners studied harder and used more vocabulary learning strategies They were also good at using what they have learned in actual use instead of remembering words mechanically

In short, all five studies discussed above, the researchers exploited

many aspects of the matter and their subjects were non-English major students

In Vietnam, quite a few studies have been conducted Hang (2008) conducted

an investigation into vocabulary learning strategies employed by students at Hung Vuong gifted High School The result indicated that there was no significant difference between males and females in the use of VLS, and the English-majors used more VLS than non-English-majors The subjects were both major and non English major high school students Like other studies in

the world she also found that there was no significant difference between males

and females in the use of vocabulary learning strategies

Hoa’s (2009) study was conducted with 45 English- major freshmen in

the academic year 2008-2009 at An Giang University whose age ranged from eighteen to twenty one to investigate the often used vocabulary learning strategies and whether very high achievers, fairly high achievers, medium achievers and low achievers differed in their often used vocabulary learning strategies The result indicated that the English major freshmen in An Giang University often used a limited number of vocabulary learning strategies which related to rote-learning Moreover, the very high achievers, fairly high

achievers, medium achievers and low achievers varied from one another in the amount of time spent on studying vocabulary, the plan for vocabulary learning,

the frequency of reviewing and the sources of vocabulary learning strategies

Her result revealed some interesting findings for doing research in Viet Nam

Thanh (2010) also investigated the use of vocabulary learning strategies and its interaction with achievement and gender among the tenth grade students The result indicated that the grade 10" learners at Nguyen Viet Dung High school used a limited range of vocabulary learning strategies Meta- cognitive strategies were rarely used for learning vocabulary, and the very good students, fairly good students, average students and under-average students actually differed in both quantities and types of vocabulary learning strategies Additionally, there was no significant difference between males and females in terms of the use of vocabulary learning strategies

Some studies have been introduced and some information about history

of the research on the issue has been reviewed In all of the mentioned-above studies, there are two studies Lo (2007) and Lip Paul Chi Hong (2009) which

investigated the frequently- use and the most useful VLS The results showed that there was a significant difference between males and females in the use of

vocabulary learning strategies In Lee’s study, the students with higher vocabulary size used more vocabulary learning strategies than the ones with

lower vocabulary size In 3 studies from Tran (2008), Zhi Lang (2010), and Thanh (2010), the more proficient students used more vocabulary learning

strategies than less proficient students in spite of different contexts In Hang’s study the English majors used more vocabulary learning strategies than non English majors

In brief, there has been little research about the difference between the

novice English-major students and mature English-major students in the use of vocabulary learning strategies for University students in the South of Viet Nam especially, at Bac Lieu University, and this is the reason for the present study to

be conducted