Household oriented approach for the optimization of resources management at the floating village in tonle sap lake region cambodia

Hanoi - 2011EAM SAM UN HOUSEHOLD ORIENTED APPROACH FOR THE OPTIMIZATION OF RESOURCES MANAGEMENT AT THE FLOATING VILLAGE IN TONLE SAP LAKE REGION, CAMBODIA MASTER THESIS... Hanoi - 2011EA

Hanoi - 2011

EAM SAM UN

HOUSEHOLD ORIENTED APPROACH FOR THE OPTIMIZATION

OF RESOURCES MANAGEMENT AT THE FLOATING VILLAGE

IN TONLE SAP LAKE REGION, CAMBODIA

MASTER THESIS

Hanoi - 2011

EAM SAM UN

HOUSEHOLD ORIENTED APPROACH FOR THE OPTIMIZATION

OF RESOURCES MANAGEMENT AT THE FLOATING VILLAGE

IN TONLE SAP LAKE REGION, CAMBODIA

Major: Waste Management and Contaminated Site Treatment Code:

MASTER THESIS

SUPERVISOR: DR ING CATALIN STEFAN

RESP PROFFESOR: PROF DR RER NAT DR H PETER WERNER

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My highly appreciation wishes to acknowledge to Dr Ing Catalin Stefan, Institute for WasteManagement and Contaminated Site Treatment at the TU Dresden, provided me a great supportfor making this paper possible and I also contribute of my thanks to alls as following in theaccomplishment of this paperexisting;

 To Prof Dr –Ing Habil Dr h c Bilitewski and Prof Dr Nguyen Thi Diem Trang, whoestablished the cooperation Master program on “Waste Management and ContaminatedSiteTreatment”

 To DAAD Hanoi provided me full support for both living allowance and tuition fee forduration 2 years ofstudy

 To Prof Dr Le Thanh Son, Vice Dean at the Faculty of Chemistry, at the HanoiUniversity of Science always provided me asupport

 To all professors, lecturers, and colleagues at the Hanoi University of Science and theInstitute for Waste Management and Contaminated Site Treatment, at the TU Dresden forall the importantassistances

 To Dr Carly Starr who kindly revised this paper with grammar ands t r u c t u r e s

 To very supportive lovely parents, brothers, and sister, for encouragement and inspiration

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i

TABLEOFCONTENTS ii

ABBREVIATIONS v

LISTOFFIGURES ix

LISTOFTABLES xi

LISTOFANNEXES xii

ABSTRACT xiii

ChapterI INTRODUCTION 1

I.1 Tonle SapLakeRegion 1

I.2 Poverty in Tonle SapLake Region 2

I.3 Objectives ofStudy 4

ChapterII ASSESSMENT OF HUMAN AND ENVIRONEMNATRELAVANT FACTORS 5

II.1 Data Mining andCollections 5

II.2 Socio-EconomicFactors 5

II.2.1 Occupation andIncome 5

II.2.2 Education 7

II.2.3 Sources of EnergyforConsumption 7

II.2.4 HumanHealth 9

II.2.5 EnvironmentalPollution 10

II.2.6 LandUseClassification 10

II.3 Drinking Water SupplyandQuality 12

II.3.1 Sources of DrinkingWaterSupply 12

II.3.2 Water Quality in the TonleS a p Lake 13

II.4 Household Water Treatment Systems (HWTS), Effectiveness and Cost Analysis 15

II.4.1 SolarDisinfection(SODIS) 16

II.4.2 BoilingWater 17

II.4.3 Flocculation 18

II.4.4 Simple SandFilter(SSF) 19

II.4.5 Chlorination 20

II.4.6 Sedimentation 21

II.4.7 CeramicFilter 21

II.4.8 Bio-sandFilter 23

II.4.9 EffectivenessofHWTS 26

II.4.10 Cost AnalysisofHWTS 28

II.5 DomesticWasteGeneration 29

II.6 SanitationFacilities 33

ChapterIII DEVELOPMENT OF A CONCEPT FOR THE OPTIMIZATIONOF RESOURCESMANAGEMENT 35

III.1 Optimization ofResourcesManagement 35

III.2 Development of a Technical Concept for Safe Drinking Water Supply and SanitationforHousehold-scale 35

III.2.1 Simple Sand Filter (SSF) and SolarD i s i n f e c t i o n (SODIS) 35

III.2.2 Sanitation 38

III.3 Development of Waste Management Concepts and Resource Recovery 40

III.3.1 3Rs Approach for Organic Waste Management and Agriculture Waste 40

III.3.2 Composting 41

III.3.3 BiogasProduction 42

III.3.4 CharBriquetteProduction 43

III.4 DevelopmentofSocio-Economic 46

III.5 Quantification of the Environmental Impact of Technical and Socio- EconomicDevelopments 50

