AN INVESTIGATION INTO METAPHORS IN SLOGANS ON SAVING THE ENVIRONMENT IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE

VÕ THỊ THU HẰNGAN INVESTIGATION INTO METAPHORS IN SLOGANS ON SAVING THE ENVIRONMENT IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE FIELD : English Linguistics CODE : 8 22 02 01 Supervisor: Assoc.. Furthermor

VÕ THỊ THU HẰNG

AN INVESTIGATION INTO METAPHORS IN SLOGANS ON SAVING THE ENVIRONMENT

IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE

MASTER THESIS IN ENGLISH

Binh Dinh - 2019

VÕ THỊ THU HẰNG

AN INVESTIGATION INTO METAPHORS IN SLOGANS ON SAVING THE ENVIRONMENT

IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE

FIELD : English Linguistics CODE : 8 22 02 01

Supervisor: Assoc Prof Dr NGUYỄN TẤT THẮNG

VÕ THỊ THU HẰNG

NGHIÊN CỨU ẨN DỤ TRI NHẬN TRONG KHẨU HIỆU BẢO VỆ MÔI TRƯỜNG BẰNG TIẾNG ANH VÀ TIẾNG VIỆT

Chuyên ngành: Ngôn ngữ Anh

Mã số

Người hướng dẫn: PGS.TS NGUYỄN TẤT THẮNG

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP I hereby certify that the thesis entitled

AN INVESTIGATION INTO METAPHORS IN SLOGANS ON SAVING ENVIRONMENT IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE

is the result of my own research for the Degree of Master of EnglishLinguistics at Quy Nhon University I confirm that this thesis has not beensubmitted for any other degrees Except where reference is made in the text ofthe research paper, this thesis contains no material published elsewhere orextracted in the whole, or in part from paper by which I have qualified for orbeen award another degree or diploma Moreover, no other person's work hasbeen used without acknowledgement in the research

Student's signature

Võ Thị Thu Hằng

In completion of this thesis, I would particularly like to express mydeepest gratitude to my supervisor, Assoc Prof Nguyễn Tất Thắng for hiscontinuous support, valuable sources of materials, insightful comments,constructive criticism and endless patience throughout my work This thesiswould not be completed without his assistance, enthusiastic and instructivesupervision

My special thanks go as well as to Dr Hà Thanh Hải who gave meintegral lectures and guidance which provided me with a solid foundation to

do this research

I would also like to extend my thanks to the Department of ForeignLanguages at Quy Nhon University for their help in offering me the resources

in carrying out the study

Last but not least, I would like to show my gratitude to my family and

my friends who gave me encouragement, support and regard so that I couldaccomplish my research

Võ Thị Thu Hằng July, 2019

This thesis investigated of Conceptual Metaphors and compared thesimilarities and the differences in conceptual metaphors in slogans on savingenvironment between English and Vietnamese From the view of cognitivelinguistic, this research is carried out to find out three types of conceptualmetaphors including structural metaphors, ontological metaphors,orientational metaphors and the similarities and the differences in theseslogans The research is theoretically based on conceptual metaphors ofLakoff and Johnson (1980) The methods were combined in this thesisincluding qualitative, quantitative, comparative and inductive method in order

to make the research achieve its purpose Furthermore, this study alsosuggested implications that need to be studied in teaching and learningconceptual metaphors

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rationale

“Metaphor lives a secret life all around us We utter about six metaphors a minute Metaphorical thinking is essential to how we understand ourselves and others, how we communicate, learn, discover and invent But metaphor is a way of thought before it is a way with words.”

(James Geary)According to James Geary (2014) it can be seen that metaphor is arhetorical figure with figurative languages used in music, poetry, literature,advertising to give special effects toward readers, hearers Metaphor appears alot in our lives The frequency of metaphor also appears a lot in each person'sdaily speech Thanks to metaphoric thinking, we can understand ourselvesand the message of others In a song, we can enjoy the tune withoutunderstanding the meaning of this song For instance Vietnamese people canhear and feel the tunes of English songs, French songs and Korean songs.However, when reading a story, if we still do not understand the meaning ofthe choice of language’s author, it will be really a pity

What are the best ways to have effective and successful literacy works?One of the choices is applying good use of rhetorical devices, e.g.personification, simile, metaphor, metonymy, etc Among these devices,metaphor, one of the effective tools, is widely used to empower words inmany works

Therefore, metaphors play a very important role in language use inalmost every field of life It is a common phenomenon in language, alwaysattracting the attention of scholars in various fields such as linguistics,learning styles, psychology, literature studies and so on From the most recentpoint of view, the perspective of cognitive linguistics has great influence on

metaphorical researchers They believe that metaphor is a way of thinking ofthe whole linguistic community, and there is also a metaphorical network inwhich human thinking must rely on.

Furthermore, from the point of view of Lakoff and Johnson (1980), wefind that in the process of development, any natural language uses metaphors

as a tool for semantic development At the same time, metaphors are also ameans of thinking for people to describe the world, to realize the world’sperception, to transform the world and create the spirit

For instance, from “The pangs of the Earth”, Dang Thao said:

[1] “The Earth cried and asked the God Why do I have to suffer these pangs?

In the old days, people learned little but understood a

lot Today, everyone is fully educated

Each year the waste is full

I can't stand it anymore God.”

And “The God cried and answered”

[2] “The Earth please understood me

Day and night I also mourned for my pangs

Now, my eyes are sluggish

A lot of toxic smoke flew up

My nose also suffocated

Probably my health is no longer permanent

Oh my dear!

