Access to general education of students from ethnic minority groups with a very small population in lai chau and policy implications

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI VIETNAM JAPAN UNIVERSITY HOANG THANH LICH ACCESS TO GENERAL EDUCATION OF STUDENTS FROM ETHNIC MINORITY GROUPS WITH A VERY SMALL POPULATION IN LAI C

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI

VIETNAM JAPAN UNIVERSITY

HOANG THANH LICH

ACCESS TO GENERAL EDUCATION OF STUDENTS FROM ETHNIC MINORITY

GROUPS WITH A VERY SMALL

POPULATION IN LAI CHAU AND

MASTER'S THESIS

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI

VIETNAM JAPAN UNIVERSITY

HOANG THANH LICH

ACCESS TO GENERAL EDUCATION OF STUDENTS FROM ETHNIC MINORITY

GROUPS WITH A VERY SMALL

POPULATION IN LAI CHAU AND

Foremost, I would like to express my appreciation and sincere thanks to my supervisor, Associate Prof Dr Nguyen Van Chieu His patient and constructive advice had helped me a lot in the completion of this thesis

Special thanks to all professors from Master’s program in Public Policy, and

Ms Pham Thi Lan Huong for their patience and continuous support

My appreciation goes to the teachers, education administrators, the local official, social workers, and the Mang people living in Huoi Cuong village (Lai Chau province) who participated in the in-depth interviews Their honest and cooperative answers have provided useful information for my analysis

Last but not least, I would like to express my love and great gratitude towards

my beloved family members and my friends for their encouragement and support

Hanoi 19 June 2021,

Sincerely,

Hoang Thanh Lich

TABLE OF CONTENT

LIST OF TABLES i

LIST OF FIGURES ii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS iii

INTRODUCTION 1

1 Rationale 1

2 Literature review 2

3 Research purpose 8

4 Research questions 8

5 Research scope and time 8

6 Methodology 9

7 Research significance 10

8 Structure of the research 10

CHAPTER 1: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 12

1.1 Ethnic minorities and VSEMs 12

1.1.1 Ethnic minorities 12

1.1.2 Very small ethnic minorities 14

1.2 General education and access to general education 14

CHAPTER 2: THE CURRENT STATUS OF ACCESSING GENERAL EDUCATION OF STUDENTS OF VSEMS IN LAI CHAU PROVINCE 19

2.1 An overview of natural, socio-economic conditions and VSEMs in Lai Chau province 19

2.1.1 An overview of natural, socio-economic conditions in Lai Chau province 19 2.1.2 An overview of VSEMs in Lai Chau province 21

2.2 General education for students of VSEMs in Lai Chau province 23

2.2.1 Schools and village-based school points 23

3.3.2 Teachers 25

2.2.3 Distance between home and general education institutions 27

2.2.4 Policies on general education 28

2.3 Access to general education of students of VSEMs in Lai Chau province 29

CHAPTER 3: DIFFICULTIES IN ACCESSING GENERAL EDUCATION OF STUDENTS OF VSEMS IN LAI CHAU PROVINCE 32

3.1 Natural conditions, and socio-economic development level of VSEMs in Lai Chau province 32

3.1.1 Natural conditions 32

3.1.2 Socio-economic conditions 33

3.2 Accessibility and acceptability 35

3.2.1 Limitations in general education policy for students of VSEMs 35

3.2.2 Distance to schools 37

3.3 Availability 38

3.3.1 School facilities 38

3.3.2 Human resources 39

3.4 Adaptability 40

3.4.1 The perception of VSEMs about the value of general education 40

3.4.2 Language 41

3.4.3 Outdated practices, the problem of child marriage 42

CHAPTER 4: POLICY IMPLICATIONS FOR BETTERING ACCESS TO GENERAL EDUCATION OF STUDENTS OF VSEMS IN LAI CHAU 44

4.1 Strengthening awareness of the importance of education for VSEMs in Lai Chau 44

4.2 Completing the policy on supporting general education for students of VSEMs 45

4.3 Developing policies on human resources in general education for very small ethnic minorities in Lai Chau province 46

CONCLUSION 48

REFERENCES 50

APPENDIX 56

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 The number of households of VSEMs in Lai Chau 21

Table 2.2 Number of schools in Lai Chau province in 2019 23

Table 2.3 Number of schools in VSEMAs in Lai Chau province in 2019 24

Table 2.4 Number of village-based school points in Lai Chau province in 2019 24

Table 2.5 Number of village-based school points in VSEMAs in Lai Chau province in 2019 25

Table 2.6 Number of teachers in Lai Chau province in 2019 25

Table 2.7 Number of teachers in VSEMAs in Lai Chau province in 2019 26

Table 2.8 Number of ethnic minority teachers in VSEMAs in Lai Chau province in 2019 26

Table 2.9 Distance between home and general education institutions in 2015 27

Table 2.10 Distance between home and general education institutions in 2019 28

Table 2.11 Percentage of students of VSEMs of school age at general education institutions in Lai Chau province in 2015 29

Table 2.12 Percentage of students of VSEMs of school age at general education institutions in Lai Chau province in 2019 30

Table 3.1 The percentage of poor households of VSEMs in Lai Chau in 2018 34

Table 3.2 The percentage of child married ethnic people in VSEMAs in Lai Chau in 2018 42

