Towards the adaptation of headway pre intermediate speaking components for teaching the second year students at security academy

M INISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING HANOI UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN STUDIES NGUYEN THI NGA TOW ARDS THE ADAPTATION OF HEADWAY PRE-INTERMEDIATE SPEAKING COMPONENTS FOR TEACHING THE SECOND-YE

; :' 아 - - “ 1ЛІІ _ o j j y , - ĩ ĩ ỉ r

DK N g o a i ngu He n o i

M INISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HANOI UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN STUDIES

NGUYEN THI NGA

TOW ARDS THE ADAPTATION OF HEADWAY PRE-INTERMEDIATE SPEAKING COMPONENTS FOR

TEACHING THE SECOND-YEAR STUDENTS

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINA니TY OF DISSERTATION

I certify m y authorship of the dissertation submitted today entitled:

TOWARDS THE ADAPTATION OF HEADWAY

TEACHING THE SECOND-YEAR STUDENTS

AT SECURITY ACADEMY

in term of the statem ent of Requirements for Theses and Field s tu d y Reports in

M asters’ Program m es issued by the Higher Degree Comm ittee

June 2003

Nguyen Thi Nga

RETENTION AND USE OF THESES

AND STUDY PROJECT IN TESOL REPORTS

I hereby state that I，Nguyen Thi Nga, a candidate for the degree of

M aster of Arts (TESOL) accept the requirements of the University relating to the retention and use of M aster’s Theses and field stu d y Reports deposited in the library

In term of these conditions, I agree that the original of my dissertation deposited in the library should be accessible for p니rposes of study and research,

in accordance with the normal conditions established by the librarian for the care, loan or reproduction of theses

June 2003

Nguyen Thi Nga

1.1.2 Description of the course

1.1.3 English teachers’ profile

1.1.4 English students’ profile

1.1.5 Speaking materials in use

1.2 Rationale for the study

1.3 Aim s of the study

1.4 O verview of the thesis

Chapter II: Literature review.

2.1 Speaking skill in language learning process

շ 1.2.3.2 Social and cultural factors 12

2.2.1 Needs analysis

2.2.3.1. The context of evaluation

2.2.4.1 The context of adaptation

Chapter III: The study

3.1.1 Description of the subjects

3.1.2 The data collection methods

Chapter IV: Data analysis and recommendation fo r the adaptation

of Headway Pre-Intermediate speaking components

4 2 R e c o m m e n d a tio n fo r th e a d a p ta tio n o f H e a d w a y P re니n te rm e d ia te

Appendix 1: Questionnaires for students

Appendix 2: Questionnaires for teachers

Appendix 3: Unit 1 in Headway Pre-Intermediate

I am, first of all, greatly indebted to my thesis s니pervisor, Mrs Doan Thi

during the course of writing this Field s tu d y Report W ithout her valuable instructions, comments, criticisms, corrections and her kind encouragement, this

M aster-Degree dissertation would have been made impossible

I would like to acknowledge my gratitude to Dr Pham Kim Ninh, Head of the Departm ent of Post-Graduate Studies, and the whole staff members of the Departm ent of Post-G rad니ate Studies at Hanoi University of Foreign Studies for their useful lectures and assistance, and valuable com ments and suggestions

My appreciation and gratitude are also extended to the Board of Directors

of Security Academy, and the Board of Rectors of Hanoi University of Foreign Studies, for their kind assistance and helpful advice

I would like to thank all my friends, colleagues and students who have stim ulated and guided my thinking over the years by pertinent observation, critical com m ents and those who have supported me, more than they know, by their approval and the sense of com m unity that they provided when these chapters were in their developm ent stages

Last but not least, my special gratitude is expressed to m y parents, my husband and my family, whose love and encouragem ent have been equally

im portant to my ed니cational endeavours and they helped in so many ways to ease the burden of the work

H o p e fu lly , th e fin d in g s fro m th is s tu d y can s e rv e a s a u s e fu l re fe re n c e to o l

fo r b e tte r te a c h in g and le a n in g s p e a k in g a t th e S e c u rity A c a d e m y

니ST OF FIGURES AND TABLES

m e e t th is g o a l, o n e o f th e ir e s s e n tia l o b je c tiv e s is to e q u ip th e s tu d e n ts w ith th e

a b ility to c o m m니n ic a te in fo re ig n la n g니a g e s, e s p e c ia lly in E n g lish F o r th is

re a s o n , th e E n g lish fa c u lty is th e b ig g e s t o n e w ith th e g re a te s t n니m b e r o f

le a rn e rs a n d te a c h e rs H o w e v e r, th e te a c h in g and le a rn in g fa c ility h e re is n o t

g o o d e n o u g h to p ro m o te th e te a c h in g and le a rn in g E n g lish

