aircraft maintenance and repair seventh edition pdf

In these cases the recommended practices may differ from those used as general industry standard.Before attempting any activity, the aviation maintenance technician should review the mos

Aircraft Maintenance and Repair

Aircraft Maintenance and Repair

Seventh Edition

Michael J Kroes William A Watkins (Deceased)

Frank Delp (Deceased) Ronald Sterkenburg

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composite materials for aerospace vehicles, he has published many articles, bookchapters, and books on all types of aviation maintenance topics Dr Sterkenburgresides in West Lafayette, Indiana

Care of Aircraft with Wood Structures

Inspection of Airplanes Having Wood StructuresReview Questions

4 Fabric Coverings

Fabric Types and Terminology

Dopes and Finishing Materials

Facilities and Equipment for Aircraft CoveringSelection of Fabric Covering Material

Aircraft Tubing Repair

Summary of Hydraulic System Maintenance PracticesReview Questions

17 Aircraft Instruments and Instrument Systems

8083-30 & 31, AC 43.13-1B & 2B, and manufacturers’ and operators’ manualsand data to ensure that all required areas of study were included

In preparing this edition, the authors reviewed FAR Parts 65 and 147, FAA-H-This revised edition updates material from the previous edition relating toaircraft structures and systems on current operational aircraft Figures, charts,and photos have been updated to reflect new technology The advanced

art maintenance and repair information and techniques for advanced compositestructures used in modern aircraft Advanced automated systems such as ECAMand EICAS are discussed in most chapters to reflect their operation relative toparticular aircraft systems The structures chapter has been expanded with

composite materials chapter has been completely rewritten to reflect state-of-the-multiple examples for the calculation of bend allowance and the setup of shopequipment The hydraulics chapter has been expanded to include the 5000-psihydraulic systems used in some new aircraft models A discussion of a

centralized fault display system (CFDS) has been added to the troubleshootingchapter

Michael J KroesRonald Sterkenburg

Aircraft Maintenance and Repair is designed to provide aviation students with

the theoretical and practical knowledge required to qualify for certification asFAA airframe technicians in accordance with Federal Aviation Regulations(FARs) This text covers the subjects categorized in the FARs under AirframeStructures and Airframe Systems and Components and may be used as a studytext in connection with classroom discussions, demonstrations, and practicalapplication in the shop and on aircraft

Aircraft Maintenance and Repair is one of five textbooks in the McGraw-Hill

Aviation Technology Series The other books in the series are Aircraft

Powerplants, Aircraft Basic Science, Aircraft Electricity and Electronics, and Aircraft Gas Turbine Engine Technology Used together, these texts provide

information dealing with all prominent phases of aircraft maintenance

technology

In preparing this edition, the authors reviewed FAR Parts 65 and 147,

Advisory Circular (AC) 65-2D, AC 65-15A, and AC 43.13-1A & 2A to ensurethat all required areas of study were included Related FARs and the

recommendations and suggestions of aviation maintenance instructors, aircraftmanufacturers, aviation operators, and maintenance facilities were given fullconsideration in the revision of this text

This revised edition retains material from the previous edition relating tostructures and systems that are employed on current operational aircraft In

addition, information dealing with expanding and emerging maintenance-relatedtechnologies has been incorporated to provide a comprehensive source of

information for the aviation student, technician, and instructor Two new

chapters have been added They include information about the identification ofhazardous materials, their storage, use, and disposal Troubleshooting has beenidentified as its own process and is discussed generically

Key revisions to and the expansion of the previous edition include designingrepairs so that the repairs are repairable and techniques in designing repairsbased upon the mechanical properties of the materials Also, bend allowancecalculations and terminology have been revised to follow the more traditional

Each topic covered in this series of texts is explained in a logical sequence sostudents may advance step by step and build a solid foundation for performingaviation maintenance activities Students’ understanding of the explanations anddescriptions given in the text should be enhanced by the use of numerous

photographs, line drawings, and charts Review questions at the end of eachchapter enable students to check their knowledge of the information presented

In addition to being a classroom and shop instruction text, the book is

valuable for home study and as an on-the-job reference for the technician Thematerials in this text and in others in the series constitute a major source oftechnical knowledge for technical schools and colleges and universities

Although this text is designed to provide information for the training of

aviation personnel, the user must realize that product and aircraft manufacturersestablish guidelines and procedures for the correct use and maintenance of theirproduct or aircraft Therefore, it is the responsibility of the user of the text todetermine and follow the specific procedures recommended by the manufacturerwhen handling a specific product or when working on a specific aircraft or

component

Michael J Kroes William A Watkins

AUTHORS’ NOTE

Although every effort has been made to ensure that the regulations and standardpractices referred to in this text are current, recommended safety practices andassociated regulations are always subject to change Since the distribution of thisbook is not controlled, revisions to all existing copies is impossible As a result,the technical information, such as material safety data sheets, is included onlyfor educational purposes and should not be used in application In addition, thereare applications that are unique in one aspect or another In these cases the

recommended practices may differ from those used as general industry standard.Before attempting any activity, the aviation maintenance technician should

review the most recent regulations, recommended practices prescribed by theiremployer, the associated equipment manufacturer’s recommendations, and theinformation provided by the manufacturers of any supplies being used