Are you going to live longer?”

(Dang Thao - The God cried and answered)Through the above two examples, the writes uses metaphorical rhetoric

to refer The Earth and the God, non-human objects, are portrayed as a person

with ability to act like human such as crying, asking, enduring, answering,understanding, living, etc They have been used very vividly in order to makethe poems become closer to human For both poems, the author has describedthe Earth and the God that have the full characteristics of people, even actinglike humans In addition, the God also has human body parts such as eyes andnose in “Now, my eyes are sluggish” and “My nose also suffocated”.Therefore, metaphors are used to express how character’s Earth and God andhelp people image as well as understand the current environment’ s danger inorder to have better environmental protection measures.

Metaphor is considered as a powerful instrument in communicationbecause they help us observe the world we live in and give us new viewpoints

of things around us thanks to new meanings, new ideas

Nowadays, the problems of environmental pollution are hot topic onnewspaper and receive a lot of people’s attention The way we are destroyingenvironment will lead to the destruction of life on this earth Therefore, it isnecessary that we should save environment and everyone should contribute tothe cause and should do something to save environment The best way toencourage others for the cause of saving the environment is to write and sharesome short effective messages on saving the environment, like some slogans

on saving environment

Furthermore, at present, although there have been several studies usingconceptual metaphor for analyzing texts in terms of cognitive linguistics, acontrastive study about conceptual metaphors in slogans on savingenvironment in English and Vietnamese has not been carried out based on thelight of cognitive linguistics

With the above mentioned reasons in mind, I decide to choose to carry

out “An investigation into metaphors in slogans on saving environment in

English and Vietnamese”.

1.2 Aim & Objectives

1.2.1 Aim

The thesis aims to find out conceptual metaphors used in the slogans onsaving environment by English and Vietnamese in the framework of cognitivelinguistics especially the semantics raised by Lakoff and Jonhson (1980).Additionally, the study also compares conceptual metaphors between theslogans on saving environment in English and Vietnamese from the point ofview of cognitive linguistics

1.2.2 Objectives

This study is intended to fulfill the following objectives:

- The first one is to identify and classify the conceptual metaphors used

in slogans on saving environment in English and Vietnamese in cognitivesemantics perspective

- The second objective is to compare and contrast the similarities and thedifferences of the types conceptual metaphors used in English and

1.4 Scope of the Study

This research will be carried out on 113 posters on environmentalprotection in English and Vietnamese, of which 55 slogans were in Englishand 58 slogans were in Vietnamese from the point of view of cognitivelinguistics, especially through conceptual metaphor matters The study isrestricted to the systematicity of metaphorical concepts In detail, it focuses onanalyzing the three types of conceptual metaphors: structural, ontological andorientational Then, the similarities and differences in conceptual metaphorsbetween English and Vietnamese also will be found in this research

1.5 Significance of the Study

The thesis “An investigation into metaphors in slogans on saving environment in English and Vietnamese” is significant in both theory and

Practically, by understanding and investigating conceptual metaphors

in slogans, we hope to make a useful contribution to understanding the crucialrole of metaphors in essays, political discourse, formal writing, motto, tagline,logo, shiboleth and so on Metaphors play a very important role in languageuse in almost every field of life Besides, the study is expected to suggestreaders some understanding about metaphors to satisfy with desire in

discovering the connection between language and human thought Thus, italso offers some implications for Vietnamese teachers and learners.

1.6 Organization of the thesis

This research is divided into five chapters as follow:

Chapter 1, Introduction, includes rationale, objectives, research questions, thescope, significance and organization of the study

Chapter 2, Literature review, presents the previous studies on metaphor ingeneral and conceptual metaphor in particular It reviews theoreticalbackground relating to the study such as definition of metaphor, thecharacteristics and classification of conceptual metaphor

Chapter 3, Research Design and Methodology, mentions to methods andprocedures of the study It also deals with the data collection and dataanalysis

Chapter 4, Findings and Discussion, devotes the result of data analysis The similarities and differences of conceptual metaphor are also mentioned after Chapter 5, Conclusion and Implications, summarizes the major finding, point out the limitations as well as provides implications for teaching and learning and puts forward suggestions for further research

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter, firstly, a brief review of previous studies related to theinvestigated problem will be mentioned; secondly, background knowledge ofthe terms concerned will be presented

2.1 Review of previous studies

Cognitive linguistics begins to develop in the 1980s It is a linguisticfield that used interdisciplinary knowledge to study language based onexperience and human perception of the world as well as the way in whichpeople perceive and conceptualize the things of that world The 1980switnessed the emergence of cognitive linguistics which can be recognized asthe study of the relationship between language and mind There are two sub-branches of cognitive linguistics: cognitive semantics and cognitiveapproaches to grammar Many linguists have taken much interest in thistheory of linguistics, especially in metaphors Their work have made greatcontributions to the overall image of cognitive linguistics and provided uswith the background theories to study the way languages are processed in themind of human beings

Many linguists have done researches relating to metaphors Švažienė(2010) through “The Persuasive Effect of Metaphor in Advertising” showsthat conceptual metaphor in various types of advertising media And heconcludes that metaphor is probably one of the most influential stylisticmeans used in advertising Besides, metaphor is by no means only the subject

of linguistics but a way of thinking, reflecting the reality and one’s way ofperceiving things as well This article is only a primary glance at the role theconceptual metaphors play in persuading the people into buying thingsadvertised and how conceptual metaphors work in other specificadvertisements deserves an insightful study in much broader fields

Zhang in “An Analysis of Conceptual Metaphor in WesternCommercial Advertisements” (2009) examines linguistic data from WesternCommercial Advertisements to determine to what extent the conceptualmetaphors used in this advertisements And he points out that conceptualmetaphor theory, combined with relevance theory being complementary toconceptual metaphor theory is able to interpret the specific persuasive roles ofconceptual metaphors in commercial advertising However, this thesis in onlyconfined to verbal advertisements and pictorial advertisements in whichconceptual metaphors play a very important role, but there exist some otherforms of advertisements, such as radio advertisements, televisionadvertisements and internet advertisements.