1.1.2 Description of the English course

F o r s e c u rity s tu d e n ts , E n g lis h is a c o m p u ls o ry s u b je c t T h e E n g lis h c o u rs e

fo r th e s e c u rity s tu d e n ts , w h ic h la s ts fo r 3 6 0 p e rio d s , is d iv id e d in to th re e p h a se s:

p h a s e o n e la s ts fo r 150 p e rio d s w ith H e a d w a y E le m e n ta ry fo r th e firs t year,

p h a s e tw o 120 p e rio d s w ith H e a d w a y P re니n te rm e d ia te fo r th e s e c o n d y e a r a n d

p h a s e th re e 9 0 p e rio d s w ith N e w H e a d w a y In te rm e d ia te fo r th e th ird ye a r T h e s e

s tu d e n ts a re e x p e c te d to be a b le to c o m m u n ic a te flu e n tly in e v e ry d a y E n g lish

a n d in th e ir s p e c ia liz a tio n by th e e n d o f th e c o u rse

1.1.3 English teachers，profile

T h e E n g lis h fa c u lty h a s 10 te a c h e rs ag e d 2 8 -5 8 T w o o f th e m h a v e M A

d ip lo m a fro m H a n o i U n iv e rs ity o f F o re ig n S tu d ie s T h e re s t o f th e m h ave

g ra d u a te d fro m H a n o i T e a c h e rs ’ T ra in in g C o lle g e o f H a n o i N a tio n a l U n ive rsity All o f th e te a c h e rs h a v e c o m p le te d a tw o -y e a r c o u rs e o f la w (a b o u t 3 5 0 p e rio d s )

at th is A c a d e m y M o s t o f th e m h a v e o v e r 20 y e a rs o f te a c h in g e x p e rie n c e , so it is

p o s s ib le fo r th e m to h e lp s tu d e n ts le a rn to s p e a k E n g lish , h o w e v e r n o n e o f th e m have o p p o rtu n ity to g o a b ro a d

1.1.4 English students’ profile

T h e s tu d e n ts in v o lv e d in th is re s e a rc h a re fro m 19 to 22 y e a rs old M o s t o f

th e m h a v e lim ite d k n o w le d g e o f th e W e s te rn c u ltu re s T h e y e n te r th e S e c u rity

A c a d e m y w ith d iffe re n t b a c k g ro u n d s o f E n g lish T h o s e w h o h a v e a lre a d y le a rn t

E n glish (a t S e c o n d a ry S c h o o l, e v e n a t P rim a ry s c h o o ls ) h a v e a b a s ic k n o w le d g e

of g ra m m a r a n d a la rg e v o c a b u la ry H o w e v e r, s o m e s tu d e n ts h a v e n e v e r le a rn t

E n g lish B e c a u s e o f th e ir s p e c ia l o b lig a tio n s e c u rity s tu d e n ts ra re ly p a rtic ip a te in

s o cia l a c tiv itie s A s a result, th e ir c h a n c e o f c o n ta c t w ith E n g lish s p e a k in g p e o p le

is re s tric te d D e s p ite all o f th e s e p ro b le m s , s e c u rity s tu d e n ts le a rn E n g lish v e ry hard n o t o n ly fo r a c a d e m ic p니rp o s e s b니t a ls o th e ir fu tu re jo b s

1.1.5 Speaking materials in use

S in c e 19 9 3 H e a d w a y S e rie s (b y L iz and Jo h n S o a rs ) h a s b e e n in u se at the E n g lis h fa c니Ity H e a d w a y P re니n te rm e d ia te is u sed fo r th e s e c o n d y e a r stu d e n ts A p a rt fro m H e a d w a y te x tb o o k s th e re is a n o th e r s e rie s o f H e a d w a y

P ro n u n c ia tio n , h o w e v e r, it ha s n e v e r b e e n u s e d to s tim u la te s tu d e n t’s s p e a k in g skill A ll w e h a v e is th e s p e a k in g c o m p o n e n ts in H e a d w a y s tu d e n t’s b o o k T h e re

is c e rta in ly n o s u p p le m e n ta ry m a te ria l fo r d e v e lo p in g s p e a k in g s kills.

S p e a k in g c o m p o n e n ts a re p a rts o f H e a d w a y P re니n te rm e d ia te T h e y a re

a lw a ys o rg a n iz e d in s k ill d e v e lo p m e n t s e c tio n , a fte r o r b e fo re lis te n in g o r re a d in g texts.

S p e a k in g to p ic s c o v e re d in H e a d w a y P re니n te rm e d ia te a re p e o p le and

a n im a ls, life s ty le s , p la ce s, re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n m e n a n d w o m e n , m a rria g e s ,

n e w s p a p e rs , a d v e n t니re, U F O s, tra ffic s , e n v iro n m e n t and lite ra tu re S p e a k in g

a c tiv itie s c o v e re d in th is b o o k a re d is c u s s io n , re te llin g , ta lk in g a bᄋ니t s o m e th in g , cla ss s u rv e y , d e s c rip tio n a n d ro le -p la y

1.2 R ationale fo r the study.

C o n s e q u e n tly , both te a c h e rs a n d s tu d e n ts a re n o t s a tis fie d w ith th e s p e a k in g

a b ility o f th e s tu d e n ts e s p e c ia lly a t o ra l te sts A q u e s tio n a ris e s h e re : W h o is to

b la m e fo r th is fa ilu re ? P e rh a p s, th e m a te ria l its e lf is p a rtly re s p o n s ib le fo r it

G e n e ra lly s p e a k in g , s e c u rity s tu d e n ts o fte n c o m p la in a b o u t b o re d o m and irre le v a n c e o f s p e a k in g to p ic s a n d re p e titio n o f s p e a k in g a c tiv itie s in H e a d w a y

P re -In te rm e d ia te S o m e s tu d e n ts c la im th a t th e y s o m e tim e s fin d th e c u ltu ra l

T h e s e c o n d y e a r n o n -E n g lis h m a jo rs at S e c u rity A c a d e m y a re ta k e n into

c o n s id e ra tio n H o p e fu lly , th e a d a p ta tio n o f H e a d w a y P re -In te rm e d ia te s p e a k in g

c o m p o n e n ts w ill p ro b a b ly th ro w a n e w lig h t to th e te a c h in g a n d d e v e lo p in g

s p e a k in g s k ills fo r th e s e c o n d -y e a r s tu d e n ts a t th e S e c u rity A c a d e m y

v ie w to h e lp in g s tu d e n ts s p e a k E n g lish b e tte r.