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 3.1 The average distance from home to the nearest upper secondary school

among VSEMs in Lai Chau province 37

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

VSEMs: Very small ethnic minorities

VSEMAs: Very small ethnic minority areas

INTRODUCTION

1 Rationale

In recent years, sustainable development has been a research topic that has received the attention of many researchers and policymakers in many parts of the world One of the sustainable development goals is quality education Education is not only a fundamental human right but also a sector of development playing a crucial role

in socio-economic growth, poverty alleviation, democratization, cultural tradition, inheritance, and intercultural understanding (Kazuo, 2012)

Vietnam is a multi-ethnic nation that consists of 54 ethnic groups The Kinh is the majority ethnic group The remaining 53 ethnic groups, accounting for 14.7% of the population, are residing in 51 provinces and cities (General Statistics Office, 2020) Notably, there are 16 VSEMs, mainly settling in 12 provinces across the country These VSEMs live in remote and mountainous regions where geographical conditions are exceedingly harsh Due to historical causes, and difficult natural conditions, VSEMs are in the state of poverty They are facing hardships in various aspects of their lives and cannot develop by themselves The school dropout rates of students of VSEMs are high In addition, there are many problems in ensuring quality education for students of VSEMs Many lower-secondary students could not speak properly Kinh (Vietnamese) which is the official language used in schools and other educational institutions Therefore, the government needs to create better access to education for students of VSEMs It is explicitly clear that they need more time, and support from the government to get quality education

In spite of the fact that many researchers have carried out studies on quality education, the research topic of access to general education of students of VSEMs in Vietnam has not received attention Therefore, this study will focus on clarifying the current status of access to general education, identifying difficulties encountered by students of VSEMs in accessing general education and proposing some policy implications for bettering access to general education of students of VSEMs in Lai Chau, Vietnam

2 Literature review

Firstly, studies on ethnic minorities in Vietnam

Studies on ethnic minorities have been conducted by a plethora of researchers from various aspects and angles Many studies have described the economic life, socio-cultural characteristics of ethnic minorities in Vietnam In addition, there are studies on the challenges that ethnic minorities are facing

In the 1990s of the 20th century, there were many studies on ethnic minorities on aspects associated with changes of the country's socio-economic context such as ethnic minority cooperation, ethnic minority equality, and socio-economic characteristics of ethnic minority groups (Dang, 1996; Bao, 2009; Dien, 1996)

In recent years, many researchers have focused on the implementation and effectiveness of the government's policies applied to mountainous areas and the ethnic

minorities living there (Cuc, et al., 2012; Dinh, et al., 2013)

Tuan (1996) has focused on researching theoretical and practical issues of ethnic equality in Vietnam The researcher has discussed a number of ethnic issues, and problems raising in the process of implementing equality among ethnic groups in Vietnam

Hung (2008) has clarified the overview of the natural environment situation in ethnic minority areas, the factors affecting the natural environment in these areas and proposed solutions to protect the environment

Regarding the northern mountainous region, there are studies focusing on issues

of poverty reduction, development policy, ethnic relations across the Vietnam-China

border, and human resource development (Duong, 2003; Pao, 2008)

Binh (2004) has comprehensively assessed and analyzed the current situation of the cultural life of some ethnic minorities in the Northwest in the renovation process

At the same time, the research has forecasted trends and proposed immediate and

long-term solutions for continuously developing the cultural life of ethnic minority groups

in the Northwest in the process of industrialization and modernization in Vietnam There are also studies on the issue of human resources of ethnic minorities These studies provided solutions to create high-quality ethnic minority labor forces for the sake of socio-economic development, hunger eradication, sustainable poverty reduction, as well as ensuring national security and ecological environment in ethnic minority and mountainous areas (Nguyet, 2020; Thuy, 2019)

Secondly, studies on issues related to ethnic minority policies in Vietnam

Since Doi Moi (1986), domestic and foreign scholars and organizations have paid more attention to issues of ethnic minority policies in Vietnam

Pelly (1998) and Salemink (1994) described changes in ethnic minority communities in the Central Highlands from the French colonial period to 1990

Baulch et al (2010) believed that certain initiatives that the Vietnamese government has been implementing in the sectors of health and education will make an important difference to the life chances of ethnic minority children However, Vietnam still needs to keep investing in infrastructure development for remote areas, analyze and give the reasons why ethnic minorities still do not have access to many job opportunities with good wages

Loi (2021) evaluated programs and policies on poverty reduction and social security assurance in ethnic minority and mountainous areas over the period from 2011

to 2020 The study identified challenges and problems in terms of social security

policies for ethnic minorities and mountainous areas Finally, the study has proposed a number of solutions to improve the effectiveness of social security policies for ethnic minorities in the period between 2021 and 2030

Nguyen (2020) clarified the situation and some related issues in the process of transforming the livelihoods of ethnic minorities living in the western part of the Central Coast The study has proposed some solutions as a basis for formulating policies on sustainable livelihood development for local ethnic minorities in the western part of the central coast, Vietnam

Thanh (2019) mentioned many issues in the process of renewing the current ethnic minority policies These problems included awareness of ethnic minority issues, and ethnic minority work; resources for investments in ethnic minority and mountainous areas; policy communication on ethnic minority policies; the inspection, supervision, and implementation of ethnic minority policies; the organizational structure of the agencies on ethnic minority affairs Finally, the study also proposed the orientation of ethnic minority policies over the period from 2020 to 2030