III.5.1 Composting 50

III.5.2 BiogasProduction 53

III.5.3 CharBriquette 56

ChapterIV CONCLUSIONS 58

IV.1 Socio-EconomicDevelopment 58

IV.1.1 Household’sIncome 58

IV.1.2 HouseholdCostExpenditure 59

IV.1.3 Household’sTimeExpending 60

IV.2 Household’sGHGEmission 61

REFERENCES 62

ANNEXES 65

Acronyms

AUNP : Asian EU-University NetworkProgram

EAWAG : Swiss Federal Institute of AquaticScience

IDE : International DevelopmentEnterprise

IGES : Institute for Global EnvironmentalStrategiesIPCC : Intergovernmental Panel on ClimateChangeJICA : Japan International CooperationAgency

PCE : Parliamentary Commissioner for theEnvironment

POPs : Persistent OrganicPollutants

RACHA : Reproductive and Child HealthAllience

UNEP : United Nations EnvironmentProtection

UNICEF : United Nations for Children’sFund

USAID : United States Agency for InternationalDevelopment

WaterSHED : Water Sanitation Health EnvironmentDevelopment

gCH4/kg waste : Gram methane per kilogram waste

Kg/hh/yr : Kilogram per household per yearKg/p/d : Kilogram per capital per day

L/hh/d : Litter per household per day

t TN/yr : Ton Total Nitrogen per year

t TP/yr : Ton total phosphorous per year

TCO2E : Ton carbon dioxide equivalent

US$/hh/yr : US Dollar per household per year

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure1: Tonle Sap Lake Region with fivez o n e s classification 2

Figure2: Scheme of cycle of povertyandsanitation 3

Figure3: Occupation among population in the Tonle Sap Lake Regionb y percentage 6

Figure4: Income from sectors in the Tonle Sap Lake Regionb y percentage 6

Figure5: Education Level in the Tonle SapL a k e Region 7

Figure6: Sources of energyforcooking 8

Figure7: Sources of energyforlightening 9

Figure8: Sources ofdrinkingwater 12

Figure9: SolarDisinfection 16

Figure 10: SimpleSandFilter 19

Figure 11: Ceramic WaterPurifier(CWP) 22

Figure 12: Bio-sand filterdesigncomponents 24

Figure 13: Comparative cost production of HWTS per householdp e r year 29

Figure 14: Characterization of domestic waste in SiemR e a p Province 30

Figure 15: Toilet Facility in TonleS a p LakeRegion 34

Figure 16: Comparison of time spending between baseline–boiling water and optimized- SODIS/SSF 36

Figure17: Comparison of cost production between baseline-boiling water and optimized- SSF/SODIS 37

Figure 18: GHG Emission from baseline-boiling waterandoptimized-SODIS/SSF 37

Figure19: Completesinglepit 39

Figure 20: Nutrient recovery fromhuman waste 39

Figure 21: Schematic ofc o m p o s t i n g equation 41

Figure 22: Conversion of organic materialw i t h o u t oxygen 42

Figure 23: Influence factors on biogas andm e t h a n e yield 43

Figure 24: Kiln for powder making withb u r n i n g process 44

Figure25: Powder compressor forb r i q u e t t e making 44

Figure 26: Paper brick maker fromp a p e r waste 44

Figure 27: Material balance ofm u s h r o o m growthsectors 47

Figure 28: Comparison of income between baseline- farming, baseline-fishing, baseline-service, baseline-tradeandoptimized-mushroom 49

Figure 29: Comparison of mass reduction within baseline- before and optimized-after mushroom Growth 50

Figure 30: Cost benefit of compostp e r ton 51

Figure 31: Default value of GHG emission from compostingg C H 4 / k g waste 51

Figure 32: Comparison of rice yield between baseline scenario ando p t i m i z e d scenario 53

Figure 33: Capital cost of biogas systemsi n Cambodia 54

Figure 34: Comparison cost analysis between firewooda n d biogas 54

Figure 35: Comparison time spending for cooking and firewood consumption baseline scenario and optimized scenario ofbiogassystem 55

Figure 36: GHG Emission from baseline-firewood and optimized biogasforcooking 56

Figure 37: Comparison of expense for baseline-firewood ando p t i m i z e d - c h a r briquette .57 Figure 38: Comparison of GHG emission between baseline-firewood and optimized- char briquette 57

Figure 39: Income generation between baseline ando p t i m i z e d scenario 58

Figure 40: Cost expenditure fromh o u s e h o l d indicators 59

Figure 41: Household’s time spending for fuel cooking and water supply between baseline and optimizedscenario 60

Figure 42: GHG emission frome a c h household 61

LIST OF TABLES

Table1: Landuseclassification 11

Table 1: Water quality parameters in the TonleS a p Lake 14

Table 3: Summary of potential effectiveb y HWTS 28

Table 4: The volume and nutrient loading of water consumption in household(g/m3) 31

Table 5:Humanwasteflow 32

Table 6: Agricultural waste generation from Zone 1, Zone 2, Zone 3, andZone4 33

Table 7: Characteristics ofbiogascomposition 42

Table 8:FuelCharacteristics 45

Table 9: Economic characteristic of mushroom production during6 moths 48

LIST OF ANNEXES

Annex1-Socio-economicindicators 65

Annex1-1 Components of Service Occupation int h e region 65

Annex 1.2 Incomefromfishing 65

Annex 1.3 Incomefromfarming 65

Annex1.4: Incomefromtrade 66

Annex15: Incomefromservices 66

Annex 1.6: Income generation fromtot al zones 67

Annex 1.7: Income generation from total zonesbypercentages 67

Annex2: Sources ofenergyconsumption 68

Annex2.1: Energyforcooking 69

Annex2.2: Energyforlightening 69

Annex3: Drinking Water Supply–c o s t estimation 70

Annex4: Fuel consumption and emission factors by household (Calculation by Shipbuilding GHG EmissionInventoryTool) 70