1.4 Overview of the thesis

T h e s tu d y is d iv id e d in to 4 m ain c h a p te rs

C h a p te r one, th e in tro d u c tio n , d is c u s s e s th e b a c k g ro u n d to th e St니dy

in c lu d in g th e in s titu tio n a l b a c k g ro u n d s , d e s c rip tio n o f th e E n g lis h c o u rs e , th e

c h a ra c te ris tic s o f E n g lish te a c h e rs and s tu d e n ts , s p e a k in g m a te ria ls a s w e ll as

ra tio n a le fo r th e stu d y , a im s o f th e s tu d y a n d o v e rv ie w o f th e stu d y.

C h a p te r tw o, th e lite ra tu re re vie w , d e a ls w ith th e lite ra tu re re la te d to th e

s p e a k in g s k ills and m a te ria ls d e v e lo p m e n t, w h ic h in c lu d e s n e e d s a n a ly s is ,

m a te ria ls e v a lu a tio n a n d m a te ria ls a d a p ta tio n

CHAPTER II: 니TERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Speaking skill in language learning process

2.1.1 Speaking as a skill

2.1.1.1 Definition of speaking

In re c e n t ye a rs , E n g lish h a s b e c o m e w id e s p re a d a s an in te rn a tio n a l

la n g u a g e o f c o m m u n ic a tio n in V ie tn a m , so th e re is c le a rly a n e e d fo r m a n y

le a rn e rs to s p e a k a n d in te ra c t in a m u ltip lic ity o f s itu a tio n s th ro u g h th e la n g u a g e

O b v io u s ly , in itia l ju d g e m e n t fro m th e e m p lo y e rs a b o u t th e a p p lic a n t’s la n g u a g e

c o m m u n ic a tin g to a c h ie v e a p a rtic u la r end, s u c h as e x p re s s in g id e a a n d o p in io n ,

a w is h o r d e s ire to do s o m e th in g , n e g o tia tin g and I o r s o lv in g a p a rtic u la r

p ro b le m , e s ta b lis h in g a n d m a in ta in in g s o c ia l re la tio n s h ip s a n d frie n d s h ip s T h u s

it is n e c e s s a ry to a c tiv a te a ra n g e o f a p p ro p ria te e x p re s s io n s , w h ic h w ill fu lfill

th e s e p a rtic u la r p u rp o s e s

N e xt, it m ig h t be u se fu l to e x a m in e c h a ra c te ris tic s o f s p o k e n la n g u a g e

a c c o rd in g to d iffe re n t p o in ts o f v ie w o f s e v e ra l fa m o u s a u th o rs

2.1.1.2 Characteristics of spoken language

A c c o rd in g to B ro w n a n d Y니le (1 9 8 3 ), oral c o m m u n ic a tio n is c h a ra c te riz e d

by its ‘tra n s a c tio n a l’ o r ‘in te ra c tio n a l’ fe a tu re s ‘T ra n s a c tio n a l，la n g u a g e c o n ta in s

fa c tu a l o r p re p o s itio n a l in fo rm a tio n T h e la n g u a g e u se d b y th e p a rtic ip a n ts is

p rim a rily ‘ m e s s a g e ’ b a se d T h is v ie w is a ls o s h a re d b y M c D o n o니gh a n d S h a w (1 9 9 3 ), w h o illu s tra te th e ‘tra n s a c tio n a l la n g u a g e ’ a s fo llo w s : “a p o lic e m a n g iv e s

d ire c tio n s to a d rive r, a c u s to m e r c o m p la in s to a s h o p k e e p e r, a p a tie n t d is c u s s e s

h e r s y m p to m s w ith a d o c to r, a te a c h e r e x p la in s an E n g lish c o n s tru c tio n to a

th e a b ility o f th e s p e a k e rs to e s ta b lis h a n d m a in ta in a re la tio n s h ip is im p o rta n t Its

e m p h a s is is on c re a tin g h a rm o n iᄋ니s in te ra c tio n s b e tw e e n p a rtic ip a n ts ra th e r th a n

to m a k e s o c ia l in te ra c tio n c o m fo rta b le E x a m p le s o f in te ra c tio n a l u s e s a n d

la n g u a g e a re g re e tin g , m a k in g s o c ia l ta lk s , te llin g jo k e s , g iv in g c o m p le m e n ts a n d

so on B ro w n a n d Y u le (1 9 8 3 ) p ro p o s e d th e id e a th a t la n g니a g e u s e d in

in te ra c tio n a l m o d e l is lis te n e r - o rie n te d ’ It is o fte n w h e n tra n s a c tio n a l a n d

in te ra c tio n a l la n g u a g e ne e d u s in g a t th e s a m e tim e , th e d iffic u ltie s can o c c u r

e v e n fo r n a tiv e s p e a k e rs It is c o n s e q u e n tly a skill, w h ic h n o n - n a tiv e s p e a k e rs

m a y n e e d to le a rn and p ra c tis e a t le n g th

M c D o n o u g h a n d S h a w (1 9 9 3 , p 155) s u m m a riz e d B ro w n and Y u le ，id e a

a b o u t th e v a rio u s fo rm s o f la n g u a g e , w h ic h a re m o s t fre q u e n tly u se d b y