INTRODUCTION

There are many specialized careers available to today’s aviation maintenancetechnician As with any technical career, each career path has associated with itactivities that can subject the technician and others to varying degrees of harm ifperformed without care This chapter is intended to help the aviation

maintenance technician identify potentially hazardous materials and ways inwhich the potential for harm can be minimized

Today there are tens of thousands of products used in industry, with morebeing developed each day Numerous governmental agencies (and, therefore,hundreds of governmental regulations) control the development, safety

requirements, and health and environmental issues related to these products Keyamong these agencies are the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC),the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Department of Transportation

Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Although all these agencies havesome effects that may be felt in the aviation industry, the primary impact resultsfrom the last three organizations mentioned

Some Federal Air Regulations (FARs) refer to the DOT standards in their textand use these standards as the criteria with which the aviation industry mustcomply In addition, as users of potentially dangerous chemicals, the aviationindustry must comply with both the regulations of the EPA as they relate toenvironmental concerns and OSHA as their usage relates to the safety and health

of its employees

Since the aviation industry is by its nature predominantly interstate

commerce, most businesses in the aviation industry are subject to federal

regulations In addition, most state and some local governments have also passedsafety and environmental related legislation that parallels or supplements federallegislation As a result, the regulations associated with each are quite similar.Regardless of which jurisdiction applies to the operations of the aviation

business, the operation must comply with some type of hazardous-materialsregulation In some instances, more than one jurisdiction may control the

operations of the business

Because of the vastness of this subject area and the general duplication ofregulations between federal, state, and local governments, discussions in thischapter are limited to federal regulations and generic handling of hazardousmaterials In addition to the information found in this chapter, in later chaptersthe aviation maintenance technician will find more safety data related to thespecific types of equipment and/or processes as they are discussed throughoutthe text

HAZARDOUS MATERIALS

The aviation maintenance technician frequently must work in potentially

dangerous environments In many cases, particularly when dealing with

hazardous materials, the technician may not easily recognize those hazards.Some of these dangerous environments may be caused directly by the materialswith which the aviation maintenance technician must work In addition,

exposures may be caused by other activities occurring in the area that are notdirectly related to the technician’s activities

Hazardous materials are typically grouped into three categories: chemical

Chemical Agents

Within the chemical agents category, four classes exist Comprehensive Loss

Management, Inc., a professional developer of and consultant for safety andhealth awareness systems headquartered in Minneapolis, Minnesota, has trade-

marked the acronym FACTOR™ to help remember the classes of chemical

agents Much of the information in this chapter comes from and is included intheir programs Because each class of chemical agent requires different usage,handling, and storage techniques, it is important that the aviation maintenancetechnician be able to recall and identify each of these classes FACTOR™ standsfor

to occur are fuel, oxygen, and heat In that relationship, flammables are the fuel, and heat and oxygen are the outside agents Reactives, when combined with

certain other materials, are capable of generating heat and/or gases, causing anexplosion

The inside letters of the acronym, C and T (corrosives and toxins), on theother hand, act directly on the human body when exposure occurs Exposing theskin, eyes, and other mucous membranes (such as the nose) to these elements

can cause varying degrees of harm Toxic agents cause poisoning Aviation

maintenance technicians should be particularly concerned when using toxicagents, because the ultimate effects of toxic poisoning are frequently delayed Itmay take weeks, months, or even years for the poisoning to become apparent;because the toxic poisons are capable of using the bloodstream to move throughthe body, the cause-and-effect relationship may not be easily recognized

As a general rule, when working with flammable and reactive agents, toavoid hazardous situations the aviation maintenance technician first needs to beconcerned with exposing the agents to outside materials and conditions Personal

corrosive and toxic agents should be designed to limit contact and/or exposure.Personal safety equipment designed for use with flammable and reactive

materials is designed to limit heat exposure or impact, such as flying objects inthe case of an explosion In all cases, the recommended safety equipment

recommended by the agent manufacturer, the employer, or the instructor shouldalways be used

Table 1-1 is a partial listing of frequently used chemical agents found in theaerospace industry The aviation maintenance technician should be aware of thelabels on the materials found in the work area and read them carefully

Flammables (and Combustibles)

Flammables are materials that may easily ignite in the presence of a catalystsuch as heat, sparks, or flame They may be in any of the three physical forms:

Frequently found flammable or combustible materials in the aviation

industry include fuels, paint-related products, alcohols, acetone, toluene, and some metal filings.