In general, the above studies have approached and focused on policies on economic development issues, poverty issues, and development trends of ethnic minority areas

socio-Thirdly, studies on VSEMs in Vietnam

Thanh (2017) clarified the cultural issues of ethnic minority groups with a population of under 10,000 people in Vietnam Hoa (2018) analyzed the traditional cultural values of several VSEMs in the Northern mountainous area of Vietnam and offered practical solutions to preserve and promote those cultural values Manh (2017) focused on the fundamental issues related to the preservation of traditional cultural values of the Chut ethnic minority group in particular as well as VSEMs in Vietnam in general The research also proposed solutions to preserve the traditional cultural values of ethnic minority groups

Doan (2020) assessed the effectiveness of policy implementation for VSEMs, thereby discussing practical solutions to improve the effectiveness of policy implementation for them in the coming time

Thai, et al (2020) analyzed and evaluated the impact of priority policies on transforming living space and livelihoods of the Mang ethnic minority group and La

Hu ethnic minority group Subsequently, the research contributed to clarifying the practice, and showed that it is necessary to take the factor of ethnic culture into account

Studies on La Hu ethnic group are mainly about their culture, costumes, lives (Dien, 2000; Quyen, 2000) Studies on Mang ethnic group are mainly about culture,

funeral issues, customs (Son, 2007; Ladder, 2012; Valve, 2007) Studies on the Lo Lo ethnic group are mainly about their culture, language, and festivals (Pao, 2002; Pao, 2003; Pao, 2009; Trung, 2009; Dien, 2007)

Minh (2004) conducted research in Lai Chau province and provided an overall picture of the Cong ethnic group The research has assessed the implementation of government programs and projects for the Cong ethnic minority areas over the period between 1989 and 2004 Subsequently, the research has recommended solutions to preserve and develop the Cong ethnic group

Since Doi moi, Viet Nam has issued many schemes and policies with the aim of developing ethnic minority and mountainous areas in all fields such as education and training, health, transport, and essential infrastructure systems In addition, Viet Nam also has policies to support the development of VSEMs in various sectors including education, health and population, cultural, economic and social preservation and development Specifically, education has two prominent policies Firstly, the Prime Minister issued the decision No 2123/QD-TTg to approve the Scheme on education development for VSEMs in the 2010-2015 period Subjects are children, pupils and students of 9 VSEMs consisting of O Du, Pu Peo, Si La, Ro Mam, Cong, Brau, Bo Y, Mang and Co Lao within 6 provinces of Lao Cai, Ha Giang, Dien Bien, Lai Chau, Nghe An and Kon Tum (Prime Minister, 2010) Secondly, the Prime Minister issued the Decree No 57/2017/ND-CP on 9th May, 2017 to regulate policies on enrollment and studying support for pupils and students of the ethnic minority groups with a very small population (Prime Minister, 2017)

Fourthly, studies on access to education

Tomaševski (2001) summarized governmental human rights obligations in education, structured into a simple 4-A scheme which includes "Availability",

"Accessibility", "Acceptability", and "Adaptability"

Tomlinson (2006) has clarified the effects of education market formation on ethnic minority children and youth

Zhu (2014) showed increasing trends in ethnic minorities' access to higher education in a policy context since the 1950s and analyzed inequalities among Han ethnic group (ethnic majority ) and other ethnic minorities

Anastasia Kitiashivili, et al (2016) analyzed the attitudes and perceptions of the Azeri and Armenian ethnic minorities about access to education The study also identified three types of barriers in accessing education Notably, these barriers are caused by subjective and objective factors based on the Cross (1992) model

Trieu (2018) used data from the Vietnam Household Living Standard Surveys (9 waves of data collected between 1992 and 2014) to examine factors contributing to increases in ethnic educational disparities at the upper-secondary level His findings showed that family background differences (consist of parental education and the rise

in ethnic-based income inequality at the household level) explained these ethnic-based education disparities Besides, the role of parental education in connection with the ethnic-based educational inequalities increased

Hang (2018) also pointed out educational inequalities among ethnic minority areas, and low-income groups The research has recommended policy recommendations such as eradicating hunger, reducing poverty, investing in education resources, and improving people's awareness of the value of education

Chau (2018) clarified opportunities and challenges facing ethnic minority young women during their secondary education The research concentrated on their perceptions of the value of secondary education and the strategies enabling them to succeed Employing mixed methods, the research captured the educational experiences and success stories of ethnic minority young women studying at a tertiary level in a mountainous area of Vietnam The research showed the following results: Firstly, inadequate facilities were reported as the most consequensial school factor challenging ethnic minority women’s abilities to succeed in secondary school Secondly, family encouragement were identified as the most important factor to their achievement Finally, the lack of government policies has been considered as the major impediment

to young women's access to secondary education

Tuan (2020) identified the opportunities to access general education of poor

children dwelling in ethnic minority areas in Vietnam The study also suggests that Vietnam needs to implement the student-centered education target, expand opportunities to access general education for all, including the poor in ethnic minority areas

Do et al (2020) examined the implementation of quality education in relation to the practice of human rights for ethnic minorities in Vietnam Employing an exploratory method, this study investigated the four main conditions for the implementation of quality education for ethnic minorities, namely legal–political, economic, socio-cultural factors, and participation pride The study showed that child labor, language, and gender inequality are three major barriers hindering quality education implementation and human rights practices in Vietnam

