trigonometry 9th edition pdf

Plotting Points on the Real Number Line Plot the real numbers on the real number line.. Note that the point representing lies slightly tothe left of the point representing Checkpoint Aud

GRAPHS OF PARENT FUNCTIONS

y-axis symmetry

Greatest Integer Function Quadratic (Squaring) Function Cubic Function

x-intercepts: in the interval Range : Intercept:

Jumps vertically one unit at Increasing on for

Even function

y-axis symmetry

Relative minimum relative maximum

or vertex:共0, 0兲 共a < 0兲,

共a > 0兲,

a < 0共0, ⬁兲 a < 0共⫺⬁, 0兲 a > 0共0, 共⫺⬁ ⬁兲, 0兲 a > 0 共⫺⬁, ⬁兲

共0, 0兲共0, 0兲 关0, 1兲 共a 共a共⫺<>⬁0兲0兲, 共⫺⬁关0, 兲⬁ ⬁, 0兴兲 共⫺共⫺共0, 0兲⬁ ⬁, ⬁, ⬁兲兲共⫺⬁, ⬁兲

Rational (Reciprocal) Function Exponential Function Logarithmic Function

Horizontal asymptote: x-axis Horizontal asymptote: x-axis in the line

Continuous

Domain: all Range:

x⫽ ␲

2 ⫹ n␲共0, 0兲共n␲, 0兲

␲共⫺⬁, ⬁兲

x⫽ ␲2 ⫹ n␲

2 1 3

2

π 2

−

f(x) = tan x

x y

3 π 2

−2

−3

2 3

2 π

共0, ⬁兲

共⫺⬁, ⬁兲共0, ⬁兲

共⫺⬁, 0兲傼共0, ⬁)

共0, ⬁兲共⫺⬁, ⬁兲

Cosecant Function Secant Function Cotangent Function

−1

f(x) = arctan x

2 π

2 π

x y

f(x) = arccos x

π

x y

2 1 3

π 2

π 2

− −

f(x) = cot x =

x y

π 2

−

−

x y

3 π 2π 2

f(x) = sec x = 1

cos x

2 1 3

x ⫽ n␲

冢␲

2⫹ n␲, 0冣

␲共⫺⬁x, ⫽ n⬁兲␲

y⫽±␲2共0, 0兲

冢⫺␲共⫺2⬁␲2冣

, ⬁兲

Ninth Edition

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Trigonometry

Ron Larson

The Pennsylvania State University The Behrend College

With the assistance of David C Falvo

The Pennsylvania State University The Behrend College

Ninth Edition

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Trigonometry Ninth Edition

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 16 15 14 13 12

Prerequisites 1

P.1 Review of Real Numbers and Their Properties 2

P.2 Solving Equations 14

P.3 The Cartesian Plane and Graphs of Equations 26

P.4 Linear Equations in Two Variables 40

P.6 Analyzing Graphs of Functions 67

P.7 A Library of Parent Functions 78

1.1 Radian and Degree Measure 122

1.2 Trigonometric Functions: The Unit Circle 132

1.3 Right Triangle Trigonometry 139

1.4 Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle 150

1.5 Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions 159

1.6 Graphs of Other Trigonometric Functions 170

1.7 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 180

1.8 Applications and Models 190

2.1 Using Fundamental Identities 210

2.2 Verifying Trigonometric Identities 217

2.3 Solving Trigonometric Equations 224

2.4 Sum and Difference Formulas 235

2.5 Multiple-Angle and Product-to-Sum Formulas 242

Additional Topics in Trigonometry 261

3.1 Law of Sines 262

3.2 Law of Cosines 271

3.3 Vectors in the Plane 278

3.4 Vectors and Dot Products 291

4.2 Complex Solutions of Equations 323

4.3 Trigonometric Form of a Complex Number 331

5.1 Exponential Functions and Their Graphs 354

5.2 Logarithmic Functions and Their Graphs 365

5.3 Properties of Logarithms 375

5.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 382

5.5 Exponential and Logarithmic Models 392

6.8 Graphs of Polar Equations 473

6.9 Polar Equations of Conics 481

A.1 Representing Data

A.2 Analyzing Data

A.3 Modeling Data

Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Tests A1

Index of Applications (web)*

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viii

Preface

represents the height of a projectile after seconds

(a) Explain why is a function of

(b) Approximate the height of the projectile after

0.5 second and after 1.25 seconds

(c) Approximate the domain of

h

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 Time, t (in seconds)

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Acknowledgements

Bacteria (Example 8, page 98)

Americans with Disabilities Act (page 46)

Average Speed (Example 7, page 72)

1

Prerequisites

Clockwise from top left, nulinukas/Shutterstock.com; Fedorov Oleksiy/Shutterstock.com;

2 Chapter P Prerequisites

P.1 Review of Real Numbers and Their Properties

Represent and classify real numbers.