Annex5: Agricultural and householdw a s t e materials 71

Annex6: Drinking WaterQualityIndex 73

Annex 7: Household water treatment system (HWTS) ford r i n k i n g water 74

Annex 8:Sanitationfacility 74

ABSTRACTTonle Sap Lake is known as a rich in natural resources where it engages the high populationcontribution throughout the floodplain up to 1.2 million and approximately 4.2 million in total ofthe region, and makes up the distribution density in average 58 persons per square kilometer.Due to the high proportion of population depend on existing resources; fishing and farming aremajority of region up to 70%, and has resulted 42.8% living in the poverty in the area A largenumber of floating villages in floodplain live in low income generation from farming andfishing; likewise, inadequate to access safe water supply, lack sanitation system, and poorunderstanding of environmental impacts, the Tonle Sap Lake basin is alarming to call for thesustainable management in terms of human health, socio-economic, and environmental issues.Thus, the purpose of this paper is analysis of human and environmental relevant factors includessocio-economic, drinking water, sanitation system, and domestic waste Based on this relevantfactor analysis, the key tasks are to develop a concept for optimization of household orientedresources and compile the oriented guideline for local community use As a result, it is indicatedthat mushroom is feasible option for socio-economic development up to 10,210 US$/hh/yrcompare to baseline scenario comprised only 2,732.75US$/hh/yr or 5 times increasing Theoptimization scenario for the drinking water supply is SODIS and SSF, sanitation is dry toiletwith single pit or bucket, and waste management is compost, biogas, and char briquette Thosemethods are recommended to use in the basin due to their not only low cost production, but alsoflexible, less time spending, and environmental- friendly In average of cost expenditure fromeach household is estimated that 107.5US$/hh/yr and it is reduced to 71.96US$/hh/yrrespectively Time spending is also significantly reduced regarding to the optimization scenario

up to 935.5hrs/hh/yr if compare to the baseline scenario 1498.5hrs/hh/yr GHG emission fromhousehold oriented are 6.42TCO2E/yr, whilst, the application of the optimized scenario isreduced to 0.59 TCO2E/hh/yr

Chapter I INTRODUCTION

I.1 Tonle Sap LakeRegion

Tonle Sap Lake is known as a largest lake in Southeast Asia.Itlies on the central plain ofCambodia where it covers 85 620km2 of land (Figure 1) The lake connects to the Mekong River

by the Tonle Sap River which is 120km long (Sokhem, P., & Sunada, K., 2006) As a complexity

of flowing and inter-linkage, the lake changes in size and volume depending on the season.During the wet season, the depth of the lake can rise from 1m up to 10 m Meanwhile, thesurface area enlarges from 2500km2 up to 15 000km2, extending the lake over the floodplainconsisting of flooded forests, shrubs, and rice field (Keskinen, M, 2006) The variation of watervolume in the lake is influenced by the increasing water level from the Mekong River where itcauses reversed flow of the Tonle Sap River during the wet season During the dry season, theTonle Sap Lake is reversed again and starts to empty into MekongRiver

The extraordinary water regime of the Tonle Sap Lake and Tonle Sap River has providedoccasionally to biodiversity and highly productive aquatic food chain The migration of variousfish species and aquatic animals between the Tonle Sap Lake and the Mekong River is highlyremarkable due to the suitable conditions for feeding food, breeding and nursing in the floodedforest or shrubs The adult fish or aquatic animals might be moved to the Mekong River orhabitant in the lake throughout the year (Lamberts, 2006) More than 1.2 million people live inthe floodplain by deeply depending on the fishery and other existed resources Furthermore, it isestimated that an approximately half of total country’s population is direct or indirectlybeneficially from the lake’s resources Though, the rich of fisheries, forestry and water sourcesthat encourages the high opportunity for floating rice, seasonal rice cultivation and aquaculture, alarge number of population still live in a poverty

Figure 1: Tonle Sap Lake Region with five zones classification ( Joha, S and J Koponen, 2003)