֊ Very few passives

一 Not many explicit logical connectors (moreover, however)

֊ Topic comment structure (as in ‘the sun•ᄋh look it’s going down,) The syntax of thewritten language would probably have asubject-verb predicate structure

- Replacing / refining expressions (e.g 'this fellow / this chap she was supposed to meet’)

֊ Frequent reference to things outside the ‘text,，such as the weather for example Thiskind of referencing is called ‘exophᄋrie’

֊ The use of generalized vocabulary (thing, nice stuff, place, a lot of)

- Repetition of the same syntactic form

֊ The use of pauses and ‘fillers’ (‘erm, 'weir, Ն հ ս հ ’ 'if you see what I mean，, and so on)

2.1.2 Factors affecting speaking process

2.1.2.1 D ifficulty of speaking tasks.

F o r m a n y E F L te a c h e rs a n d le a rn e rs s p e a k in g is u s u a lly c o n s id e re d a s a

c h a lle n g in g s k ill If s tu d e n ts a re a s k e d to ta lk a b o u t fo u r la n g u a g e s k ills: lis te n in g ,

s p e a k in g , re a d in g , w ritin g and to ra n k th e m in o rd e r o f d iffic u lty , s p e a k in g w ill

number of tasks, the individual interest in the subject, the content and pictures,

- Use textbook's methods and materials as they stand

- Adapt either the content or the method or both

֊ Replace the content or method used in the exercise with something you considermore suitable

֊ Omit the exercise if it is irrelevant or unsuitable

- Add more material, either from supplementary textbooks or from your own resᄋ니rces

if the textbook is lacking in some respect

T h is d ia g ra m s u m m a riz e s th e s e o p tio n s :

Figure 1: The teacher’s task (Grand, 1987)

շ 1.2.2 The role o f pron u n cia tio n

O p in io n s a b o u t th e v a lu e s o f te a c h in g p ro n u n c ia tio n a n d h o w b e s t to

te a c h it d iffe r a m o n g te a c h e rs and re s e a rc h e rs T e a c h e rs u s in g G ra m m a r-

T ra n s la tio n h a v e c o n s id e re d p ro n니n c ia tio n irre le v a n t, в니t p ra c titio n e rs o f th e

d ire c t a n d a u d io lin g u a l a p p ro a c h e s b e lie v e th a t p ro n u n c ia tio n is v e ry im p o rta n t

In fa c t, p ro n u n c ia tio n is s e e n a s a p re re q u is ite to d e v e lo p in g th e s p e a k in g skill

M o re re c e n tly , h o w e v e r, th e w id e s p re a d a c c e p ta n c e o f c o m m u n ic a tiv e

a p p ro a c h e s to la n g u a g e te a c h in g ha s b ro u g h t re n e w e d u rg e n c y to th e te a c h in g

p ro n u n c ia tio n A c c o rd in g to th e s tu d y c ite d b y M a ria n n e C e lc e -M u rc ia (1 9 9 1 ),

p ro n u n c ia tio n is th e th re s h o ld to s p e a k in g A n d if a n o n -n a tiv e s p e a k e r fa ils to

T h e in s tru c tio n o f p ro n u n c ia tio n , th e re fo re , w ill in v o lv e th e p ro d u c tio n o f

v a rio u s sounds th a t o c c u r in th e E n g lish la n g u a g e , th e d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n th e s e

s o u n d s , th e 니n d e rs ta n d in g a n d 니s e o f c e rta in s o u n d ru le s

A p a rt fro m th is, o th e r e le m e n ts o f s p e a k in g s u c h a s rhythm, stress and intonation m u s t be in c lu d e d in th e s p e a k in g s e c tio n It is im p o rta n t th a t w h e n th e y

le a rn n e w w o rd s th e y s h o u ld k n o w w h e re th e s tre s s e s a re laid a n d h o w s tre s s

a n d in to n a tio n ca n be used to c h a n g e th e m e a n in g o f q u e s tio n s , s e n te n c e s a n d

p h ra s e s

9

A n o th e r fa c to r th a t c o n trib u te s to th e s u c c e s s o f o ra l c o m m u n ic a tio n is

accent, w h ic h m e a n s to s o u n d like n a tiv e s p e a k e rs o f th e ta rg e t la n g u a g e