Finally, studies on general education in Lai Chau province

Tung (2014) has clarified the theoretical basis for the universalization of primary and lower secondary education The study compared the policies and status of education universalization in Vietnam and China (with a focus on Lao Cai province, Lai Chau province, and Yunnan province) to find similarities and differences in the education universalization policy of Vietnam and China Finally, the study has proposed a number of measures to accomplish the goal of universalizing primary education and lower-secondary education in Vietnam and China

Dinh (2021) explored the challenges of implementing STEAM education model

at preschool in mountainous areas of Northwest Vietnam with mainly ethnic minorities This research has shown that most preschool managers and teachers still do not fully understand the STEAM education model The number of managers and teachers who are willing to receive this model is small because they are afraid of not being able to implement such a new model, especially teachers with seniority over 15 years and ethnic minority teachers Some schools in remote communes lack facilities, particularly interms of technology and technique This research also provided orient solutions for effectively deploying the STEAM education model

Thao (2020) used methods of surveys, interviews, and observations to gain a better understanding of the factors that influence the capacity of preschool teachers in

teaching Vietnamese as second language to ethnic minority children in Lai Chau province in Vietnam The findings highlighted that cultural awareness, teacher background, and teaching experience all have a significant impact on preschool teachers' ability to teach Vietnamese as a second language to ethnic minority children

in Lai Chau province Teachers blame the challenges in teaching a second language on children and their parents due to a cultural mismatch between them and their students and their families They do not consider their own teaching limits

Research gap

It can be seen that there are many studies mainly focusing on economic issues, socio-cultural characteristics of ethnic minorities, and VSEMs in Vietnam However, there are currently no studies focusing on access to general education for very small ethnic minority students in Lai Chau, Vietnam Therefore, this study will clarify the reality, and difficulties in accessing general education of students of VSEMs in Lai Chau province The research would suggest policy implications for improving access

to general education among students of VSEMs in Lai Chau, Vietnam

3 Research purpose

The research aims at clarifying the current situation and difficulties in accessing general education of students of VSEMs in Lai Chau province From the analysis, the research will subsequently propose appropriate policy implications for bettering access to general education of students of VSEMs in Lai Chau province, Vietnam

4 Research questions

The thesis focuses on answering the following questions:

 How is the current situation of accessing general education of students of VSEMs in Lai Chau province?

 What are difficulties that students of VSEMs in Lai Chau province facing in accessing general education?

 What are policy implications for bettering access to general education of students of VSEMs in Lai Chau province, Vietnam?

5 Research scope and time

The research focuses on access to general education of students of VSEMs in Lai Chau province, Vietnam Regarding the time scale, the research collected the data from 2015 to 2019 The research scope is in Lai Chau province, Vietnam This is a mountainous province in the North of Vietnam Currently, Lai Chau is the main place

of residence of 5 very small ethnic minority groups including the Mang (96.8%), the

La Hu (99.1%), the Cong (55.5%), the Si La (65.1%), the Lu (98.9 %) (Committee on

Ethnic Minority Affairs, 2019)

6 Methodology

This research utilizes the qualitative approach The qualitative method contains desk research (document analysis, comparison) on secondary data and in-depth interviews The rationale for using qualitative approach is through this kind of approach, the research will be provided with the real viewpoints, stories, which would

be significantly beneficial to the analysis process

Data: In order to analyze the current status of accessing general education of students of VSEMs in Lai Chau province, Vietnam, the research used the secondary data from relevant studies, “Completed Results of the 2019 Vietnam Population and Housing Census” (General Statistics Office, 2020), “Survey on the socio-economic situation of Vietnam’s 53 ethnic minorities in 2015” (Committee on Ethnic Minority Affairs, 2016), “Survey on the socio-economic situation of Vietnam’s 53 ethnic minorities in 2019” (Committee on Ethnic Minority Affairs, 2019) The primary data was obtained from in-depth interviews

In-depth interviews

The primary data was collected by using method of in-depth interviews with people living and working in Vang San commune, Muong Te district, Lai Chau province

To investigate difficulties in accessing general education of students of VSEMs

in Lai Chau province, Vietnam, and suggest appropriate policy implications, the interviews focused on 5 groups of interviewees:

 Group 1: 02 parents and guardians of very small ethnic students in Lai Chau province

 Group 2: 01 local official on ethnic affairs in Lai Chau province

 Group 3: 03 teachers whose students are VSEMs in Lai Chau province

 Group 4: 02 education administrators in Lai Chau province

 Group 5: 1 social worker from a non-governmental organization

The in-depth interviews were conducted via telephone contact with 09 people due to the extremely complicated situation of Covid 19 pandemic in Vietnam The respondents have experienced semi-structured interviews with some questions are predetermined, while others arise spontaneously in a free-flowing conversation Besides, a questionnaire was used to collect information from 13 parents and guardians of the Mang students in Huoi Cuong village, Vang San commune, Muong

Te district, Lai Chau province Because they could not communicate well in Vietnamese, the research asked for help from a teacher and the head of the village with questionnaire interpretation In these interviews, responses were mainly about descriptive information and viewpoint expression

7 Research significance

In terms of academic significance: the research contributes as a document on access to general education of students of VSEMs in Lai Chau province with updated data for further studies Conducting in-depth interviews would give diverse viewpoints

on the situation of access to general education of sudents of VSEMs in Lai Chau province, Vietnam