Another investigation into the conceptual in “Metaphor in FoodAdvertisement Slogans” by Yu (2009) refers to the significant role ofconceptual metaphors in food advertisements This thesis seems to analyzeand identify both the conceptual metaphors and the creative metaphoricallinguistic expressions used in those slogans and the possible reason why acertain source domain is chosen for a certain target domain The author findsthat many conventional and common metaphors are utilized in advertisingslogans, but much creative work has also been done by the advertisers Alarge number of everyday metaphors also are extended and elaborated in anew way in the slogans analyzed here in this investigation

Coëgnarts and Kravanja (2012) through article “From Thought toModality: A Theoretical Framework for Analysing Structural ConceptualMetaphors and Image Metaphors in Film” point out the theoretical frameworkfor analysing image metaphors and structural-conceptual metaphors in film.The authors distinguish six features or tools which can be helpful to identifymetaphor in film: type (structural-conceptual vs image), quality (abstract vs

concrete), modality (monomodality vs multimodality), direction (symmetry

vs asymmetry), spatiality (homospatiality vs non-homospatiality) and reality(filmic vs ante-filmic) In addition, this article demonstrates image metaphorscan help activate other structural-conceptual metaphors

Ahrens in “Politics, Gender and Conceptual Metaphors” (2009)examines linghuistic data from five countries to determine to what extent theconceptual metaphors used by woman with political power differ, or remainthe same as, those of men And she concludes that both male and femalepoliticians may choose to use femininity and masculinity when it suits theirpurpose Thus, the ability to make the most of the perceived advantages ofeither gender’s traits can be seen through the variety and range of conceptualmetaphors politicians employ as they strive to persuade people of their plansand appeal to constituents for support However, this investigation does notpaint a uniform picture of gender and metaphor in the political realm

In Vietnam, interested in the issues of cognitive linguistics andmetaphors, a number of Vietnamese scholars have contributed their ownviewpoints to metaphor There have been also some Vietnamese researcherswho contribute to the study of metaphor “An investigation into conceptua lmetaphors in Fifty Shades Darker by Erika Leonard James and Vietnameseequivalent” by Nguyễn Thị Kim Thoa (2016) refers to the significant role ofconceptual metaphors in literature works There are also discoveries of themajor loss and gain in meaning and structures in novel when the conceptualmetaphors are translated into Vietnamese But this thesis does not focus onone aspect to analyze deeply and clearly For example, it will be good idea toanalyze and contrast conceptual metaphor of love, joy, fear and more in FiftyShades Darker

Hồ Vi Nữ Mỹ Linh (2011) with “A study of Metaphors in Newspapers

(English versus Vietnamese)” examines metaphorical expressions in Englishand Vietnamese newspapers in terms of syntactic and semantic features inorder to find out the differences and similarities between two languages inusing Metaphor in newspapers She finds out that English and Vietnameseshare in common almost every characteristic in the aspects of syntax andsemantics Besides that, metaphorical expressions have the distinctive featuresand different effects in performances the purpose and nature of newspapers.The limit in this study is that the research has mainly paid attention to basicfields of the traditional and contemporary view Additionally, it cannot collectand analyze all the equivalent samples of metaphorical expressions in Englishand Vietnamese to distinguish the similarity and difference of these instances.

Another investigation into the conceptual metaphors in “The Use ofconceptual Metaphor in English and Vietnamese Idioms With HumanOrgans” (carried out by Trần Ngọc Hải, 2011) has brought a new perspective

on the meaning of idioms There are also discoveries of the basic argumentsand the importance of cognitive language about the mechanism of formation

of meanings fixed phrases, especially idioms

Nguyễn Thị Thanh Huyền (2009) with “Ẩn dụ tri nhận- Mô hình ẩn dụcấu trúc trên cứ liệu ca từ Trịnh Công Sơn” learnt the relationship betweenlanguage and human thinking through a kind of unit of cognitive linguistics.This is structural metaphors The thesis demonstrates the correctness of theconceptual metaphor Metaphor is not only a rhetorical form of poetry, butalso an extremely important mechanism for understanding the world throughhuman thinking

In addition, Nguyễn Thị Kim Ánh (2018) has an investigation aboutconceptual metaphor with “A study of conceptual metaphors used in MichelleObama’s speeches” This study investigates the conceptual metaphors

applying the theoretical framework of Lakoff and Johnson to MichelleObama’s speeches Three types of conceptual metaphors have been pointedout and examples have been shown and analyzed specially in the cognitiveview However, the data of analysis are limited, only contains 680 metaphorsexpressions Thus the results of the study cannot reach the high reliability.Moreover, with the limitations of personal ability as well as outside factors,some weaknesses are inevitable.