I.2 Poverty in the Tonle Sap LakeRegion

Despite of the abundant natural resources, livelihoods in the Tonle Sap Lake region is known asthe poorest part of the country due to the strong dependences on the existing resources in thearea, and more than 70% of labor force employs in agriculture Rich in resources, it is engagedhigher proportion of population in floodplain more than 1.2 million and more than 4.2 million inthe Tonle Sap Lake region However, the high dependence on natural resources for dailylivelihoods has resulted in 42.8% of the population live in poverty in the basin (Malin M, 2009).The high poverty rate in this area is partially from unequal access to natural resources,insufficient rights for land usage, and less opportunity to increase productivity (Keskinen, M,2006) Living with a low income generation, the population lack food security and clean water;however, it is high aspect of poor awareness to pollute water and surrounding environment fromthe population The most significantly, in the floating community in the floodplain of Tonle SapLake region is appeared strongly closed to water resources for domestic consumption anddumpingsitefortheirhouseholdwasteincluding excreta.Thehighpollution isalarming,with

increased incidents of diarrhea, up to 22.4% in Tonle Sap Lake region (NIS, 2004), 54.1% inchildren under 5 years old in case study among 123 samples in the Chong Khnea District, SiemReap Province (USAID and RACHA, 2009), and is the known as cause death of children under 5

in 7% of cases (WHO, 2011) 81% of households in the floating villages in the Tonle Sap basincurrently have no sanitation system (NIS, 1998), and there is a low awareness of hygiene in thisarea The high incident of diarrhea among these populations requires both water and sanitationintervention to reduce human health risks that endangers the lives of adults and children As

shown inFigure 2there is a strong link between poverty and poor sanitation The improved

sanitation may help to break the cycle by stopping human excreta entering the environment in away that influences human health Overcrowded, bad drainage, polluted water, unreliable andinsufficient water supplies and poor sanitation all contribute to poor health (Rebecca S, 2003)

Figure 2: Scheme of cycle of poverty and sanitation (Rebecca S., 2003)

Given characterization of Tonle Sap Lake region, livelihoods is significantly dependent onfisheries, forestry, water sources and rice cultivation; however, it is still high proportion living inpoverty that encourages the high rate of human health risks Likewise, it is partially from lack ofcleaned water supply, low sanitation and hygienic promotion program, and lack domestic wastemanagement from household Thus, it is an essential for this master thesis aims to address thelocal resources management in terms of human health, environmental impact, and socio-economic welfare for floating villages in Tonle Sap Lake region by analyzing of human andenvironmental relevant factors including socio-economic, water supply, sanitation, and domesticwaste management Based on these factors, it is essential to develop a concept fortheoptimization of resources management The compilation of household oriented guidelines isalso implanted for local community practices.

I.3 Objectives ofStudy

The terms of human health, environmental impact and socio-economic aspects, this mainly study’s purposes are concluded into three tasks;

Task I: Analyze of human and environmental relevant sectors by focusing on socio-economic, water supply, sanitation, and domestic waste management for household level

Task II: The study is to develop the concepts for optimization of resources management in region

by focusing on four main indicators description in Task I and;

Task III: Compiled the oriented guidelines for best practices in local community at the Tonle Sap Lake region

ChapterII ASSESSMENT OF HUMAN ANDENVIRONMENTAL

RELEVENT SECTORS

II.1 DataCollection

The methods of study are assessments of both human and environmental databases, focusing onrelevant factors included socio-economic, water supply, sanitation, and waste management in theregion Database analysis based on the reports from local organizations, government, andinternational organizations will be assessed Each sector is defined by the baseline scenarios andoptimized scenarios based on indicators In particular, time, cost, green house gas emission,nutrient recovery, and water quality are determined for the optimization of resources

II.2 Socio-EconomicFactors

II.2.1 Occupation andIncome

According to NIS (1998), employment in the Tonle Sap Lake Region is classified intoagriculture, small trade, fishing and services Agriculture is related to rice farming, floating rice,dry and wet rice farming and crops in which it plays the major roles in the total region (63.4%).The trade makes up 12%, fishing 5.7% and service 5.9% (Figure 3) Small trade is the activities

of small businesses in the region and includes shops, selling fish, and other trade Serviceoccupation is mentioned on the providing service sectors such as; motor taxi, boat service,restaurants, guest house, battery charging shop, rice milling sectors, workers and other service.The occupation varied from zone 1 to zone 5 In the zone 1, fishing activities raise up to 55%which is higher than other zones For zone 2, zone3, and zone 4 has found that agriculture issignificant jobs in these zones (average 80%) However, in zone 5 is the urban area, amongpopulation preferred the provided service (30%) and trade (30%)

7.4 10.3

42.81 2.1 42.943.9 3.88.3

26.1

0.6 21.5

All zones Zone 1Zone 2Zone 3Zone 4Zone 5

All zones Zone 5

33

4326199

11141816

Farming Fishing Trade Service

Figure 3: Occupation among population in the Tonle Sap Lake Region by percentage (NIS 1998)

Depending on the NIS (1998) and ADB survey (2008), it is important to estimate the incomefrom each activity in the region The farming activities can result in income less than otheractivities (832 US $/hh/yr) This result is defined by total cost of rice yields minus total cost ofproduction.Ontheotherhand,theincomefromfishing,serviceandtradearerangedfrom1596

US $/hh/yr, 4,093.21 US $/hh/yr and 4,409.81US$/hh/yr The total income for the regionisshown in (Figure 4) All zones, trade and farming is ranging in highest percentage (38%), 17%for service, 7% for fishing The income from zone 1, fishing (47%) is potential function in totalregion if compare to other sectors, however, for zone 2, zone 3, and zone 4, agriculture are moresignificant(average 59.66%)