In terms of social significance: Firstly, the research identified clearly the difficulties that students of VSEMs are now facing in access to general education in Lai Chau province, Vietnam Secondly, the policy implications proposed could be beneficial to policymakers in bettering access to general education of students of VSEMs in Lai Chau province

8 Structure of the research

The thesis contains four main chapters with the contents as follow:

Chapter 1: Theoretical framework

Chapter 2: The current status of accessing general education of students of

VSEMs in Lai Chau province

Chapter 3: Difficulties in accessing general education of students of very small

ethnic minorities in Lai Chau

Chapter 4: Policy implications for bettering access to general education of

students of VSEMs in Lai Chau province

CHAPTER 1: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

1.1 Ethnic minorities and VSEMs

Development Program, United Nations Children's Fund According to United Nations,

indigenous peoples are inheritors and practitioners of distinctive cultures and ways of relating to people and the environment Indigenous peoples have long sought acknowledgment of their identities, way of life and their right to traditional lands, territories and natural resources, yet their rights have always been consistently violated throughout history (United Nations, 2007)

Historical events such as colonialism and special legislation, among other things, determine the population of ethnic minorities and their places of origin Each country's official definition of ethnic minorities has an impact on official estimates of ethnic minorities' size In Southeast Asia countries, the distinction between ethnic minorities and indigenous peoples is obvious in general Indigenous peoples are the descendants of a territory's first known inhabitants Ethnic minorities, on the other hand, are primarily settler populations with more recent ties to a territory and a shared identity with groups in at least one other country (Clarke, 2001) Ethnic minority refers to a group that is distinct from the majority ethnic group.The term is often used

to refer to a vulnerable group of people with different socio-cultural identities in multi-ethnic countries, particularly those in Southeast Asia Many ethnic groups coexist in each country (Thai, 2020)

In Vietnam, ethnic minority group means an ethnic group with a population smaller than that of the ethnic majority group within the territory of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (Prime Minister, 2011) Vietnam has 53 ethnic minorities, accounting for approximately 14.7% of the population

The concept of an ethnic minority area is different in various countries In the United States, a minority area is a geographic area where one or more minorities make up the majority of the population (Onchwari & Keengwe, 2017) Over time, an ethnic majority area can become an ethnic minority area when the minority population grows larger than the majority population (Kunovich, 2017) In China, ethnic minority area is a term used to refer to an area where ethnic minorities live and

is often separate from where the Han people live (Ren, 2013) Today ethnic minority areas refer to geographical areas where the population is predominantly ethnic minorities

In Vietnam, ethnic minority area means an area in which different ethnic minority groups live together, forming a stable community in the territory of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (Prime Minister, 2011)

Ethnic minorities are mainly concentrated in the midland, mountainous and

highland areas, while some ethnic groups live in the plains such as the Khmer, the Hoa, and the Cham Ethnic minorities reside along the northern, western, and southwestern borders where there are many trade gateways between Vietnam and countries in the region and the world Ethnic minority areas have special strategic positions of special importance in terms of politics, economy, culture, security and defense, foreign affairs,

and the sustainable protection of the ecological environment Each ethnic minority

group has its own cultural identity, unique customs, practices, and religious beliefs, creating a diverse Vietnamese culture Due to the differences in places of residence, customs and lifestyles of ethnic minorities, the level of socio-economic development among ethnic minority areas is uneven Some ethnic minority groups with a very small population living in remote, mountanous areas have been encountering many difficulties in socio-economic conditions

There are still shortages of infrastructure in terms of quantity and quality in

ethnic minority areas In addition, the ecological environment continues to be tremendously degraded in many ethnic minority areas The quality and effectiveness

of education and training in ethnic minority areas are still low Some good cultural identities of ethnic minorities are being lost while some backward practices such as child marriage, consanguineous marriage, and superstition have the tendency to

increase

1.1.2 Very small ethnic minorities

According to Decree No 05/2011/ND-CP issued on 14th January, 2011, “ethnic

minority group with a very small population means an ethnic group with a population

of under 10,000” (Prime Minister, 2011). It can be understood that VSEMs in Vietnam

are those with a population of under 10,000 people They mainly reside in remote and isolated areas and have the most backward and lowest level of development among ethnic groups in Vietnam

According to Completed results of the 2009 Vietnam population and housing census, there were 16 ethnic groups with a population of under 10,000 people including the O Du (376 people), the Brau (397 people), the Ro Mam (436 people), the Pu Peo (687 people), the Si La (709 people), the Ngai (1035 people), the Cong (2029 people), the Bo Y (2273 people), the Co Lao (2636 people), the Mang (3700 people), the Lo Lo (4541 people), the Lu (5601 people), the Chut (6022 people), the Pa Then (6811 people), the La Ha (8177 people), and the La Hu (9651 people) (General Statistics Office, 2010) Over a period of 10 year from 2009 to 2019, completed results of the

2019 Vietnam population and housing census recorded increases in these ethnic minorities’ populations Notably, the population of the La Hu ethnic group increased to

12113, and that of the La Ha ethnic group increased to 10157 people (General Statistics Office, 2020)

1.2 General education and access to general education

Education is the process of transmitting and perceiving historical and social

experiences of generations The previous generation transmits socio-historical experiences to the next generation, and the next generation acquires those experiences

to participate in social life, productive labor and other activities (Ha, et al., 2020) Education is often carried out under the supervision of educators, but also students can

learn by themselves Education can occur in formal or informal settings, and any experience that has a formative effect on how one thinks, feels, or acts may be considered educational