• Gloves, aprons, respirator, face shield or goggles, and, sometimes, protectivefootwear

Handling and Storage

• Containers must be corrosive resistant

• Eye (goggles and/or face shields) and skin protection (such as gloves) shouldalways be worn

• Never add water to acid

• Acids and bases should be stored separately

• Eye washes and showers should be easily accessible to the work area

• Flammable toxins and corrosive toxic materials should be stored separately.The corrosive gases could attack the flammable containers, eventually leading

to a leak of flammable materials

Typical Emergency Procedures

• Remove any corrosives that have come in contact with your skin or eyes byrinsing with fresh water (approximately 15 minutes)

• Remove any contaminated clothing

• Go to fresh air area

• Ventilate area

• Check safety equipment before attempting to stop the flow of spillage bycreating a dam

• If swallowed, DO NOT INDUCE VOMITING Drink large amounts of water.Seek medical attention immediately

Toxins

Toxins are generally defined as any substance that can cause an illness or injury.The effects of toxins, unlike flammables and corrosives, may appear all at once(called acute effects) or may build up over time with additional exposure

(chronic effects) Some toxins may dissipate over time when further exposure iseliminated, while others remain in a human’s system, even after death

Frequently found toxins in the aviation industry may be grouped into eightcategories

1 Solvents and thinners for bluing (such as Dykem), paints, ketones, and

adhesives.

used to clean metal dust from equipment or clothing The use of compressed airmay result in minute particles of material being embedded in the pores of theskin

7 Carcinogens Carcinogens may cause changes in the genetic makeup of a

human cell, resulting in cancer Although the use of carcinogens is rare in theaviation industry, aviation maintenance technicians associated with cargo

aircraft should pay particular attention to the cargo manifest before cleaningspillage

8 Reproductive hazards, such as carcinogens These hazards are rare in the

aviation industry Such materials may either interfere with the reproductive

process (as in the cases of DBCP) or affect the developing process of the fetus(such as dimethyl acetamide)

Generally Recommended Personal Safety Equipment

• Gloves, aprons, respirator, face shield or goggles, and, sometimes, protectivefootwear are recommended

• Be sure to use the environmental control systems that may already be in place,such as ventilation fans and filters

Handling and Storage

• Minimize the release of toxic agents into the environment by capping all

containers and storing them in properly ventilated areas When toxins are used

in open containers, such as dip tanks and trays, their surface areas should bekept to a minimum in order to reduce the rate of evaporation into the

surrounding environment

• Flammable toxins and corrosive toxic materials should be stored separately.The corrosive gases could attack the flammable containers, eventually leading

to a leak of flammable materials

• Many reactives are both toxic and corrosive.

aviator’s breathing oxygen, nitrogen, and hydraulic accumulators, present

another physical hazard to the aviation maintenance technician Although some

of these substances by themselves present hazards as chemical agents, placing

OSHA requires that areas where this exposure exists be clearly marked andthat individuals exposed to these hazards be provided the proper safety

equipment In many cases this is easily accomplished, but in the aerospace

industry particular concern should be paid to portable equipment that generatesthese hazards Such equipment results in the potential for hazards to exist inareas where exposure is not usually a concern X ray of aircraft structural parts is

an example of such a situation The aviation maintenance technician shouldremain conscious that potentially hazardous equipment is portable and remainvigilant for possible exposure in the work area

Biological Hazards

Biological hazards, although not normally a major concern to the aviation

maintenance technician, may occasionally exist in the work environment

Biological hazards are living organisms that may cause illness or disease Somebiological hazards also have toxic by-products Typically, biological hazards aretransmitted in the form of air droplets or spores and enter the body through

contact with contaminated objects or individuals

The practicing aviation maintenance technician in the workplace would mostlikely be exposed to biological hazards when working on cargo aircraft or in acargo (baggage) compartment where breakage or leakage of biologically

hazardous materials has occurred FAA regulations require that the

transportation of biologically hazardous materials be documented When indoubt about the presence of such materials, the aviation maintenance technicianshould consult the aircraft’s record, possibly including the cargo manifest

OSHA’S HAZARDOUS COMMUNICATIONS

STANDARDS

In 1983, the first regulation requiring employers to advise employees of

potentially hazardous materials in the work place was established This standard,the Hazardous Communications Standard (29 CFR 1910.1200), was established

by OSHA and has since been expanded to include almost all employers The lawrequires that all employees and their supervisors be informed about the knownhazards associated with the chemicals with which they work, regardless of thequantity of the chemicals involved in the operation These requirements are part

of the various right-to-know regulations As part of these right-to-know

regulations, employers are required to post a notice similar to that shown in Fig.1-1.