H o w e v e r, th e g o a l te a c h in g p ro n u n c ia tio n to s p e a k in g s tu d e n ts is n o t n e c e s s ity

to m a k e th e m soun d lik e n a tiv e s p e a k e r, b니t to e n a b le th e m to g e t a b o v e the

th re s h o ld le ve l, so th a t th e q u a lity o f th e ir p ro n u n c ia tio n w ill n o t re d u ce

s ig n ific a n tly th e ir a b ility to c o m m u n ic a te

T h e te a c h in g o f p ro n u n c ia tio n s h o u ld , th e re fo re , a im to g iv e s tu d e n ts

c o m m u n ic a tiv e e ffic ie n c y In o th e r w o rd s , p ro n u n c ia tio n p a rtly a ffe c ts s p e a k in g

p ro c e s s and p ro m o te s s tu d e n ts ’ s p e a k in g skill

2.1.2.3 Motivation and learners

M o tiv a tio n is o f g re a t im p o rta n c e in la n g u a g e le a rn in g , e s p e c ia lly in le a rn in g

s p e a k in g B e c a u s e it is an a rg u a b ly s in g le fa c to r d e c id in g s u c c e s s o r fa ilu re of

th e s p e a k e rs A w e ll-m o tiv a te d s tu d e n t w ill p ro b a b ly d o b e tte r th a n a p o o rly

m o tiv a te d on e T h u s , m o tiv a tio n d e te rm in e s th e s tu d e n t’s le v e l o f a tte n tio n d u rin g cla ss, a n d th e a s s id u ity w ith w h ic h h e d o e s his h o m e w o rk a n d re v is e s w h a t he

h a s b e e n ta u g h t d u rin g th e day It c e rta in ly h a s a d e e p in flu e n c e on th e

e ffe c tiv e n e s s o f le a rn in g

2.1.2.3.1 Psychological factors

A lth o u g h m o tiv a tio n p la y s a c ru c ia l ro le in d e v e lo p in g s p e a k in g s k ill, it is

h a rd ly e a s y to d e te rm in e e x a c tly w h a t th e s tu d e n t’s m o tiv a tio n in s p e a k in g is

A c c o rd in g to C u n n in g s w o rth (1 9 8 4 ), it is d e c id e d b y th e fo llo w in g fa c to rs

• Shorter -term objectives.

F irst, m o tiv a tio n can be c o n s id e ra b ly im p ro v e d b y s e ttin g re a lis tic and

a tta in a b le s h o rte r-te rm o b je c tiv e s a n d b y u s in g s u ita b le m a te ria ls w h ic h le a d th e

le a rn e rs u n a m b ig u o u s ly to w a rd s th o s e o b je c tiv e s

• Appealing materials.

A n o th e r p o in t th a t a ffe c ts m o tiv a tio n is th e te a c h in g m a te ria ls , w h ic h are

c h a ra c te riz e d b y v a rie ty a n d pace , a ttra c tiv e a p p e a ra n c e and fe e l, a c tiv itie s

le a d in g to p e rs o n a l in v o lv e m e n t and ‘s e lf-in v e s tm e n t，in th e le a n in g p ro c e s s , and

a c tiv itie s w ith a c o m p e titiv e o r p ro b le m s o lv in g e le m e n t in vo lve d

C u n n in g s w o rth ’s id e a (1 9 8 4 ) a b o u t m o tiv a tio n s h o w s th a t “a m a te ria l th a t is

T h is is w h a t s te v ic k (1 9 8 0 ) u s e s in an in fo rm a l m a te ria l e v a lu a tio n H e a lso

s u g g e s ts th a t ‘w h o le니e a rn e r’ m a te ria ls s h o u ld (a) b e s o m e th in g fo r th e e m o tio n

u s e it re a lis tic a lly F o r e x a m p le , th e te a c h e r can e n c o u ra g e p e rso n a ! in v o lv e m e n t

a n d c o m m itm e n t fro m th e c la s s by g e ttin g s tu d e n ts to ta lk a b o u t th e m s e lv e s a n d

to th e real p e o p le and d is c u s s real to p ic s , w h ic h a re o f c u rre n t in te re s t T h is is a

v e ry im p o rta n t fe a t니re to lo o k fo r in a n y g e n e ra l сᄋ니rse b o o k and if th e re is a la c k

o f it, yo u s h o u ld c o n s id e r a d a p tin g th e m a te ria l to m a k e it m o re d ire c tly re le v a n t

to th e le a rn e rs A fu rth e r q u o ta tio n fro m s te v ic k (1 9 8 0，p 2 0 4 ) s u m s up s o m e o f

th e s e c o n s id e ra tio n s :

W h o le le a rn e r m a te ria ls

a would be written in a style that had some currency outside language textbooks

b would convey some emotion

c would be less bland in their content

2.1.2.3.2 Social and cultural factors

- Does the material have a specific cultural setting o r i s it n o n - c u l t u r e - s p e c i f i c

- If it is culture specific, will this be acceptable to the learners?

֊ Does the material include aspects of British and I or American cult니re so that language learning is seen as a vehicle for cultural understanding?

֊ Is the cultural context included only to provide setting for the content of the material?(i.e is cultural context subordinated to language learning)?

- Does the cultural context of the material guide the learners in perceiving andcategorizing the social situation they may find themselves in, with a view to helpingthem to match their language to the situation (i.e to use English appropriately)

In c o n c lu s io n , th e d iffic u lty o f s p e a k in g ta s k s , th e ro le o f p ro n u n c ia tio n a n d

m o tiv a tio n (in c lu d in g p s y c h o lo g ic a l fa c to rs a n d s o c ia l c u ltu ra l fa c to rs ) a re m a jo r

fa c to rs a ffe c tin g th e p ro c e s s o f sp e a k in g S tu d e n ts nee d to fe e l th a t th e m a te ria l

th e y a re le a rn in g h a s m a n y th in g s to do w ith th e real w o rld and a t th e s a m e tim e

re la te s p o s itiv e ly to a s p e c ts o f th e ir in n e r m a k e -u p su ch a s age , le ve l o f

e d u c a tio n , s o c ia l a ttitu d e s , in te lle c tu a l a b ility and le ve l o f e m o tio n a l m a tu rity T h e

c u ltu ra l s ta n d p o in t o f th e m a te ria l is a ls o im p o rta n t a n d s h o u ld m a tc h as fa r as

p o s s ib le th e o b je c tiv e s o f th e le a rn e rs T h o s e a re re a s o n s th a t re q u ire the

n e c e s s ity o f a d a p tin g m a te ria l.