As mentioned above, there have been a great number of studies withsignificant contributions to metaphor in English and Vietnamese However,there have been so far fewer researches in slogans on saving environment inperspective of cognitive linguistics as well as comparing the similarities anddifferences of conceptual metaphor in English and Vietnamese This is the

reason the thesis “An investigation into metaphors in slogans on saving

environment in English and Vietnamese” is conducted with a hope to give a

deeper understanding conceptual metaphor

2.2 Theoretical background

The theoretical basis of this thesis is the metaphorical conceptsobtained by two authors, Lakoff and Johnson with the work on themetaphorical of cognitive linguistics "Metaphors We Live By" in 1980

Lakoff and Johnson become the first two American scholars to initiatethe cognitive metaphor with the important work of cognitive linguistics

"Metaphors We Live By" in 1980 In their work, they offer a new concept ofthe nature and function of cognitive linguistics in general and of cognitivemetaphor in particular

The basic principle that guides the cognitive metaphor theory of Lakoffand Johnson can be summarized in the following sentence: "The nature ofcognitive metaphor is in the conceptualization and understanding of this type

of phenomena in terms of other phenomena" (1980).

2.2.1 Cognitive linguistics

“Cognitive linguistics is a modern school of linguistic thought emerged

in the early 1970s It describes and accounts for the systematicity, thestructures the function it serves and how these functions are realized by thelanguage system” (Evans and Green, 2006)

“Cognitive linguistics grew out of the work of a number of researchersactive in the 1970s who were interested in the relation of language and mind”(Sinha, 2014)

During this decade researchers in Poland, Belgium, Germany, andJapan begin to explore linguistic problems from a cognitive standpoint, withexplicit reference to the work of Lakoff and Langacker (CognitiveLinguistics, 2019)

Many linguists focus their research on it and study it from differentperspectives The two works written by Lakoff and Langacker in 1987 and theconvocation of the first cognitive conference indicated the fact that cognitivelinguistics had become mature Lakoff (1987) publishes the book “Women,Fire and Dangerous Things: What Categories reveal about the Mind” Andthen Langacker (2013) publishes “Foundations of Cognitive Grammar”,which had been circulating chapter by chapter since 1984 The convocation ofthe first cognitive conference was organized by Dirven (1985) and was held inDuisburg in Germany in the spring of 1989 All of this kind of researchindicates, to some degree, the establishment of cognitive linguistics

During the 1990s cognitive linguistics become widely recognized as animportant field within linguistics

By the mid-1990s, cognitive linguistics as a field is characterized by adefining set of intellectual pursuits practiced by its adherents, summarized in

the Handbook of Pragmatics under the entry for Cognitive Linguistics

(Geeraerts 1995, p.111:112):

“Because cognitive linguistics sees language as embedded in the overall cognitive capacities of man, topics of special interest for cognitive linguistics include: the structural characteristics of natural language categorization (such

as prototypicality, systematic polysemy, cognitive models, mental imagery and metaphor); the functional principles of linguistic organization (such as iconicity and naturalness); the conceptual interface between syntax and semantics (as explored by cognitive grammar and construction grammar); the experiential and pragmatic background of language-in-use; and the relationship between language and thought, including questions about relativism and conceptual universals.”

2.2.2 Metaphors

Unlike traditional point of view which considers metaphor as a matter

of pure literary language, cognitive linguists like Lakoff, Johnson (1980) andWray (2002) believe that metaphor is a regular activity of thinking andmetaphors appear a lot in our everyday language

Lakoff and Johnson (1980, 1999) are the first passionate supporters ofmetaphors, their view metaphor is conceptual, as many of the ways in which

we think and act are basically metaphorical (Evans and Green, 2006, p.44)

The concept of construal is closely linked to another important feature

of cognitive linguistics that differentiates it from other theories of languagenamely, a concern with metaphor Metaphor used to be thought of as a ratherunusual form of discourse which has characteristic of the literacy language.However, important pioneering work by Lakoff and Johnson (1980) showsthat metaphor is in fact a fundamental property of the everyday use oflanguage

Metaphor is a conceptual phenomenon rather than a language

phenomenon while in traditional view; metaphor is a linguistic, and not aconceptual, phenomenon By giving the theory of metaphor and suggestingsome basis semantic concepts that are metaphorical, Lakoff and Johnsonshoed the pervasion of metaphor They also argue that the human conceptualsystem is metaphorical, not just a rhetorical device of poets Their theory haschanged our understanding of metaphor and highlighted the role of metaphor

in language by indicating that metaphor, a powerful instrument, influencesour linguistic behavior, thought processes and system of value

Theory about conceptual metaphors, pioneered by Lakoff and Johnson(1980), is driven by the notion that metaphors are pervasive in everyday life

In this theory, how people think and act is metaphorical in nature Thus,metaphors can be found not only in language but also in though and actions

In other words, language is only one of the realizations of conceptualmetaphors

There have been a great number of different views of conceptualmetaphors defined by researchers:

According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980) in “Metaphors We Live By”,metaphors are essence “understanding and experiencing one kind of thing interms of another” They said,

“The most important claim we have made so far is that metaphor is not just a matter of language, that is, of ere words We shall argue that, on the contrary, human thought processes are largely metaphorical This is what we mean when we say that the human conceptual system is metaphorically structured and defined Metaphors as linguistic expressions are possible precisely because there are metaphors in a person’s conceptual system.”(1980, p.6)