Order real numbers and use inequalities.

Find the absolute values of real numbers and find the distance between two real numbers.

Evaluate algebraic expressions.

Use the basic rules and properties of algebra.

Real Numbers

Real numbers can describe quantities in everyday life such as age, miles per gallon,

and population Symbols such as

and

represent real numbers Here are some important subsets (each member of a subset

is also a member of a set ) of the real numbers The three dots, called ellipsis points,

indicate that the pattern continues indefinitely

Set of natural numbers Set of whole numbers Set of integers

A real number is rational when it can be written as the ratio of two integers, whereFor instance, the numbers

and are rational The decimal representation of a rational number either repeats as in

or terminates as in A real number that cannot be written as the

ratio of two integers is called irrational Irrational numbers have infinite nonrepeating

decimal representations For instance, the numbers

andare irrational (The symbol means “is approximately equal to.”) Figure P.1 showssubsets of real numbers and their relationships to each other

Classifying Real Numbers

(a) natural numbers, (b) whole numbers, (c) integers, (d) rational numbers, and (e) irrational numbers

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Repeat Example 1 for the set 再⫺␲, ⫺1

Irrational

numbers

Rational numbers

Integers Noninteger

fractions (positive and negative)

Negative

integers

Whole numbers

Natural numbers

Zero

Subsets of real numbers

Figure P.1

Real numbers can represent

many real-life quantities For

example, in Exercises 55–58

on page 13, you will use real

numbers to represent the

federal deficit.

Michael G Smith/Shutterstock.com

Real numbers are represented graphically on the real number line When you

draw a point on the real number line that corresponds to a real number, you are

plotting the real number The point 0 on the real number line is the origin Numbers to

the right of 0 are positive, and numbers to the left of 0 are negative, as shown below

The term nonnegative describes a number that is either positive or zero.

As illustrated below, there is a one-to-one correspondence between real numbers and

points on the real number line

Every real number corresponds to exactly Every point on the real number line one point on the real number line corresponds to exactly one real number.

Plotting Points on the Real Number Line

Plot the real numbers on the real number line

a.

b 2.3 c.

d.

Solution The following figure shows all four points

closer to on the real number line

b The point representing the real number 2.3 lies between 2 and 3, but closer to 2, on

the real number line

closer to 1, on the real number line

d The point representing the real number lies between and but closer to

on the real number line Note that the point representing lies slightly tothe left of the point representing

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Plot the real numbers on the real number line

4

⫺1.65

⫺1.8

23

⫺74

Positive direction

Origin

Ordering Real Numbers

One important property of real numbers is that they are ordered.

Geometrically, this definition implies that if and only if lies to the left of

on the real number line, as shown in Figure P.2

Ordering Real Numbers

Place the appropriate inequality symbol or between the pair of real numbers

c Because lies to the left of on the real number line, as shown in Figure P.5,

you can say that is less than and write

Figure P.6, you can say that is greater than and write

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Place the appropriate inequality symbol between the pair of real numbers

denotes all real numbers between and 3, including but not including 3, asshown in Figure P.8

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Describe the subset of real numbers that the inequality represents

⫺1 2

⫺1 5

1 3 1

Definition of Order on the Real Number Line

If and are real numbers, then is less than when is positive The

inequality denotes the order of and This relationship can also be

described by saying that is greater than and writing The inequality

means that is less than or equal to and the inequality

means that is greater than or equal to The symbols and are

inequality symbols.