Although education is also considered a commodity in a market economy, its unique characteristics have made the task of ensuring its effective supply much more complicated than that of other other goods The difference is that education is a public good that everyone can use it; therefore, the demand for education is growing Because of the nature of public goods, if the public sector is in charge of education supply rather than the private sector, there will be a greater social welfare effect (Dung,

et al., 2018) Furthermore, education has a positive externality in terms of consumption because it helps to increase people's knowledge, which benefits everyone and increases social welfare More importantly, education is a useful tool for income redistribution, which is the primary function that assists individuals in society in ensuring development, as well as opportunity equality The study acknowledges that education

is a public good, with the state playing the most important role on the supply side and learners on the demand side

General education in Vietnam

In Vietnam, educational development is the first national priority Vietnam has issued many policies to facilitate children's right to access to education as well as children's access to learning opportunities This goal is implemented through the national education system with the important role of general education General education is divided into two stages which are basic education and career-oriented education Primary and lower secondary education are included in basic education Upper secondary education is career-oriented education (The National Assembly, 2019)

The goals of general education are to help learners develop comprehensively It helps learners to acquire morals, knowledge, physical fitness, aesthetic values and other fundamental skills It also helps learners to develop personal abilities, flexibility and creativeness in order to form the socialist Vietnamese personality, prepare them

for further studies of higher education, vocational education or enter the workforce, and participate in the building and defending of the nation

- Primary education aims to prepare students for lower secondary school by laying the initial foundation for their moral, intellectual, physical, and aesthetic development and capacity

- Lower secondary education focuses on students' consolidation and development

of primary school outcomes It also provides students with general and basic knowledge, as well as an introduction to techniques and career orientation in preparation for entering upper secondary education or vocational education

- Firstly, upper secondary education is to provide civic knowledge Secondly, it tends to consolidate and develop students' lower secondary education outcomes Thirdly, it assists students in completing general education and gaining a common understanding of techniques and career orientation Finally, upper secondary education allows students to develop their personal abilities in order

to choose their development path, to enter higher education, vocational education, or the workforce, and to contribute to the construction and defense of Vietnam (The National Assembly, 2019)

Access to education is when students have equal and fair opportunities to attend

school and be educated Increasing access to education often requires schools to provide additional services or remove any actual or potential barriers that may prevent students from participating in certain courses or learning programs

There are many factors that can prevent learners from accessing education such

as race, religion, gender, sexual orientation, disability, intellectual ability, past academic performance, educational status, foreign language ability, family income and geographic location, and chool facilities One of the well-known models describing these barriers is the Cross (1992) model which distinguished three types of barriers: situational, dispositional and institutional

Firstly, situational barriers include a lack of finances and time, having too many workrelated responsibilities, childcare, lack of transportation, etc

Secondly, dispositional or motivational barriers include personal, academic, and jobrelated motivations, the influence of past experiences, and community perceptions Such restrictions include negative attitudes and perceptions about education, the usefulness or appropriateness of engaging in learning Low self-esteem and poor prior academic performance are also dispositional barriers

Thirdly, institutional barriers are linked to programs or institutions where there are problems with scheduling, location, lack of interesting or relevant courses, poor materials, and a lack of information about programs and procedures, etc (Anastasia Kitiashvili, 2016)

In non-English dominant societies, particularly in the developing world, minority language speakers often have to learn the dominant national or official language for their integration into society At the same time, they cannot ignore English, the global language, which has a growing presence in the curriculum (Dekker,

et al., 2005) It could be said that minority language speakers are faced with a heavier language burden compared with their dominant language-speaking counterparts

From the perspective of education rights, it is to use 4A namely Availability, Accessibility, Acceptability, and Adaptability when it comes to education (Tomaševski, 2001)

- Availability: Within the authority of the state party, adequate numbers of functioning educational institutions and programs must be available All institutions and programs are likely to require buildings or protection from the elements, sanitation facilities for both sexes, safe drinking water, trained teachers earning domestically competitive salaries, teaching materials

- Accessibility: Schools and programs have to be accessible to all without discrimination There are three overlapping dimensions to accessibility Firstly, education must be accessible to all, particularly the most vulnerable populations Secondly, educational institutions must be physically safe in some reasonably convenient geographic locations or via modern technology Thirdly, education has to

be affordable to all individuals This aspect of accessibility varies according to

different educational levels For instance, primary education shall be available free to all, state parties must gradually implement free secondary and tertiary education

- Acceptance: Education's form and substance, including curricula and teaching methods, must be acceptable to students and, in some cases, parents Curricula and teaching methods, in other words, must be relevant, culturally appropriate, and of high quality for learners

- Adaptability: Education must be adaptable in order to meet the needs of changing societies and communities, as well as students' diverse social and cultural settings (Tuan N D., 2020)

ever-This research utilizes this 4-A frame to clarify the current status of access to general education of students of VSEMs in Lai Chau province, Vietnam over the period from 2015 to 2019 Subsequently, the study will identify difficulties in accessing general education of students of VSEMs and propose policy implications For example, availability, accessibility, acceptability and adaptability in this paper are shown in the following dimensions: Availability: shown in educational institutions and teachers; Accessibility: shown in policies and distance from home to educational institutions; Acceptability: shown in tuition fees; Adaptability: shown in the subjectivity of students and their families, students' diverse social and cultural settings