2.2 Materials development

2.2.1 Needs analysis

A s s ta te d a b o v e , d iffe re n t le a rn e rs h a v e d iffe re n t n e e d s T h e re fo re , it is

c ru c ia l to a n a ly z e le a rn e rs ’ n e e d s to fin d o u t w h a t’s a lre a d y a v a ila b le th e re and

w h a t is m is s in g in th e c u rre n t m a te ria l s u c h as c u ltu re b a c k g ro u n d , a g e and

p re v io u s e d u c a tio n It is, th e re fo re , im p o rta n t to id e n tify th e ir s p e c ific n e e d s s o as

to s e t fe a s ib le o b je c tiv e s fo r th e co u rse

‘N e e d s ’ is d e fin e d in d iffe re n t w a y s F irst, ‘n e e d s ’, a c c o rd in g to R o b in s o n

(1991)，refers to students’ study or job requirements, that is, what they have to be

p e rs o n a l a im s in a d d itio n to th e re q u ire m e n ts o f th e ir s tu d ie s o r jo b s F in a lly, w e

֊ Objective needs are those which can be diagnosed by teachers on the basis of the

analysis of personal data about learners along with their information about their language proficiency and patterns of language use

- Subjective needs (which are often ‘wants，, ‘desires’, ‘expectation’ or other psychological manifestation of a lack) cannot be diagnosed as easily

B rin d le y a ls o id e n tifie s o b je c tiv e s n e e d s w ith c o n te n t o r lin g u is tic in p u t a n d

s u b je c tiv e n e e d s w ith le a rn in g p ro c e s s In fa c t, th e re a re tw o d iffe re n t

d im e n s io n s o f le a rn e r n e e d s O n e o f th e s e is o b je c tiv e /s u b je c tiv e d im e n s io n ; th e

o th e r is th e c o n te n t/ m e th o d o lo g y d im e n s io n

Ải

Methodology

Oojective needs < - ► Subjective needs

Figure 2: Two dimensions of learner needs (Nunan, 1985)

A s p re v io u s ly m e n tio n e d , o b je c tiv e n e e d s a re u s u a lly c o n n e c te d w ith

content and subjective needs are connected with methodology However, from

th e d ia g ra m , w e a re f니lly a w a re th a t it is p o s s ib le to h a v e a c o n te n t/ s니b je c tiv e

n e e d s d im e n s io n w h ic h m e a n s le a rn e rs d e c id e w h a t th e y w a n t to le a rn a n d a

m e th o d o lo g y / o b je c tiv e n e e d s d im e n s io n w h ic h is te a c h e rs d e c id e h o w c o n te n t

m ig h t b e s t be le a rn e d (N u n a n , 1985, p 5)

W h a t is ‘N e e d s A n a ly s is ， ? N e e d s a n a ly s is is d e fin e d a s a c o lle c tio n o f

in fo rm a tio n on w h y le a rn e rs w a n t to le a rn fro m th e ta rg e t la n g u a g e , e x p e c ta tio n

im p le m e n ta tio n o f a la n g니a g e s y lla b u s , d e v e lo p in g g o a ls and o b je c tiv e s and

c o n te n t fo r th e s y lla b u s “ W h y d o th e le a rn e rs n e e d to le a rn ? ” сᄋ니Id be th e

s ta rtin g q u e s tio n to a n y c o u rs e s o f G e n e ra l o r ESP.

A s fo r N u n a n (1 9 8 8 )，th e re a re tw o kin d s o f n e e d s a n a ly s is s u c h as

learner analysis and task analysis. L e a rn e r a n a ly s is is to c o lle c t in fo rm a tio n

a b o u t le a rn e rs ’ “p ro fe s s io n ” w h ic h is th e ir c u rre n t le vel, fie ld k n o w le d g e in th e

ta rg e t la n g u a g e , m o tiv a tio n , a nd m e th o d s o f le a rn in g th e y h a v e e x p e rie n c e d a n d

ca n p re s e n t w h a t le a rn e rs w a n t to a c h ie v e T h is ty p e o f a n a ly s is h e lp s te a c h e rs

b rin g to g e th e r th e re q u ire d and d e s ire d in fo rm u la tin g g o a ls a n d o b je c tiv e s o f a

c o u rs e

D iffe re n t fro m le a rn e r a n a ly s is , ta s k a n a ly s is s p e c ifie s a nd c a te g o riz e s th e

la n g u a g e s k ills re q u ire d to c a rry o u t re a l-w o rld c o m m u n ic a tio n ta s k T h is ty p e o f

a n a ly s is is u s u a lly c o m b in e d w ith th e le a rn e r a n a ly s is to o b ta in d a ta s o a s to

d e v e lo p , s e le c t a nd re v is e p ro g ra m m e o b je c tiv e s

A s p re s e n te d a b o v e , ‘N e e d s A n a ly s is ’ is c o m p u ls o rily c a rrie d ᄋ니t to