ⱖⱕ,

a

a ≤ b

b > a.

a b

b.

a

a < b

b ⫺ a b

a b

a

b a

if and only if lies to the left

Figure P.6

Unbounded Intervals on the Real Number Line

x < b

共⫺⬁, b兲

b x

Inequalities can describe subsets of real numbers called intervals In the bounded

intervals below, the real numbers and are the endpoints of each interval The

endpoints of a closed interval are included in the interval, whereas the endpoints of anopen interval are not included in the interval

The symbols positive infinity, and negative infinity, do not represent

real numbers They are simply convenient symbols used to describe the unboundedness

of an interval such as or

Interpreting Intervals

a The interval consists of all real numbers greater than and less than 0

b The interval consists of all real numbers greater than or equal to 2

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Give a verbal description of the interval

Using Inequalities to Represent Intervals

a The inequality can represent the statement is at most 2.”

b The inequality can represent “all in the interval

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Use inequality notation to represent the statement “xis greater than ⫺2and at most 4.”

Bounded Intervals on the Real Number Line

an endpoint of an interval andtherefore are not included in the interval

right are called bounded is that

each has a finite length Aninterval that does not have a

finite length is unbounded

(see below)

Definition of Absolute Value

If is a real number, then the absolute value of is

ⱍaⱍ⫽冦a, if a ⱖ 0

⫺a, if a < 0.

a a

Absolute Value and Distance

The absolute value of a real number is its magnitude, or the distance between the

origin and the point representing the real number on the real number line

Notice in this definition that the absolute value of a real number is never negative

number is either positive or zero Moreover, 0 is the only real number whose absolutevalue is 0 So,

Finding Absolute Values

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Evaluate each expression

Evaluating the Absolute Value of a Number

Evaluate for (a) and (b)

Solution

a If then and

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Evaluate for (a) and (b)

The Law of Trichotomy states that for any two real numbers and precisely one

of three relationships is possible:

or a > b. Law of Trichotomy

a < b,

a ⫽ b,

b, a

Distance Between Two Points on the Real Number Line

Let and be real numbers The distance between and is

d 共a, b兲 ⫽ⱍb ⫺ aⱍ⫽ⱍa ⫺ bⱍ

b a

b a

Properties of Absolute Values

Comparing Real Numbers

Place the appropriate symbol between the pair of real numbers

Solution

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Place the appropriate symbol between the pair of real numbers

The distance between and 13 is

Distance between and 13The distance can also be found as follows

Distance between and 13

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

a Find the distance between 35 and

b Find the distance between and

c Find the distance between 35 and 23.

Definition of an Algebraic Expression

An algebraic expression is a collection of letters (variables) and real numbers

(constants) combined using the operations of addition, subtraction,

multiplication, division, and exponentiation

Algebraic Expressions

One characteristic of algebra is the use of letters to represent numbers The letters are

variables, and combinations of letters and numbers are algebraic expressions Here

are a few examples of algebraic expressions

The terms of an algebraic expression are those parts that are separated by addition.

variable terms and 8 is the constant term The numerical factor of a term is called the coefficient For instance, the coefficient of is and the coefficient of is 1

Identifying Terms and Coefficients

a.

b.

c.

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Identify the terms and coefficients of

To evaluate an algebraic expression, substitute numerical values for each of the

variables in the expression, as shown in the next example

Evaluating Algebraic Expressions

Note that you must substitute the value for each occurrence of the variable.

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Evaluate when

Use the Substitution Principle to evaluate algebraic expressions It states that

“If then can replace in any expression involving ” In Example 12(a), for

instance, 3 is substituted for in the expression x ⫺3x ⫹ 5.

a.

a b

Basic Rules of Algebra

Let and be real numbers, variables, or algebraic expressions

Commutative Property of Addition:

Commutative Property of Multiplication:

Associative Property of Addition:

Associative Property of Multiplication:

Distributive Properties:

Additive Identity Property:

Multiplicative Identity Property:

Additive Inverse Property:

Definitions of Subtraction and Division Subtraction: Add the opposite Division: Multiply by the reciprocal.

If then

In these definitions, is the additive inverse (or opposite) of and is the

multiplicative inverse (or reciprocal) of In the fractional form is the

numerator of the fraction and is the denominator.b

a

a 兾b, b.