In this chapter, the study clarified related concepts such as education, general education, access to education, ethnic minorities, and ethnic minorities The study has also clarified the theoretical framework that determines the research flow as follows: Firstly, the study will clarify the crurrent situation of accessing general education of students of VSEMs in Lai Chau province Secondly, the study will identify difficulties

in accessing general education of students of VSEMs Finally, the study would suggest policy implications for enhancing access to general education of students of VSEMs

in Lai Chau province, Vietnam

CHAPTER 2: THE CURRENT STATUS OF ACCESSING GENERAL EDUCATION OF STUDENTS OF VSEMS IN LAI CHAU PROVINCE

2.1 An overview of natural, socio-economic conditions and VSEMs in Lai Chau province

2.1.1 An overview of natural, socio-economic conditions in Lai Chau province

The terrain of Lai Chau is very diverse, complicated and divided with deep valleys The high and medium mountain ranges cover large part of the province, mostly with rocky soil interweaving with limestone karst landscapes with caves and underground rivers There were tectonic activities in different periods of its history which caused faults, landslides and subsidence, and formed valleys, rivers, streams, mudflats and caves This province is in tropical monsoon climate, affected by high mountains, with two distinct seasons including dry season and rainy season Lai Chau has a dense network of rivers and streams, distributed equally in all districts of the province The entire natural area of the province lies in the Da river basin, which originates from Yunnan province of China, and main tributaries are Nam Ma, Nam Na and Nam Mu rivers

Socio-economic conditions

At the end of 2019, the total population of the province was 460,196 The average population density was 51 people/km2, which was the lowest density in Vietnam Lai Chau has many ethnic groups including The Thai, the H’Mong, the Kinh, the Dao and the

Ha Nhi, and other very small ethnic groups such as the Cong, the Mang, the Si La, the Lu, the La Hu.Each of these ethnic groups has its own traditions and cultural identities, and they all contribute to enriching the diverse culture of ethnic groups in Lai Chau province

As of 2019, all communes have vehicle roads leading to the centre of their

respective commune However, some ethnic minority areas can only be accessed during the dry season, since during the rainy season, landslides and traffic jams often occur, causing difficulties in transportation 94.6% of households in Lai Chau province have access to electricity from the national grid Clean water is available to both urban and rural populations, with 91.9% and 82.5% of people, respectively, having access to it

Lai Chau province has 370 schools with a total of 5256 classrooms There are

345 temporary classrooms and numerous unsecured ancillary works (General Statistics Office, 2020) Lai Chau has worked to improve the quality of preschool education for 5-year-old children, as well as to universalize primary and lower secondary education However, in some areas, the system of facilities and equipment for teaching and learning is still insufficient Furthermore, the illiteracy rate among people over the age

of 15 in Lai Chau province remains high, particularly among VSEMs (General Statistics Office, 2020)

In 2019, the growth rate of total products in Lai Chau province reached 7.5% Looking at the structure of Gross Regional Domestic Product, primary sectors includes agriculture, forestry, fishery, the industry-construction sector, and service sector (Lai Chau provincial People's Committee , 2019) The rate of poor households decreased by 4.8% compared to 2018 In recent years, the rapid urbanization process has affected the economic development process, resulting in more jobs for workers Lai Chau created new jobs for 7366 workers, and provided vocational training for 6,300 workers The rate of trained workers is 48.5% Although there is a lot of vocational training and job creation, the quality of jobs is not high

The national security and defense, and border management are potentially complicated issues in Lai Chau province The activities of some types of criminals are becoming more and more sophisticated Lai Chau is identified as a transit area for drugs, because it shares borders with China and the provinces of Dien Bien, Son La, and Yen Bai

- key drug areas along the National Highways 4D, National Highway 12, National Highway 279 Especially, in the ethnic minorities areas, ethnic minorities are easily manipulated by drug dealers According to 2019 data, the province had 2937 drug addicts and 1339 people infected with HIV/AIDS (General Statistics Office, 2020)

2.1.2 An overview of VSEMs in Lai Chau province

Lai Chau is home to five VSEMs: the Cong, the Mang, the La Hu, the Si La, and the Lu In 2019, there were 5462 households of VSEMs in Lai Chau province, accounting for 7.03% of ethnic minority households They primarily resided in the districts of Muong Te, Nam Nhun, Sin Ho, and Tam Duong The proportion of households belonging to VSEMs in Lai Chau city was only 0.03% (General Statistics Office, 2020)

Table 2.1 The number of households of VSEMs in Lai Chau

Province (total) 77660 2714 1377 849 360 162 Muong Te 8997 2712 0 222 251 149 Nam Nhun 5129 0 0 595 101 1 Sin Ho 14937 0 759 32 0 0 Tam Duong 9859 0 618 0 0 0 Lai Chau city 2805 2 0 0 8 12

Source: General Statistics Office (2020)

The Mang ethnic group

They identify themselves as the Mang which means nomads or people with a shy nature The Mang also have many other different names such as Mang U, Xa Xam Cam, Xa Mang, Xa Ba O, and Ra Mang These names often imply contempt and inferiority The Mang live mainly in Lai Chau province, where 4501 inhabitants make

up 96.8% of the Mang population in Vietnam There were 849 Mang households distributed unevenly across three districts including Muong Te district, Sin Ho district, and Nam Nhun district (General Statistics Office, 2020)