He also clarifies the function of metaphors from showing the influence

of metaphors to our linguistic behavior, thought processes and system of

value He writes:

“Metaphors are for most people a device of the poetic imagination and the rhetorical flourish – a matter of extraordinary rather than ordinary language Moreover, metaphor is typically viewed as characteristic of language alone, a matter of words rather than thought or action For this reason, most people think they can get along perfectly well without metaphor We have found, on the contrary, that metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action Our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which

we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature.” (1980, p.3)

A metaphor is regarded as a comparison between two dissimilar thingswithout using the words “like” or “as” There have been a great number ofdifferent views of conceptual metaphors defined by researchers:

“Many words have both literal and metaphorical meanings The literalmeaning of a word is the most basic sense A metaphorical meaning is when it

is used to refer to something other than this” (Black, 1962)

“Metaphor is replacement the name of things or phenomena by thename of other things or other phenomena based on their association andhomogeny on the characteristics and attributes that belong to it” (Nguyễn ĐứcTồn, 2009)

Metaphor is defined as a mapping of structure from one conceptualdomain, the source domain, to another conceptual domain, the target domain.This mapping is not based on similarity between the two concepts, asbelieved by the comparison theory of metaphors, but rather on the correlation

of experience in these two domains and our ability to structure one concept interms of the other

2.2.3 Conceptual metaphors

2.2.3.1 Definition

In cognitive linguistics, conceptual metaphors have been one of central

issue in recent years Metaphor is a significant and common phenomenon oflanguage all round the world They are dominant stylistic devices which arethe way of saying one thing but meaning another.

Metaphor is used everywhere in daily life, not only in ordinarylanguage but also in our thought and action In Conceptual metaphor theory,Kövecse (2017, p.1) defines “A conceptual metaphor is understanding onedomain of experience (that is typically abstract) in terms of another (that istypically concrete) This definition captures conceptual metaphors both as aprocess and a product The cognitive process of understanding a domain is theprocess aspect of metaphor, while the resulting conceptual pattern is theproduct aspect.”

A conceptual metaphor consists of two conceptual domains and oneconceptual domain is used to understand the other CONCEPTUALDOMAIN (A) IS CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN (B) can be used as a convenientway to capture this view of metaphor (Kövecses 2002, p.4)

For instance, we can understand about love in terms of journeys in Love

is a journey, about life in terms of war in Life is war, about time in terms of money in Time is money, about anger in terms of fire in Anger is fire, etc.

From the examples mentioned above, we can draw other submetaphorical expression, such as the modifications on the conceptualmetaphor “ANGER IS FIRE”

[3] That kindled my ire.

Those were inflammatory remarks.

Smoke was coming out of his ears.

She was burning with anger.

He was spitting fire.

The incident set the people ablaze with anger

(Kövecses 2018, p.126)

The two domains involved in a conceptual metaphor are called thetarget domain and the source domain The source domain is used tounderstand the target domain Normally the target domain is more abstract (asANGER) and the source domain is more concrete (as FIRE) (Kövecses 2002,p.4).

In cognitive linguistics, the conceptual domain from which we drawmetaphorical expressions to understand another conceptual domain is known

as the source domain The conceptual domain that is understood in this way isthe target domain Thus the source domain of the fire is commonly used toexplain the target domain of anger

In other words, the source domain is used to understand the targetdomain According to Kövecses (2002), a systematic set of correspondences,called mappings, is the constituent elements of the source and target domain

He also said that to know a conceptual metaphor is know the set of mappingsthat applied from the source domain to the target domain

TARGET DOMAIN – IS SOURCE DOMAIN Oralternatively, TARGET DOMAIN – AS – SOURCE DOMAIN

Take the conceptual metaphor LIFE IS JOURNEY as an example.There is a set of mappings between the source and the target domain(Kovecses 2002, p.6)

[4] He’s without direction in life.

I’m where I want to be in life.

I’m at a crossroad in my life.

She’ll go places in life.

He’s never let any one get in his way.

She’s gone through a lot in life.

the travelers → the people

the obstacles encountered → the difficulties met

the destinations and stops → the goals and achievements

From the example [4] we can see that the travelers, companions,guides, the starting point, etc are mapped on to the people, friends, peoplewho give us suggestions, birth, etc The constituent elements of theconceptual domain JOURNEY are in systematic correspondence withconstituent elements of the conceptual domain LIFE The application of thejourney domain to the love domain provides the concept of life with thisparticular structure or set of elements (Kövecses 2002, p.7) In other words,there is systematic set of correspondences between the source domain and thetarget domain in conceptual metaphors and that allow us to understanddifferent metaphors

2.2.3.2 Classification of Conceptual metaphors

Cognitive theorists (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980; Kövecses, 2010) arguethat language serves as an evidence for the existence of conceptual metaphorssince it is through everyday linguistic expressions that conceptual metaphorsare realized Thus, by analyzing discourse, we can arrive at metaphors bywhich we conceptual aspects of discussed reality

In Metaphors We Live By (1980), George Lakoff and Mark Johnson

identify three overlapping categories of conceptual metaphors

Basing on the cognitive function, Kövecses (2002) also names the threebasic types.

“When we ask what the function of metaphor is for ordinary people in thinking about and seeing the world, we’re asking a question about the cognitive function of metaphor Conceptual metaphors can be also classified according to the cognitive functions that they perform On this basic, three general kinds of conceptual metaphor have been distinguished: structural, ontological and orientational” (2002, p.32).