1兾b b,

Basic Rules of Algebra

There are four arithmetic operations with real numbers: addition, multiplication, subtraction, and division, denoted by the symbols or and or respectively Of these, addition and multiplication are the two primary operations Subtraction and division are the inverse operations of addition and multiplication,respectively

Because the properties of real numbers below are true for variables and algebraic

expressions as well as for real numbers, they are often called the Basic Rules of

Algebra Try to formulate a verbal description of each property For instance, the first

property states that the order in which two real numbers are added does not affect their sum.

Because subtraction is defined as “adding the opposite,” the Distributive Propertiesare also true for subtraction For instance, the “subtraction form” of

is Note that the operations of subtractionand division are neither commutative nor associative The examples

and show that subtraction and division are not commutative Similarly

anddemonstrate that subtraction and division are not associative

Properties of Negation and Equality

Let and be real numbers, variables, or algebraic expressions

Identifying Rules of Algebra

Identify the rule of algebra illustrated by the statement

Solution

a This statement illustrates the Commutative Property of Multiplication In other

words, you obtain the same result whether you multiply by 2, or 2 by

b This statement illustrates the Additive Inverse Property In terms of subtraction, this

property states that when any expression is subtracted from itself the result is 0

c This statement illustrates the Multiplicative Inverse Property Note that must be a

nonzero number The reciprocal of is undefined when is 0

d This statement illustrates the Associative Property of Addition In other words, to

form the sum it does not matter whether 2 and or and areadded first

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Identify the rule of algebra illustrated by the statement

REMARK Notice the

difference between the opposite

of a number and a negative

number If is negative, then its

opposite, is positive For

instance, if then

⫺a ⫽ ⫺(⫺5) ⫽ 5.

a⫽ ⫺5,

⫺a, a

REMARK The “or” in the

Zero-Factor Property includes

the possibility that either or both

factors may be zero This is an

inclusive or, and it is generally

the way the word “or” is used in

mathematics

Summarize (Section P.1)

1 Describe how to represent and classify real numbers (pages 2 and 3) For

examples of representing and classifying real numbers, see Examples 1 and 2

2 Describe how to order real numbers and use inequalities (pages 4 and 5) For

examples of ordering real numbers and using inequalities, see Examples 3–6

3 State the absolute value of a real number (page 6) For examples of using

absolute value, see Examples 7–10

4 Explain how to evaluate an algebraic expression (page 8) For examples

involving algebraic expressions, see Examples 11 and 12

5 State the basic rules and properties of algebra (pages 9–11) For examples

involving the basic rules and properties of algebra, see Examples 13 and 14

Properties and Operations of Fractions

Let and be real numbers, variables, or algebraic expressions such thatand

1 Equivalent Fractions: if and only if

3 Generate Equivalent Fractions:

4 Add or Subtract with Like Denominators:

5 Add or Subtract with Unlike Denominators:

Properties and Operations of Fractions

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

If and are integers such that then and are factors or divisors of

A prime number is an integer that has exactly two positive factors—itself and 1—such

as 2, 3, 5, 7, and 11 The numbers 4, 6, 8, 9, and 10 are composite because each can be written as the product of two or more prime numbers The Fundamental Theorem of

Arithmetic states that every positive integer greater than 1 is a prime number or can be

written as the product of prime numbers in precisely one way (disregarding order) For

instance, the prime factorization of 24 is 24⫽ 2⭈2⭈2⭈3

c b

a

ab ⫽ c, c

b, a,

REMARK The number 1 isneither prime nor composite

REMARK In Property 1 offractions, the phrase “if and onlyif” implies two statements Onestatement is: If then

The other statement is:

then a 兾b ⫽ c兾d.

d⫽ 0,ad ⫽ bc, b⫽ 0

ad ⫽ bc a 兾b ⫽ c 兾d,

12 Chapter P Prerequisites

Vocabulary: Fill in the blanks.

1 numbers have infinite nonrepeating decimal representations.

2 The point 0 on the real number line is called the .

3 The distance between the origin and a point representing a real number on the real number line

is the of the real number

4 A number that can be written as the product of two or more prime numbers is called a number.

5 The of an algebraic expression are those parts separated by addition.

Skills and Applications

b⫽ 0

a⫽ 0

ab⫽ 0,

Classifying Real Numbers In Exercises 7–10,

determine which numbers in the set are (a) natural

numbers, (b) whole numbers, (c) integers, (d) rational

numbers, and (e) irrational numbers.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Plotting Points on the Real Number Line In

Exercises 11 and 12, plot the real numbers on the real

number line.