id e n tify a p p ro p ria te in p u t to m e e t th e d e m a n d s o f a p a rtic u la r g ro u p o f s tu d e n ts ,

th u s in c re a s e th e le a rn e r’s m o tiv a tio n R ic h a rd s a nd R o d g e rs (1 9 8 6 ) s tre s s th e

im p o rta n c e o f n e e d s a n a ly s is in g e ttin g in fo rm a tio n , w h ic h w ill be u s e fu l fo r

a d o p tio n o f a p a rtic u la r сᄋ니rs e b o o k o r te x tb o o k s e rie s b y a g o v e rn m e n t m in is try

o r e d u c a tio n a l a u th o rity is o fte n fra u g h t w ith c o n tro v e rs y O n th e p o s itiv e s id e ,

th e b e s t c o m m e rc ia l m a te ria ls fu lfill an im p o rta n t e d u c a tio n fu n c tio n , a n d re m o v e

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m u ch o f th e b u rd e n a n d tim e in v o lv e d in c re a tin g m a te ria ls fro m s c ra tc h In fa ct,

th e d e s ig n o f m a te ria ls can be p a rtic u la rly d iffic u lt in fo re ig n la n g u a g e c o n te x ts ,

w h e re th e re m a y be no a u th e n tic s o u rc e a n d s tim u lu s m a te ria l T h e q u e s tio n

w h ic h is n o t e a s y a t all N e v e rth e le s s , th e s e le c tio n p ro c e s s e s can be g re a tly

fa c ilita te d b y th e u s e o f s y s te m a tic m a te ria ls e v a lu a tio n p ro c e d u re s (S h e ld o n , 1980) B re e n a nd C a n d lin (1 9 8 7 )’s c h e c k lis t in v ite s th e te a c h e r to a d o p t a c ritic a l

s ta n c e to w a rd th e m a te ria ls ’ a im s, a p p ro p ria te n e s s and u tility L ittle jo h n and

W in d e a tt (1 9 8 9 ) p ro p o s e a m o re m o d e s t s c h e m e fo r a s s e s s in g c o m m e rc ia l

m a te ria ls T h e y s u g g e s t th a t m a te ria ls can be e v a lu a te d fro m s ix d iffe re n t

p e rs p e c tiv e s : “th e g e n e ra l o r s u b je c t k n o w le d g e c o n ta in e d in th e m a te ria ls ; v ie w s

on th e n a tu re a n d a c q u is itio n o f k n o w le d g e ; v ie w s on th e n a tu re o f la n g u a g e

le a rn in g ; ro le re la tio n s im p lic it in m a te ria ls ; o p p o rtu n itie s fo r th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f

c o g n itiv e a b ilitie s ; th e v a lu e s and a ttitu d e s in h e re n t in th e m a te ria ls ".

T h e s a m e a u th o rs s u g g e s t th e fo llo w in g e v a lu a tiv e q u e s tio n s :

о Do the materials extend the learner’s ‘general’ or ‘specialist’ knowledge?

о What view of knowledge do the materials present? What implications might this

have for how learners attempt to learn?

о Do the material develop the learner, understanding of what is involved in lang니age learning and how they may help themselves?

о How do the materials structure the teacher-learner relationship? What ‘frame’ if any is placed on classroom interaction?

о Do the materials develop the learners’ general cognitive abilities?

о Is language learning presented as the production or as problem solving?

о What social attitudes do the materials present?

(Littlejohn and Windeatt, 1989，p 174)

In sum , m a te ria ls o n ly ta k e on v a lu e in co n te x t, a nd th e s o c ia l a n d c u ltu ra l

c o n te x t in w h ic h th e y w ill be u se d m u s t u n d e rp in th e ir e v a lu a tio n a n d s e le c tio n

2.2.3 Materials evaluation.

T h is p a rt e x a m in e s th e re a s o n s w h y te a c h e rs n e e d to e v a lu a te m a te ria ls

in th e firs t p la c e T h e n th e c rite ria th a t can be u se d to e v a lu a te m a te ria ls w ill be

d is c u s s e d to re a c h a w o rk in g m o d e l fo r th is p니rpose.

B ro w n (1 9 8 9 ) sa ys: “ E v a lu a tio n is th e s y s te m a tic c o lle c tio n a n d a n a ly s is

o f all re le v a n t in fo rm a tio n n e c e s s a ry to p ro m o te th e im p ro v e m e n t o f a c u rric u lu m ,

a nd a s s e s s its e ffe c tiv e n e s s a n d e ffic ie n c y , a s w e ll a s th e p a rtic ip a n ts a ttitu d e s

w ith in th e c o n te x t o f th e p a rtic u la r in s titu tio n in v o lv e d ”

N u n a n (1 9 8 8 ) s u g g e s ts th a t e v a lu a tio n is “ a p ro c e s s not a fin a l p ro d u c t”