Structural metaphor is described as a case where one concept ismetaphorically structured in terms of another In this kind of metaphors,Kövecses explains that “the source domain provides a relatively richknowledge structure for the target concept In other words, the cognitivefunction of these metaphors is to enable speakers to understand target A bymeans of structure of source B” (2002, p.33)

Structural metaphor refers to a conceptual metaphor that is constructedfrom one conceptual structure to another In other words, a structuralmetaphor is a conventional metaphor in which one concept is understood andexpressed in terms of another structured, sharply defined concept According

to Kövecses, structural metaphor “includes an extremely well-defined targetdomain that will help structure the abstract source domain Ontologicalmetaphors, on the other hand, do not have such a well-defined target domain”(Kövecses, 2002, p.33)

It is clear that structural metaphor – is a metaphorical system in whichone complex concept (typically abstract) is presented in terms of some other(usually more concrete) concept

Structural conceptual metaphors are considered by Lakoff and Johnson

(1980) as the group with the highest number In this kind of conceptualmetaphor, complicated and abstract experiences are conceptualized based onthe experience of simple and specific experiences.

Structural metaphors also play an important role in creating newmetaphors and metaphorical concept by supplying the richest source ofembellishment It allows us to do much rather than just orient concepts, refer

to them, qualify them, etc, and to employ clearly delineated concepts tostructure another (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980)

An example used to illustrate this type is the conceptual metaphor

“TIME IS MONEY” which is expressed through a series of the followingexpressions in English:

[5] - You’re wasting my time

- I don’t have the time to give you.

- How do you spend your time these days?

- You’re running out of time.

(Lakoff and Johnson, 1980)Through above examples, Lakoff and Johnson (1980) explained that anabstract conceptual domain “time” is understood through a specificconceptual domain of “money” Therefore, the concepts used in the sampleexpressions above come conceptual domain of “money” This is the basiccharacteristics of the structural conceptual metaphor Besides, in this group ofconceptual metaphor, the phenomenon of highlighting and hiding in theconceptual domain is an important characteristic

We see that the notion of money (the source domain) delineates thenotion of time (destination domain), which makes the two objects of time andmoney similar to one another This metaphor uses the structure of our concept

of money to explain and clarify the concept of time In this metaphor,

expressions from the vocabulary of money (wasting, have, give, spend, andrunning out of) help people understand and experience time as the kind ofthing that can be spent, waste, or squandered Thus, most structure metaphorsprovide this kind of structuring and understanding for the abstract targetconcept (Kövecses 2002, p.34).

According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980), experience in an interactiveprocess with the specific object or substance is the foundation for a widevariety of conceptual metaphors in which events, activities, feelings, ideasetc are considered as the essence

An ontological metaphor (a figure that provides "ways of viewingevents, activities, emotions, ideas, etc., as entities and substances") is one ofthe three overlapping categories of conceptual metaphors identified by GeorgeLakoff and Mark Johnson in Metaphors We Live By (1980)

Ontological metaphors "are so natural and persuasive in our thought,"say Lakoff and Johnson, "that they are usually taken as self-evident, directdescriptions of mental phenomena." Indeed, they say, ontological metaphors

"are among the most basic devices we have for comprehending ourexperience."

Ontological metaphors can also be understood as entity and substancemetaphors (Lackoff &Johnson 2003, p.26) Ontological metaphors are based

on our experience with the physical world around us When things we want torefer to are not very concrete and do not have a clear physical shape, we tend

to understand them as entities or substances This means that we can “refer tothem, categorize them, group them, and qualify them” (Lakoff & Johnson

2003, p.26)

Take the INFLATION IS AN ENTITY metaphor from Metaphors We

Live By (Lakoff & Johnson 2003, p.27) as an example Inflation is understood

as an entity and it enables us to refer to and qualify it in the followingsentences (Lakoff & Johnson 2003, p.27):

[6] Inflation is lowering our standard of living.

If there’s much more inflation, we’ll never survive We need to combat inflation.

Inflation is hacking us in to a corner.

In example [6], viewing inflation as an entity allows us to refer to it,quantify it, identify a particular aspect of it, see it as a cause, act with respect

to it, and perhaps even believe that we understand it Ontological metaphorslike this are necessary for even attempting to deal rationally with ourexperiences

In the above cases, inflation is understood as something that can affectout lives and be combated It is clear that with the experience of rising prices,the concept of inflation is identified with the concept of the entity The use ofontological metaphor enables people to talk about and understand inflation as

a physical entity

An orientational metaphor is a metaphor (or figurative comparison) that

involves spatial relationships (such as UP-DOWN, IN-OUT, ON-OFF andFRONT-BACK).

An Orientational metaphor is a metaphor which organizes a wholesystem of concepts in terms of physical orientation Kovecses (2002, p.35)points out that “Orientational metaphors provide even less conceptualstructure for the target concepts coherent in our conceptual system The name

“orientational metaphor” derives from the fact that most metaphor that servesthis function has to do with basic human spatial orientation.”