Plotting and Ordering Real Numbers In

Exercises 13–16, plot the two real numbers on the real

number line Then place the appropriate inequality

Interpreting an Inequality or an Interval In

Exercises 17–24, (a) give a verbal description of the subset

of real numbers represented by the inequality or the

interval, (b) sketch the subset on the real number line, and

(c) state whether the interval is bounded or unbounded.

Using Inequality and Interval Notation In

Exercises 25 – 30, use inequality notation and interval

notation to describe the set.

25. is nonnegative 26. is no more than 25

27. is at least 10 and at most 22

28. is less than 5 but no less than

29 The dog’s weight is more than 65 pounds

30 The annual rate of inflation is expected to be at least

2.5% but no more than 5%

Evaluating an Absolute Value Expression In Exercises 31 – 40, evaluate the expression.

Comparing Real Numbers In Exercises 41 – 44,

two real numbers.

Using Absolute Value Notation In Exercises

51 – 54, use absolute value notation to describe the situation.

51 The distance between and 5 is no more than 3.

52 The distance between and is at least 6

53. is at most two units from

54 The temperature in Bismarck, North Dakota, was

at noon, then at midnight What was the change intemperature over the 12-hour period?

a ⫽ 9.34, b ⫽ ⫺5.65

a⫽16

5, b⫽112 75

a⫽1

4, b⫽11 4

⫺3

k

t

y y

共⫺1, 2兴关⫺5, 2兲

0 < x ⱕ 6

⫺2 < x < 2

共⫺⬁, 2兲关4, ⬁兲

x < 0

x ⱕ 5

⫺8

7, ⫺3 7 5

⫺4.75

4 3

⫺5.2

⫺5 2 7

2

7, ⫺11.1, 13冎

再25, ⫺17, ⫺12

5, 冪9, 3.12, 12␲,再2.01, 0.666 , ⫺13, 0.010110111 , 1, ⫺6冎

78 HOW DO YOU SEE IT? Match eachdescription with its graph Which types ofreal numbers shown in Figure P.1 on page 2may be included in a range of prices? a range

of lengths? Explain

(i)

(ii)(a) The price of an item is within $0.03 of $1.90.(b) The distance between the prongs of an electricplug may not differ from 1.9 centimeters bymore than 0.03 centimeter

1.92 1.91 1.90 1.89 1.88

1.92 1.90

1.89

5兾n

Identifying Terms and Coefficients In Exercises

59 – 62, identify the terms Then identify the coefficients

of the variable terms of the expression.

Evaluating an Algebraic Expression In Exercises

63 – 66, evaluate the expression for each value of (If not possible, then state the reason.)

(a) Use a calculator to complete the table

(b) Use the result from part (a) to make a conjectureabout the value of as (i) approaches 0, and (ii) increases without bound

In Exercises 55–58, use the bar graph, which shows the receipts of the federal government (in billions of dollars) for selected years from 2004 through 2010

In each exercise you are given the expenditures of the federal government

Find the magnitude

of the surplus or deficit for the year.

(Source: U.S Office

of Management and Budget)

Year Receipts, R Expenditures, E

1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800

2406.9 2524.0

2162.7 1880.1

Federal Deficit

Michael G Smith/Shutterstock.com

14 Chapter P Prerequisites

P.2 Solving Equations

Identify different types of equations.

Solve linear equations in one variable and rational equations.

Solve quadratic equations by factoring, extracting square roots, completing the square, and using the Quadratic Formula.

Solve polynomial equations of degree three or greater.

Solve radical equations.

Solve absolute value equations.

Equations and Solutions of Equations

An equation in is a statement that two algebraic expressions are equal For example,

and

are equations To solve an equation in means to find all values of for which the equation

is true Such values are solutions For instance, is a solution of the equation

because is a true statement

The solutions of an equation depend on the kinds of numbers being considered Forinstance, in the set of rational numbers, has no solution because there is norational number whose square is 10 However, in the set of real numbers, the equationhas the two solutions and

An equation that is true for every real number in the domain of the variable is called

an identity The domain is the set of all real numbers for which the equation is defined.