Figure 4: Income from sectors in the Tonle Sap Lake Region by percentage (NIS 1998, ADB 2008)

II.2.2 Education

There is low literature rate in the region Due to poverty, only 11.7% of girls attend school in

from grade 6- 12 across all zones For boys, the opportunity to attend school is significantly

higher than girls with 40% attending from grade 6-12 The distinct relationship between literacy

in males and females is gender issue Females are required to spend more time assisting in home,

whilst males are considered more responsible for generation income.Figure 5shows more detail

literacy from zone 1 to zone 5 The relationship between poverty and literacy is declined Zone 1

to zone 4 is lower income (mostly farming and fishing) community which has lower education

However, Zone 5 has a higher and easier access to school, and the rate is significantly higher

Figure 5: Education Level in the Tonle Sap Lake Region (NIS 1998)

II.2.3 Sources of Energy forConsumption

Sources of Energy for Cooking

In Cambodia, 83% of the population use firewood for cooking, 9% use charcoal, and 9% rely on

LPG (NIS 2008) Cooking with an old custom stove, firewood is a major source for burning in

each household across the country Figure 6 shows that, about 90% from Zone 1 to zone 4

commonly use firewood; this is because in rural areas it is most accessible sources Only 80% in

1 0 0.40 0.10 3.10 6 0 9

Zone 5, firewood is used, however, about 15% in this zone is replaced by charcoal LPG and Charcoal are considered popular energy sources for cooking across the zones in the region

Figure 6: Sources of energy for cooking (NIS, 1998 and NIS, 2008)

Sources of Energy for Lightening

NIS(1998)reportedthatpopularsourcesofenergyforlighteninginCambodianconcludedleadacidbatteries(38%),kerosenelamps(36%)andpublic-providedelectricitypower(23%).However, public-provided electricity power can only provide 15.5% of the population across thezones, and especially in zone 5 (42.8%, urban area) of the Tonle Sap Lake Region.Approximately77%ofhouseholdusekerosenelampsinallzones;zone165.5%,Zone297%,zone 3 92.3%, and zone 4 85.4%, (Figure7)

Sources of Energy for Lightening

Likewise, NIS, (2001) reported that the Tonle Sap Lake Area is covered by large surface waterfrom 2500km2- 11000 km2depending on dry season to rainy season, 22.4% of cases of diarrheadisease occurred across the population 4, 109, 137 Similarity, Tep Chhakda et al., (2006) hasindicated the information in the same region, approximately 44.5% of 1,584 samples has infected

by diarrhea The risk factors caused of persons who directly contact with the contaminated waterand eliminate pathogens into water; 68.1% no latrines at home, 35.4% recreational swimming,8% fishing, 32.6% wearing shoes, and 65.2% wearing shoes during defecation

II.2.5 EnvironmentalPollution

Destruction of natural resources

The rapidly increasing population surrounding the Tonle Sap Lake is approximately 4.2 million,equal to 29% of the country total population The average density is 58 people perkm2,and isincreasing at 1.75% in 2009 (Marlin M, 2003) This has resulted in an increased demand forresources Keskinen, M, (2006) reported that 90% of the populations is dependent on naturalresources for their livelihood Overharvesting of fisheries, forestry products, and daily pollutionfrom households are major concern, and more sustainable development and resourcemanagement is critically important in the Tonle Sapbasin

II.2.6 Land UseClassification

Land use In the Tonle Sap Lake region is classified into 5 zones Urbanized area is defined aszone 5 and from zone 1 to 4 is characterized as rural area (Table1) The accuracy of zones isidentified based on above sea level (asl), ranging from Zone 1 (0-6m asl), zone 2 (6-8 m asl),zone 3 (8-10m asl), zone 4 (10 m asl to national roads) and zone 5 is urban area which it locates

in centre of six provinces; Kompong Chhnagn, Pur Sat, Kompong Thom, Siem Reap, BattamBang, and Bonteay Meanchey The usages of the land are given more detail in Table1

Table1: Land use classification (Keskinen, M (2006)

Zone Classification

8-10 m (asl)

10 m to national roads

Urban area

Pond, lake, river, or stream Others

Tube/piped well or borehole Rain water

Dug well Bought

II.3 Drinking Water Supply andQuality

II.3.1 Sources of Drinking WaterSupply

The sources for drinking water are provided in Figure 8 25% of people consume waterfrom

tube/pipedwell,21%fromdugwellpond,18%fromlake,riverorstream,5%rainwater,18%

from piped dwelling , and 8% purchase filter water In the Tonle Sap Lake region, 41% consume

water from a dug well, 31% from water sources from the lake, pond, river or stream Water

consumption from the lake, pond, river, or stream is larger proportion in zone 1 (up to 87%) and

decreasedramaticallyto67%inzone2,41%inzone3,23%inzone4and13%inzone5.I n

zone5 , w a t e r c o n s u m p t i o n a r e s h a r e d i n s i m i l a r i t y i n p e r c e n t a g e a m o n g p o p u l a t i o n w h o u se

water from piped in dwelling (25%), tube well (25%), dug well (22%), and bought (25%) (Figure

8)