An orientational metaphor (a figure that "organizes a whole system ofconcepts with respect to one another") is one of the three overlappingcategories of conceptual metaphors identified by George Lakoff and MarkJohnson in Metaphors We Live By (1980)

In orientational conceptual metaphors, a system of ideas is organized inthe relation and interaction in space like up-down, inside-out, front-behind,shallow-deep, center-periphery etc Lakoff and Johnson (1980) call this groupthe orientational metaphor because they are related to the orientation in space.The origin of this metaphor group is explained as follows by researcher TranVan Co (2007):

“We are the physical entity limited in a certain space and separated from the rest of the world by our skin; we perceive the rest of the world as the world outside us Each of us is contained in limited space by the surface of the body, which is potentially orientational type of “inside-out” This orientation makes us imagine other physical objects also limited by the surface At the same time we also see them as containers with inner space and separated from the world outside.”

An example often cited to illustrate the orientational conceptual

metaphor group is “HAPPY IS UP, SAD IS DOWN” (Lakoff & Johnson

1980) illustrated in these examples:

[7] I’m feeling up.

That boosted my spirits

My spirits rose.

You‘re in high spirits.

Thinking about her always gives me a lift

I’m feeling down.

He’s really low these days.

My spirits sank

Conceptual metaphor “HAPPY IS UP, SAD IS DOWN” is derivedfrom the human body posture while they are happy or sad Normally, whenpeople are depressed or sad they often bow down and when they are happythey raise up their head and straight up their back In the case HAPPY IS UP,SAD IS DOWN, the concept of happiness is identified with an upwardorientation which tends to go together with the positive evaluation and theconcept of sadness is characterized as a downward direction with negativeone Kövecses points out: “Upward orientation tends to go together withpositive evaluation, while downward orientation with a negative one"(Kövecses 2010)

Thus we see that the orientational conceptual metaphors are notarbitrary but based on culture and experiences Also according to Lakoff andJohnson (1980), the conceptual domain “up-down", “inside- outside” are thespatial domain concepts in the material world but the metaphors based onthese conceptual domains may vary in different cultures For example, insome cultures, the future is seen as the front but other cultures see the futurelying in the back

Most orientational metaphors are related to basic spatial orientations of

human beings, such as up-down, center-periphery, and so on The cognitivefunction of orientational metaphor is a series of target concepts coherent inour conceptual system It could sometimes be called a “coherence metaphor”.

In the following examples, an upward orientation characterizes certain targetconcepts, while their opposite concepts are characterized by a downwardorientation (Kövecses 2002, p.36)

[8] MORE IS UP; LESS IS DOWN: Speak up, please Keep your voice down, please.

[9] HEALTHY IS UP; SICK IS DOWN: Lazarus rose from dead He fell ill.

[10] CONTROL IS UP; LACK OF CONTROL IS DOWN: I’m on top of the situation He is under my control.

[11] HAPPY IS UP; SAD IS DOWN: I’m feeling up today He’s really low

these days

It should also be pointed out that the spatial orientation up-down is notthe only spatial source image Orientational metaphors also utilize spatialimages such as whole, center, link, balance, and so on (Kövecses 2002, p.36)

2.3 Summary

In chapter 2, we have reviewed the previous studies and theories ofconceptual metaphor from the overviews of many linguists in which thestudies of Lakoff and Johnson are significant in terms of theoreticalbackground of this thesis Along with that, we have consulted the definitionsand classifications of conceptual metaphors All of the above support us foranalyzing the conceptual metaphor in slogan on saving environment in thenext chapter in the light of this theory

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHOD

This chapter is the presentation of methods and procedures of thethesis In the chapter, the design of the research is focused Then the researchprocedures are described Next, it presents how data are collected andanalyzed to find out the result of the study

3.1 Research methods

In this thesis, some methods were combined: qualitative method,quantitative method, comparative and contrastive methods and inductivemethod

First of all, the qualitative method helped to identify metaphoricalexpressions used in the slogans

Secondly, the quantitative method was used to analyze the frequency ofoccurrence and the percentage of three types of conceptual metaphors

Next, the comparative and contrastive methods were employed tocompare and contrast the frequency of conceptual metaphors between Englishand Vietnamese to find out the similarities and differences

Finally, we used inductive method to synthesize the finding and drawout conclusions

The source of the data was downloaded from the websites such as:Viralknot, Helpsavenature, Indiacelebrating, Vforum, Kenhsinhvien and so

on You can see Appendix for information

The reason for choosing these sources of data is that they attract adiverse audience and is a global hot issue; second, we easily search anddownload; last but not least, they contain many metaphorical expressions forour analysis.

3.3 Data analysis

On the basis of 113 slogans in English and Vietnamese were dividedinto two groups: 55 English slogans and 58 Vietnamese slogans, the analysiscarried out based on the following steps:

- Identify, analyze and classify the data into the suitable categories of the thesis purpose: structural, ontological and orientational metaphors

- Compare and contrast data analyzed to find out the similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese in term cognitive linguistics

3.4 Research procedures

The study was carried out according to the following steps:

- Decide the research topic

- Collect references to be used for discussion of the theoretical

background and choosing methods to do research

- Build the detailed analytical frameworks for analysis and analyzing the collected data

- Suggest some implications for teaching, learning the language

- Revise the thesis and submitting it to the supervisor before

examination

CHAPTER 4 FINDING AND DISCUSSIONS 4.1 Quantitative Analysis of Metaphor in the slogans on saving

environment in English and Vietnamese

Of 190 slogans in English and Vietnamese (110 slogans in English; 80slogans in Vietnamese) detected, 113 metaphorical expressions were found(55 slogans in English; 58 slogans in Vietnamese) Accordingly, the ratio ofthe frequency of metaphor was 59.5 percent of the slogans These expressionswere classified into categories of Structural, Ontological and Orientationalmetaphors