For example,

Identity

is an identity because it is a true statement for any real value of The equation

Identitywhere is an identity because it is true for any nonzero real value of

An equation that is true for just some (but not all) of the real numbers in the domain

of the variable is called a conditional equation For example, the equation

Conditional equation

is conditional because and are the only values in the domain that satisfy the equation

A contradiction is an equation that is false for every real number in the domain of

the variable For example, the equation

Contradiction

is a contradiction because there are no real values of for which the equation is true

Linear and Rational Equations

x 2x ⫺ 4 ⫽ 2x ⫹ 1

冪2x⫽ 4

x2⫺ x ⫺ 6 ⫽ 0, 3x⫺ 5 ⫽ 7,

x

Linear equations can help

you analyze many real-life

applications For example, you

can use linear equations in

forensics to determine height

from femur length See

Exercises 97 and 98 on page 25.

Definition of Linear Equation in One Variable

A linear equation in one variable is an equation that can be written in the standard form

where and are a b real numbers with a⫽ 0

ax ⫹ b ⫽ 0

x

Andrew Douglas/Masterfile

A linear equation has exactly one solution To see this, consider the followingsteps (Remember that )

Write original equation.

Subtract from each side.

Divide each side by

To solve a conditional equation in isolate on one side of the equation by a

sequence of equivalent equations, each having the same solution(s) as the original

equation The operations that yield equivalent equations come from the properties ofequality reviewed in Section P.1

The following example shows the steps for solving a linear equation in one variable written in standard form

Solving a Linear Equation

Add 6 to each side.

Divide each side by 3.

Subtract from each side.

Subtract 4 from each side.

Divide each side by 2.

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Solve each equation

x⫽ ⫺6

2x⫽ ⫺12

3x 2x⫹ 4 ⫽ ⫺8

Generating Equivalent Equations

An equation can be transformed into an equivalent equation by one or more

of the following steps

Equivalent

1 Remove symbols of grouping,

combine like terms, or simplifyfractions on one or both sides

of the equation

2 Add (or subtract) the same

quantity to (from) each side

of the equation

3 Multiply (or divide) each

side of the equation by the

same nonzero quantity.

4 Interchange the two sides of

For instance, you can check thesolution of Example 1(a) as follows

Substitute 2 for Solution checks. ✓Try checking the solution ofExample 1(b)

0⫽ 0

x.

3共2兲 ⫺ 6 ⫽? 0

Write original equation.

3x⫺ 6 ⫽ 0

HISTORICAL NOTE

This ancient Egyptian papyrus, discovered in 1858, contains one of the earliest examples of mathematical writing in existence.

The papyrus itself dates back to around 1650 B C , but it is actually

a copy of writings from two centuries earlier.The algebraic equations on the papyrus were written in words Diophantus, a Greek who lived around A D 250,

is often called the Father of Algebra.

He was the first to use abbreviated word forms in equations.

British Museum Algebra and Trigonometry

A rational equation is an equation that involves one or more fractional expressions.

To solve a rational equation, find the least common denominator (LCD) of all terms andmultiply every term by the LCD This process will clear the original equation of fractionsand produce a simpler equation

Solving a Rational Equation

Combine like terms.

Divide each side by 13.

The solution is Check this in the original equation

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Solve

When multiplying or dividing an equation by a variable expression, it is possible

to introduce an extraneous solution that does not satisfy the original equation

An Equation with an Extraneous Solution

Solve

Extraneous solution

In the original equation, yields a denominator of zero So, is an

extraneous solution, and the original equation has no solution.

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

REMARK An equation with a

single fraction on each side can

be cleared of denominators by

cross multiplying To do this,

multiply the left numerator by

the right denominator and the

right numerator by the left

REMARK Recall that the least

common denominator of two or

more fractions consists of the

product of all prime factors in

the denominators, with each

factor given the highest power

of its occurrence in any

denominator For instance, in

Example 3, by factoring each

denominator you can determine

that the LCD is 共x ⫹ 2兲共x ⫺ 2兲

Quadratic Equations

A quadratic equation in is an equation that can be written in the general form

where and are real numbers with A quadratic equation in is also called

a second-degree polynomial equation in

You should be familiar with the following four methods of solving quadratic equations

extracting square roots.