Figure 8: Sources of drinking water (NIS, 1998 and NIS, 2008)

II.3.2 Water Quality in Tonle SapLake

Chemical contaminants in freshwater from the Tonle Sap Lake are from the Organochlorines(OCs) group and pathogen group OCs group includes DDT, PCBs, HCHs, and HCLs which areknown as Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and polluted levelDDTs>PCBs>HCHs>HCBs>HCLs>TCPMe These substances are accumulated in fish and birds

in the region (Monirith et al., 2003)

Monirith et al., (2003) found DDT (3200 ng/g) accumulation in birds (white breast waterhen) inthe Tonle Sap Lake Region This concentration is two times higher than those in the MekongRiver (1500ng/g) and approximately four times higher in coastal areas (610ng/g) It is also found

in fish (450ng/g fat wt) in the Tonle Sap Lake Region DDT is currently used for agriculture andaquaculture purposes In Cambodia, DDT has been used for the control of parasite on fish body

in cage cultures and as an insecticide before the wet season

The concentration of PCBs detected in birds (white breast waterhen) 120 ng/g is slightly higherthan bird specimens from the Mekong River and coastal areas (33ng/g) The concentration in fish(21ng/g) is not significantly different from freshwater fish (Tonle Sap Lake region), MekongRiver and coastal areas

The Concentration of HCHs (range from 7.3-73ng/g) in the Tonle Sap Lake region is significanthigher than the Mekong River (1.6-23ng/g) and coastal area (2.7-5ng/g), (Monirith et al., 2003).The use of pesticide to control lepidopteran pests attacking mung bean crops at shore of theTonle Sap Lake region (Witten 1999) may be the reason for the HCHs concentrations In fish,the residue level of HCHs, HCLs, and HCB were low in 1999 (Monirith et al., 1999) However,HCLs accumulated in birds in the Tonle Sap Lake region were found (27ng/g) in 2003 Theincreasing use of pesticide in agriculture in the Tonle Sap Lake region is of concerns (EJF,2002) The following, HCBs concentrations were detected in birds ranging from 3.5 -53ng/g inthe region The use of HCBs in the region is considered essential to keep insects away from driedfish HCBs used as the trace elements in several pesticides contain chlorines (Bailey, 2001) Thepresent of concentration of TCPMe ranged from0.16.6.6ng/g

The other trace elements were lower and still under the limitation of national water qualitystandard (sub-degree 1999) However, the concentration oft o t a l s u s p e n d e d s o l i d( T S S ) w a s

4Monirith et al., 1999

significantly higher than national water quality standard (maximally 1000mg/L during dry)(Joha, S and J Koponen 2003) In Table 2 describes detail for eachparameter

Pathogens are an essential issue in the region due to concerns of human health Though, there is

no data available on the water contaminants by pathogens, several reports on diarrheal diseaseindicate they occur frequently The major vectors for diarrheal disease are bacteria, viruses, andprotozoas Rotavirus in group of the viruses is major vectors for the diarrheal diseases Report onRotavirus in Phnom Penh, Cambodia from March 2005 through February 2007 by Nyambat, B.,

et al ,(2009) indicated that 2817 persons were tested for diarrhea diseases In this amount, 81%equal to 2281 persons are tested 56% of specimens were found positive of Rotavirus vectors.Approximately 94% of children are found diarrhea less than 2 years old and 61% are less than12months old 2281 children who provided the stool, a total of 1278 (56%) children age less than

5 years old had confirmed of Rotavirus positive A 97% of Cambodian children identified withrotavirus diarrhea (<2years) The sex ratio between young boy and girl who are detected therotavirus is 3:2

Table 2: Water quality parameters in the Tonle Sap Lake

Chemical Parameters Concentration National Water Quality Standard (Lake and

DDT (ng/g fat wt in fish) 4 450 <10 µg/L (Health Protection)

1 Sub-degree 1999 on Water Pollution Control

2 Campbell et al., 2006

3 Joha, S and J Koponen 2003

II.4.1 Solar Disinfection(SODIS)

Description and Implementation

Solar disinfection (SODIS) was developed in the 1980’s to inexpensively disinfect water In

1991, the Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Science and Technology (SANDEC,EAWAG) began to investigate and implement SODIS as an HWTS option, to prevent diarrhea indeveloping countries Users of SODIS fill 0.3-2.0 liter plastic soda bottles with low turbiditywater, shake them to oxygenate, and place the bottles on a roof or rack for 6 hours (if sunny) or 2days (if cloudy) The combined effects of UV-induced DNA alteration, thermal inactivation, andphoto-oxidative destruction inactivate disease causing organisms (Figure 9) SODIS method canpotentially remove bacteria, viruses, and protozoa in up to 99.9% of cases (Daniel et al., 2007;Oxfarm 2009) This simple method has been widely recommended and has the potential toreduce diarrhea from 9-86% of cases (CDC, 2008), and 86% reduction in cholera cases duringoutbreaks in Maasai (Conroy, et al., 1996, 1999, 2001) The potential reduce diarrheal diseases

by up to 35% among children below five (Hobbins, 2003) and in an urban slum in Tamil Naduthe risk of diarrhea was reduced by 40% by using SODIS (Rose et al., 2006) Further healthevaluation studies showed a reduction of 13 to 39% in Pakistan (Gamper, 2004), by 53-57% inUzbekistan (Grimm, 2004; Grimm, 2006) SODIS is zero cost option to user, an exception thatcost for plastic bottle The estimation of usage SODIS system is approximately US$3.15/hh/yr