Table 1 Types of conceptual metaphors and their occurrence frequency

used in slogans on saving environment in English Types of metaphor Number Percentage (%)

in English In particurly, ontological metaphors are used more universalbecause of bringing vividness and liveliness This make up the highest rate.Especially, personification ontological metaphor is dominant, which account

for 45.2% with the mapping NATURE IS A PERSON Structural metaphor isfound to occur in English slogans with 25 samples such as NATURE IS AWAR, NATURE IS A TREASURE, NATURE IS A PATIENT, NATURE IS

A PICTURE, NATURE IS FOOD, NATURE IS A JOURNEY and NATURE

IS A HOME It is clearly seen that authors had used the structural metaphorscreatively to make the language more interesting and exciting in their slogans.From that, authors can transfer the message to readers

Table 2 Types of conceptual metaphors and their occurrence frequency

used in slogans on saving environment in Vietnamese

Types of metaphor Number Percentage (%)

So the number of metaphorical orientations appears very little Ontologicaland structural metaphors occur widely to help beautify and explore severaldifferent angles of nature in the slogans.

Table 3 Subtypes of ontological metaphor and their occurrence frequency in

slogans on saving environment in English

Numbers Subtypes of ontological Occurrence Percentage (%)

us to understand nonhuman entities as human motivations, characteristics andactivities Typical mapping is NATURE IS A PERSON with 16 samples.Other subtypes of ontological metaphors frequently used in the slogans wereentity and container metaphors, which make up 26.9% and 7.7% respectively.Natures were specified as substance or concrete physical objects and theconcepts were represented as having an inside and outside boundary orcapable of holding something else Substance metaphors took the lowestproportion with 3.9% These figures are presented in the above Table 3

Table 4 Subtypes of ontological metaphor and their occurrence frequency

in slogans on saving environment in Vietnamese Numbers Subtypes of ontological Occurrence Percentage (%)

Normally, the words of propaganda and propaganda signify anextremely dry meaning Especially the terms related to the environment,nature, natural phenomena and environmental pollution, all of themdemonstrate rigid and abstract concepts and meanings It is a truism thatclarity is as important as accuracy However, slogans should not stick to onlyformal language Their words would sound boring To keep the listenersinterested, figurative language is appealed to One rhetorical device frequentlyused in this genre is metaphor It sheds some coloring on the rigid language ofnatural and environment In general, all subtypes of ontological metaphorstogether did the job of giving us a coherent understanding of our environment,

emotional and intellectual experience.

With regard to structural metaphors, seven subtypes were discovered inEnglish and eight subtypes in Vietnamese They were mapped systematicallyonto the entities in some main target domains of NATURE, WATER,NYLON, and RUBBISH These intangible concepts were described vividlyand intimately by attaching those interesting properties of tangible notionssuch as BODY PART, WAR, TREASURE, JOURNEY, PICTURE, FOOD,BLOOD, PATIENT, HOME, etc

Finally, in my analysis, I have found six subtypes of orientationalmetaphors, i.e SAVING IS OFF/ WASTING IS ON, MORE IS UP/ LESS ISDOWN, HOT IS UP, EXHAUSTED IS OUT, VERY MUCH IS PLUS,MORE IS ABOVE/ LESS IS BELOW

The overview will be followed by a detailed account of each of the conceptual metaphors and the metaphorical expressions reflecting it The structural metaphors found in the slogans on saving environment in English helped make the abstract concepts understandable for wide everyone

4.2 Qualitative Analysis of Metaphors in slogans on saving

environment in English and Vietnamese

4.2.1 Conceptual metaphors in slogans on saving environment in English

4.2.1.1 Ontological metaphors

Ontological metaphor enables us to conceive our experiencesunderstanding of physical objects and substances and treat them as discreteentities or substances of uniform kind Table 5 shows the use of ontologicalmetaphors in slogans on saving environment in English

Table 5 Subtypes of ontological metaphor and their occurrence frequency in slogans on saving

environment in English Numbers Subtypes of ontological metaphors Occurrence Percentage

As far as the ontological metaphors are concerned, the most commonsubtype is personification metaphors (61.5%), which show that the authortended to give the nonhuman things, are specified as persons Other subtypes

of ontological metaphor frequently used in the slogans on saving environment

in English were entity and container metaphors, (which make up 27% and7.7% respectively) Here the environment, water, tree, garbage as substance orconcrete physical object and the concepts were represented as having aninside and outside boundary or capable of holding something else Substancemetaphors took the lowest proportion with 3.8%

Of 26 ontological metaphors detected, 4 subtypes were found, namelyNATURE IS A PERSON, NATURE IS AN ENTITY, NATURE IS ACONTAINER and NATURE IS A LIQUID SUBSTANCE

Personification allows people to make sense of different phenomena inthe world in human terms Let us give a few examples of personification fromthe slogans:

Personification is one the most pervasive conceptual metaphors ingeneral and that is the case with the concept of nature in the slogans as well.General ontological NATURE IS A PERSON metaphor has many specialcases in which personified natural has a great variety of human propertieswhich, taken together, form an interesting image

The analysis of the collected data found the most popular type of thiskind of metaphor is the conceptual metaphor NATURE IS A PERSON Let’ssee some following examples:

Note: S stands for sample; E stands for English; 1, 2, 3, etc,stand for the order of the sample See Appendix for more

information