4 Training All employees must be provided training regarding their rights

under the right-to-know program, the proper handling of these materials, thelabeling system used, and detection techniques

to the material hazard and includes safe handling and disposal procedures Theformat of these sheets must be consistent with the requirements of the OSHAHazard Communications Standard MSDSs should be provided by the

manufacturer for each hazardous material supplied by them Normally MSDSsare provided with each shipment of a hazardous material If one is not providedthe technician should request one from the manufacturer Most manufacturerspost their MSDSs on their websites Figure 1-2 is an example of a 16-sectionstandardized MSDS This format is used by most manufacturers

FIGURE 1-2 Sample MSDS ( Sciencelab.com , Inc.)

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) specifies thatcertain information must be included on MSDSs, but does not require that anyparticular format be followed in presenting this information OSHA recommendsthat MSDSs follow the 16-section format established by the American NationalStandards Institute (ANSI) for preparation of MSDSs

By following this recommended format, the information of greatest concern

to workers is featured at the beginning of the data sheet, including information

on chemical composition and first aid measures More technical information thataddresses topics such as the physical and chemical properties of the material andtoxicological data appears later in the document While some of this information

As of June 1, 2015, MSDSs will be replaced by Safety Data Sheets (SDSs).The HCS will require chemical manufacturers, distributors, or importers to

provide SDSs to communicate the hazards of hazardous chemical products Thenew SDS will have a uniform format, and will include the section numbers, theheadings, and associated information under the headings below:

Section 1: Identification includes product identifier; manufacturer or distributor

name, address, phone number; emergency phone number; recommended use;restrictions on use

inventory of hazardous materials must be maintained Each item in the inventoryshould include the name of the hazardous material, location, and the

approximate (or average) quantity in each area

Materials sold in consumer form are not normally controlled For example, ifthe aviation maintenance technician purchases a painted aluminum cover plate in

a ready-to-install form, no MSDS would accompany the product However, ifthe aviation maintenance technician purchases the aluminum sheet and paintseparately, to fabricate the product, it is likely that an MSDS would accompanyboth the aluminum sheet and the paint

Labeling

All hazardous materials should have identifying labels adhered to them As a

general rule, these labels should never be removed In instances where materials

are received in bulk form and transferred to small containers for use, two generalrules apply First, the container should be clearly labeled Second, once a

container is used for one hazardous substance, it should never be used to holdanother substance

Probably the most common standardized hazardous materials identificationplacard used today is that of the NFPA Although this code is intended for theuse of firefighters during a fire emergency, it is another tool available to theaviation maintenance technician that may be used to avoid hazardous situations.This placarding system uses four diamonds to form another diamond (Fig 1-3).Each diamond position identifies the degree to which a particular type of hazard

is present

02269 This warning system is intended to be interpreted and applied only by properly trained individuals

to identify fire, health, and reactivity hazards of chemicals The user is referred to a certain limited number

of chemicals with recommended classifications in NFPA 49 and NFPA 325M, which would be used as a guideline only Whether the chemicals are classified by NFPA or not, anyone using the 704 system to classify chemicals does so at his/her own risk.)

The top three diamonds follow a numbering system from 1 to 4, indicatingthe degree of hazard

The topmost diamond specifies the relative fire hazard The relative firehazard is a function of the temperature at which the material will give off

flammable vapors that will ignite when they come in contact with a spark or

flame This temperature is called the flash point Figure 1-3 also shows how the

specified

The left side of the diamond specifies the health hazard and the right side ofthe diamond indicates the degree of the reactivity of the material

The bottommost diamond indicates any specific hazard and, if more than one,the major hazard that applies to this material

This diamond coding system may also use different colors to segregate eachtype of hazard

maintenance technicians working on hot brakes or engines should beware of therelative fire hazard code

Many companies have their own labeling program In cases where codes areused, the company has the obligation to identify the coding system An example

of a labeling system used by Weber Marking Systems of Arlington Heights, IL,

is shown in Fig 1-4

In-house labeling systems are most frequently used when the operations ofthe company require the transferring of hazardous materials from one container

to another In most cases, the in-house labeling is used in addition to the originalcontainer labels

Generic in-house labeling systems are also available commercially A

commercially available hazardous materials identification system produced byLabelmaster, an American Labelmark Company, Chicago, IL, is shown in Fig.1-5 As with most marking systems, the degree of hazard severity is based upon

a numbering system American also adds an index system using letters thatcorrespond to the recommended personal protective equipment for use with thehazardous material

The majority of hazardous materials with which the aviation maintenancetechnician will come in contact are complex mixtures of chemicals Normally,mixtures are analyzed as a whole to determine their physical properties andhealth hazards, if any exist If a mixture has not been tested as a whole, it is to beconsidered hazardous if it contains more than 1 percent of any hazardous

material In the case of carcinogens, the minimum component amount is 0.1percent

DISPOSAL AND ACCIDENTAL RELEASES OF