Figure 9: Solar Disinfection

Benefits and Drawbacks

The benefits of SODIS are(CDC 2008);

• Reduction of viruses, bacteria, andprotozoa;

• Reduction of diarrhealdisease;

• Simple and feasible forusers;

• Zero cost to the user exception that’s plasticbottles;

• Low influence on taste changing ofwater;

• No recontamination occurred and chemicalresidue

The drawbacks of SODIS are:

• Incase high turbidity water, pretreatment isrequired

• Limited volume and length of timerequired;

• The clean, suitable plastic bottlesrequired

II.4.2 Boiling

Description and Implementation

Boiling is the traditional and most commonly practiced method to treat water in households Ithas been widely promoted for decades Many programs recommend boiling water in developingcountries, and to provide safe drinking water in emergency situations throughout the world.However, boiling time has been recommended from 0-20 minutes in order to make water safefrom 70 to 100C The World Health Organization (WHO) also recommends that water boilingshould be reached until boiling point This suggestion is to ensure an inactivation of thepathogens that cause diarrheal disease According to Brian Skinner and Rod Shaw and Oxfarm(2008) boiling water can potentially remove almost all bacteria, viruses, fungi, helminthes andprotozoa by using an average duration of 10 min and temperature of 70oC Water should bestored in the same container in which it was boiled, handled carefully, and consumed within 24hours to prevent recontamination Boiling also can improve the taste of water by aeration,stirring and increased air content in the water The disadvantages of boiling water are the use offuel, high costs involved, and the residue from burning (e.g firewood, charcoal or LPG) Thecostf o r b o i l i n g w i t h f i r e w o o d i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y $ 0 0 1 2 f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t o f 1 0

L w a t e r I D E

(2003) also conducted a pilot project in Cambodia on boiled water, and identified for eachhousehold (ca.5 persons in a household) it would cost approximately 17.4 US$/year on firewoodand 32$ US/year using PLG.

Benefits and Drawbacks(CDC 2009)

The benefits of boiling are:

• Practical method in many households in ruralareas;

•Available materials forboiling

•Proven inactivation of all bacteria, viruses and protozoa, even in turbid or contaminated water;

• Socio-cultural acceptance of boiling for watertreatment

The drawbacks of boiling are:

• No residual protection from fuelburning;

• Human health impact by sorption of CO, NOx, smoke, smallparticles

• High cost on fuelsources

II.4.3 Flocculation (CDC2009)

Description and Implementation

Aluminum sulfate is widely used as a flocculants in both developed and developing countries.Itissold in blocks of soft white stone and generally called alum Alum is used in various ways Itmay be crushed into a powder before adding to water and stirring and decanting Secondly, thewhole stone can be stirred in water for a few seconds; waiting for the solids to settle.Flocculation is an option which is potentially able to remove pathogens and turbid water (BrianSkinner and Rod Shaw) CDC (2008) identified flocculants can reduce diarrhea from 16-90%.The flocculation method also reduces Fe & Mn, organic substances, and improves the taste ofwater

Benefits and Drawbacks

The benefits of alum are they are widely available, proven to reduce turbidity, and are notexpensive The drawback of alum is the necessary dosage varies unpredictably Research iscurrently underway to determine the necessary alum dosage for different waters, and theeffectiveness of alum to reduce turbidity in water

II.4.4 Sample Sand Filter(SSF)

Filtration is a simple and fast pre-treatment method Water is poured through the container ofclean sand and gravel with spigot at the bottom (Figure 10) The water then flows into a storagecontainer The benefits are it is effective in removing some bacteria It is both an easy and fastoption for users It is also inexpensive if sand is available in locally The drawback is threecontainers are needed In laboratory studies, the use of sand filtration significantly reduced boththe turbidity and the chlorine demand of turbid water.

Figure10: Simple Sand Filter

II.4.5 Chlorination (Daniel et al.,(2007)

Description and Implementation

Chlorination was first used to disinfect public water supplies in the early 1900s, and helpedreduce waterborne disease in cities in Europe and the United States (Gordon et al., 1987).Although it is the point-of use (POU) chlorination (Mintz et al., 1995), larger-scale trials began

in the 1990s as part of the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) and the U.S Centers forDisease Control and Prevention (CDC) response to epidemic cholera in Latin America (Tauxe,1995)

The sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) solution is packaged in a bottle with directions instructingusers to add one full bottle cap of the solution to clear water (or two caps to turbid water) in astandard-sized storage container, agitate, and wait 30 minutes before drinking In fourrandomized controlled trials, the SWS reduced the risk of diarrheal disease from 44 to 84%(Luby et al., 2004; Quick et al., 1999, Semenza et al., 1998) At concentrationsusedin HWTSprograms, chlorine effectively inactivates bacteria and some viruses (American Water WorksAssociation, 1999); however, it is not effective at inactivating some protozoa, such ascryptosporidium