The La Hu ethnic group

The La Hu means tiger which is a symbol of power The La Hu are also called

Xa La Vang, Co Rung, Khu Sung, Kha Quy and so on In 2019, there were 12,002

La Hu residents residing mostly in Lai Chau province, accounting for 99.1% of all the La Hu people in Vietnam La Hu households are concentrated in Muong Te district, which has 2712 households spread across 10 communes and Muong Te town (General Statistics Office, 2020)

The Cong ethnic group

The Cong ethnic group had a total population of 2729 people in Vietnam in 2019 Lai Chau had 1512 Cong ethnic people, accounting for 55.5 percent of the country's Cong ethnic population There were 360 Cong households in Muong Te district, Nam Nhun district, and Lai Chau city (General Statistics Office, 2020)

The Si La ethnic group

The Si la are also called the Cu De Xu who inhabit mainly in Muong Te district, Lai Chau province, Vietnam According to statistics in 2019, they had a population of 909 people across Vietnam The Si La have been living primarily in Lai Chau province with

592 people, accounting for 65.1% the Si La population in Vietnam In 2019, there were

162 Si La households, primarily in Lai Chau city and the two districts of Muong Te and Nam Nhun (General Statistics Office, 2020)

The Lu ethnic group

In 2019, the total population of the Lu ethnic group across Vietnam was 6757 people The Lu live mainly in Lai Chau with a population of 6693 people, accounting for 98.9% of the total number of the Lu people in Vietnam There were 1377 Lu ethnic households living in two districts which were Sin Ho district and Tam Duong district (General Statistics Office, 2020)

Notably, the La Hu, the Mang, and the Cong are three of the five very small ethnic minority groups experiencing significant difficulties in Lai Chau province The population of these three very small ethnic minority groups accounts for only 3.8% of the total population of Lai Chau province They have low development levels, high poverty rates, low education levels, and poor quality of life Besides, they mostly live a nomadic life, mainly depending on nature In addition, social evils such as drug and alcohol addiction persist in these VSEMAs (General Statistics Office, 2020)

2.2 General education for students of VSEMs in Lai Chau province

2.2.1 Schools and village-based school points

Lai Chau province had 370 schools with a total of 5256 classrooms in 2019 The percentage of well-built schools is 89.5 percent, with 4339 well-built classrooms

It is worth noting that the percentage of well-constructed classrooms was low in three districts: Nam Nhun (65.3 percent), Sin Ho (61 percent), and Muong Te (61 percent) (74.2 percent ) These districts are the primary residences of Lai Chau province's VSEMs (Committee on Ethnic Minority Affairs, 2019)

Table 2.2 Number of schools in Lai Chau province in 2019

Well-constructed (%)

Table 2.3 shows that the percentage of well-built schools and classrooms in VSEMAs was quite high in 2019 However, the proportion of well-built classrooms in primary schools in the Mang ethnic minorities areas was just 69.66%

Table 2.3 Number of schools in VSEMAs in Lai Chau province in 2019

2892 classrooms in 2019 The percentage of well-constructed schools and classrooms

in the province was quite low The figures were 50.4% and 57.4% respectively Notably, the percentage of well-built primary school points in 7 districts and Lai Chau city was 47% The province had 13 secondary schools with the percentage of well-built school points of 61.5% The province had just an upper secondary school point with 6 well-built classrooms in Phong Tho district

Table 2.4 Number of village-based school points in Lai Chau province in 2019

Lower secondary schools 13 61,5 81 88,9

Upper secondary schools 1 100 6 100

Source: General Statistics Office (2020) Table 2.5 shows that the percentages of well-constructed schools and classrooms in the VSEMAs were quite low in 2019 The proportion of well-built classrooms in the Mang ethnic areas was 61.62% In the La Hu ethnic areas, the proportion of well-built classrooms was 67.74% The percentage of well-built classrooms in the Cong ethnic areas was 60% In the Si La ethnic areas, 52.17% of lassrooms was well-constructed The proportion of well-built classrooms in the Lu ethnic areas was 62.54%

Table 2.5 Number of village-based school points in VSEMAs in Lai Chau province

Ethnic

group

Source: General Statistics Office (2020)

It can be seen that while the percentage of well-constructed schools in Lai Chau province was quite high, the percentage of well-built school points and classrooms in the VSEMAs was much lower

3.3.2 Teachers

The province had 9677 teachers in 2019, with 3872 ethnic minority teachers accounting for 40% of the total When compared to 2015, the percentage of ethnic minority teachers has increased by 4.65 percent.1

Table 2.6 Number of teachers in Lai Chau province in 2019

Unit: Persons

District

Teachers (Total)

Ethnic minority teachers

(total)

Percentage of Ethnic minority teachers (%)

Lai Chau city 777 112 14,4

Source: General Statistics Office (2020)

1

In 2015, there were 3753 ethnic minority teachers in Lai Chau province

Table 2.7 shows that there were 3679 teachers working in VSEMAs The percentage of ethnic minority teachers was relatively small at approximately 44% There were 446 teachers with intermediate-level education, 862 teachers with a college-level education, 2284 teachers with university education, and 87 teachers with master and doctoral education

Table 2.7 Number of teachers in VSEMAs in Lai Chau province in 2019

Unit: Persons

Ethnic

group

Education Intermediate-

Table 2.8 Number of ethnic minority teachers in VSEMAs in Lai Chau province

in 2019

Unit: Persons

level

Intermediate-College-level University Master and