REMARK You can solveevery quadratic equation bycompleting the square or usingthe Quadratic Formula

Solving a Quadratic Equation by Factoring

Write in general form.

Factor.

Set 1st factor equal to 0.

Set 2nd factor equal to 0.

The solutions are and Check these in the original equation

Factor.

Set 1st factor equal to 0.

Set 2nd factor equal to 0.

The solutions are and Check these in the original equation

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Note that the method of solution in Example 4 is based on the Zero-Factor Property

from Section P.1 This property applies only to equations written in general form (in

which the right side of the equation is zero) So, all terms must be collected on one side

before factoring For instance, in the equation it is incorrect to set

each factor equal to 8 Try to solve this equation correctly

Extracting Square Roots

Solve each equation by extracting square roots

a.

b.

Solution

Divide each side by 4.

Extract square roots.

The solutions are and Check these in the original equation

Extract square roots.

Add 3 to each side.

The solutions are Check these in the original equation

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Solve each equation by extracting square roots

2x⫺ 1 ⫽ 0

x⫽ 0

3x⫽ 0

3x 共2x ⫺ 1兲 ⫽ 0 6x2⫺ 3x ⫽ 0

x⫽ ⫺4

x⫽ ⫺1 2

x⫽ ⫺4

x⫹ 4 ⫽ 0

x⫽ ⫺1 2

2x⫹ 1 ⫽ 0

共2x ⫹ 1兲共x ⫹ 4兲 ⫽ 0 2x2⫹ 9x ⫹ 4 ⫽ 0 2x2⫹ 9x ⫹ 7 ⫽ 3

When solving quadratic equations by completing the square, you must add

to each side in order to maintain equality When the leading coefficient is not 1, you must divide each side of the equation by the leading coefficient before completing the

square, as shown in Example 7

Completing the Square: Leading Coefficient Is 1

Solution

Write original equation.

Add 6 to each side.

Add to each side.

Simplify.

Extract square roots.

Subtract 1 from each side.

The solutions are Check these in the original equation

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Completing the Square: Leading Coefficient Is Not 1

Solution

Write original equation.

Add 5 to each side.

Divide each side by 3.

Add to each side.

Simplify.

Extract square roots.

Add to each side.

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Solve 3x2⫺ 10x ⫺ 2 ⫽ 0by completing the square

2

x⫽ 2

3 ± 冪193

3x2⫺ 4x ⫽ 5 3x2⫺ 4x ⫺ 5 ⫽ 0 3x2⫺ 4x ⫺ 5 ⫽ 0

The Quadratic Formula: Two Distinct Solutions

Use the Quadratic Formula to solve

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Use the Quadratic Formula to solve

The Quadratic Formula: One Solution

Use the Quadratic Formula to solve

This quadratic equation has only one solution: Check this in the original equation

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Use the Quadratic Formula to solve

Note that you could have solved Example 9 without first dividing out a common factor

of 2 Substituting and into the Quadratic Formula producesthe same result

REMARK When using the

Quadratic Formula, remember

that before applying the formula,

you must first write the quadratic

equation in general form

Polynomial Equations of Higher Degree

The methods used to solve quadratic equations can sometimes be extended to solvepolynomial equations of higher degree

Solving a Polynomial Equation by Factoring

Solve

Solution First write the polynomial equation in general form with zero on one side.Then factor the other side, set each factor equal to zero, and solve

Write original equation.

Write in general form.

Factor out common factor.

Write in factored form.

Set 1st factor equal to 0.

Set 2nd factor equal to 0.

Set 3rd factor equal to 0.

You can check these solutions by substituting in the original equation, as follows

Check

0 checks. ✓checks. ✓

Set 2nd factor equal to 0.

The solutions are and Check these in the original equation

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com.

Solve each equation

3x4⫺ 48x2⫽ 0

3x4⫽ 48x2

3x4⫽ 48x2

REMARK A common mistake

in solving an equation such asthat in Example 10 is to divideeach side of the equation by thevariable factor This loses thesolution When solving anequation, always write the equation in general form, thenfactor the equation and set eachfactor equal to zero Do notdivide each side of an equation

by a variable factor in anattempt to simplify the equation

x⫽ 0.x

2