The benefits and

drawbacksThe benefits of

Chlorination:

 To reduce bacteria and mostviruses;

 Residual protection againstcontamination;

 Improved of taste andodor

 Easy to use and acceptable tousers;

 Lowcost

The drawbacks ofChlorination:

 Limitation of protection against some viruses andparasites;

 Lower effectiveness on contaminated water by organic and inorganiccompounds;

 Long-term carcinogenic effects of chlorinationby-products

II.4.6 Sedimentation

Settling and decanting is a way to reduce the turbidity of water by letting the water sit from 2-24hours Therefore, the particulates settle to the bottom of the container The clear water is thendecanted off the top into a second container The benefit of settling and decanting is notrequiring equipment other than buckets However, settling and decanting requires two containers,and time for water to settle The difficulty is to observe the effects of decanting in storagecontainers In laboratory studies, the use of settling and decanting significantly reduced theturbidity of water, and also significantly reduced the chlorine demand of turbid waters Thus, it isrecommended to add only a single dose of sodium hypochlorite solution after settling anddecanting (CDC, 2009)

II.4.7 CeramicFilter

Description and Implementation

The ceramic filter was first introduced by John Doulton in1827 (WHO 2009) Currently, thereare two designs, firstly the ceramic candle filter and secondly the ceramic pot style filter Bothmodels are currently used in Central America, Africa, and Asia The Ceramic Water Purifier(CWP) was developed by International Development Enterprise since 2000 in Cambodia TheCWP consists of a porous, pot-shaped filter element made of kiln-fired clay and impregnatedwith colloidal silver The ceramic filter element issetin a plastic receptacle tank with a plastic lidand a spigot The filter element is filled with water from a contaminated source which can seepthrough the clay at a rate of 2 to 3 liters per hour The filter element holds approximately 10liters This amount can supply a household to produce 20 to 30 liters of water per day with two tothree fills (IDE, 2003) Ceramic filtration is an effective method to remove almost all pathogens,turbid water, and some other organic matters It is also known to improve the taste of the water.CDC (2008) identified that the Ceramic filter can be reduce the occurrence of diarrhea from 60-70% (CDC, 2008) The 0.2 micron ceramic filter made in Switzerland has been identified toreduce diarrhea by up to 64% in Bolivia (Clasen et al., 2004) Figure 11 shows the components

of CWPdesign

Figure 11: Ceramic Water Purifier (CWP) developed by IDE, (2003)

Benefits and Drawbacks

The benefits of ceramic filtration are:

 Proven removal of bacteria and protozoa inwater;

 Simple and acceptable tousers;

 Reduction of diarrheal disease incidence inusers;

 Durable for up to 3 yearsand,

 A low cost with a one-offcost;

The drawbacks of ceramic filtration are:

 Lower effectiveness on removal ofviruses;

 Limitation of residual protection causes recontamination if treated water is stored unsafely;

 Differentiation of quality control depending on local filtrationproduction;

 Required maintenance when breakageparts;

 Filters and receptacles regularly clean, especially when using turbid sourcewaters

 At low flow rate of 1-3 liters per hour in non-turbidwaters

a 3 mm diameter hole through the diffuser material, using a hammer and nail Smaller holes willrestrict the flow through the filter; larger holes will result in disturbance of sand media Theprimary functions of the diffuser plate are protecting the surface zoogleal biofilm and top layer

of sand by dispersing the energy of water as it enters the filter, and facilitating the addition ofcritical oxygen tothesupernatant water through aerationprocess

Filtrate standpipe and the standing water level (supernatant)

The standpipe is the essential component in all bio-sand filters This simple but key designcomponent automatically maintains the standing water level (the supernatant) to a constant depthwhen installed 5cm above the top of the filtering sand As a Figure 12, it is the bio-sand filter forhousehold-scale that can be made in various ways, but each configuration share this one simple.The standpipe can be made out of 6 mm tubing which is 1 meter long The materials can beplastic or metal, copper, PVC pipe fittings, polyethylene, or vinyl tubing The primary function

of the supernatant is set by the standpipeplaced

Media (sand and gravel) bed

The media layer is composed of the sand and gravel Filtering layer consists of fine sand in 3.15

mm or less diameter sand The depth of the filtering sand bed is 40 to 50 cm This is theminimum fine sand requirement to ensure the best quality of water The actual volume of finesand required is 25 liters The upper fine sand (Filtering layer) is responsible for removal ofpathogens and the establishment of the biological zone The support layer (coarse sand) uses3.125 to 6.25 mm diameter sand, with a depth of 5 cm Coarse sand volume required is 3 litters.The purpose of the middle support layer is to prevent the sand mixing with the under drain layer.Under-drain layer (fine gravel) use 6.25 to 12.5 mm diameter gravel, depth should coverstandpipe inlet about 5 cm or more Gravel volume required is 3 liters The purpose of the lowergravel layer is to allow unrestricted water flow out of the filter via the standpipe

Figure 12: Bio-sand filter design components by CAWST, (2008)