T h a t m e a n s it ta k e s p la c e a t a n y tim e o f th e m a te ria l d e s ig n T h e firs t a nd

fo re m o s t e m p h a s is o f e v a lu a tio n is to d e te rm in e w h e th e r th e g o a ls and

o b je c tiv e s o f a la n g u a g e p ro g ra m a re b e in g a tta in e d E v a lu a tio n is re a lly a m a tte r

o f ju d g in g th e fitn e s s o f s o m e th in g “ G iv e n a c e rta in ne e d , and in th e lig h t o f th e

re s o u rc e s a v a ila b le , w h ic h o u t o f a n u m b e r o f p o s s ib ilitie s can re p re s e n t th e b e s t

s itu a tio n s a ro u n d th e w o rld , w h e re te a c h e rs , in fa ct, h a v e to fo llo w m a te ria ls

g ive n b y a M in is try o r a D ire c to r and h a v e to c o p e a s b e s t a s th e y ca n w ith in th is fra m e w o rk In th is ca se , th e te a c h e rs s h o u ld u n d e rs ta n d w h y th e m a te ria ls ha ve

b e e n w ritte n in s u c h a w a y and h o w th e y can m a k e e ffe c tiv e 니s e o f th e m in the

17

c la s s ro o m T e a c h e rs w ill p ro b a b ly nee d to re s o rt to a d a p tin g th e s e m a te ria ls as

b e s t a s th e y ca n to su it th e n e e d s o f th e ir p a rtic u la r co n te x t T h e y m a y be

in te re s te d in e v a lu a tio n as a u s e fu l p ro c e s s in its ow n right, g iv in g in s ig h t in to th e

o rg a n iz a tio n a l p rin c ip le s o f th e m a te ria ls and h e lp in g th e m to k e e p up w ith

d e v e lo p m e n ts in th e fie ld

H a v in g se e n th e c o n te x ts o f e v a lu a tio n , w e s h o u ld n o w c o n s id e r th e

c rite ria fo r th is ta s k to be d o n e

C u n n in g s w o rth (1 9 8 4 ) p ro p o s e s s o m e c rite ria fo r e v a l니a tio n a s fo llo w s :

a) Relate the teaching materials to teaching aims and objectives.

p u rp o s e s , n o t o n ly “ m a n ip u la tin g s tru c tu re d rills ”

c) Keep students' learning needs in mind.

p ra c tis e d in a s y s te m a tic a n d c o m p re h e n s iv e w a y , s o th a t th e le a rn e rs can

assim ilate new items There is a tendency to 니se activities for students’ own

s a k e , b e c a u s e th e y a re e n jo y a b le o r b e c a u s e th e y ‘w o rk ’ a s a c tiv itie s O f c o u rs e ,

th e a c tiv itie s s tu d e n ts do in c la s s s h o u ld be in te re s tin g a n d e n jo y a b le

T h e g e n e ra l p rin c ip le s fo r m a te ria l e v a lu a tio n , w h ic h a re o u tlin e d a b o v e , w ill

p ro v id e te a c h e rs w ith s o m e u s e fu l g u id a n c e to e v a lu a te and a d a p t m a te ria ls in

g e n e ra l a s w e ll as th e s p e a k in g c o m p o n e n ts in H e a d w a y P re니n te rm e d ia te in

p a rtic u la r, w h ic h th is s tu d y is a im in g at.

A s a m a tte r o f fa c t, th e p e rfe c t te x tb o o k d o e s n o t e xist, b u t th e b e s t b o o k

a v a ila b le fo r th e te a c h e r and th e ir s tu d e n ts c e rta in ly d o e s G ra n d (1 9 8 7 , p 118)

p o in ts o u t th a t s u c h a b o o k s h o u ld s a tis fy th re e c o n d itio n s :

19

֊ It should suit the needs, interests and abilities of the students.

֊ It suit the teacher

֊ The textbook must meet the needs of official public teaching syllabuses or examinations

A c c o rd in g to M c D o n o u g h and S h a w (1 9 9 3 ) m a te ria ls e v a lu a tio n ca n be

d iv id e d in to th e e x te rn a l, in te rn a l a n d o v e ra ll e v a lu a tio n

The external evaluation

T h e e x te rn a l e v a lu a tio n in c lu d e s crite ria , w h ic h w ill p ro v id e a c o m p re h e n s iv e ,

e x te rn a l o v e rv ie w o f h o w th e m a te ria ls h a v e b e e n o rg a n iz e d In o th e r w o rd s w e

e x a m in e th e o rg a n iz a tio n o f th e m a te ria ls b y lo o k in g at:

• The 'blurb' or the claims made on the cover of the teacher/ students’ book

• The introduction and table of contents

(McDonough and Shaw,1993, p.67)

T h e s e tw o a u th o rs (p.6 8, 69) s a y th e ‘b lu rb ’ a n d th e in tro d u c tio n n o rm a lly

offer inform ation on the followings:

о The intended audience,

о The proficiency level

о The context in which the materials are to be 니sed

о How the language has been presented and organized into teachable units/ lessons

о The authors’ views on language, methodology and the relationship between language，the learning process and the learner

W h e n e v a lu a tin g m a te ria ls it is u s e fu l to ke e p a n o te o f s o m e o th e r fa c to rs

th a t w e b e lie v e it n e c e s s a ry to ta k e in to a c c o u n t at th e e x te rn a l s ta g e a s fo llo w s

о Are the materials to be used as the main ‘core' course or to be supplementary toit?

о Is a teacher’s book in print and locally available?

о Is a vocabulary list/ index included?

(McDonough and Shaw, 1993, p.70)

T h e ta b le o f c o n te n ts m a y s o m e tim e s be se e n a s a ‘b rid g e ’ b e tw e e n the

e xte rn a l and in te rn a l s ta g e s o f th e e v a lu a tio n and u s e fu l in fo rm a tio n ca n be

fo u n d a b o u t th e o rg a n iz a tio n o f th e m a te ria ls , skill to be c o v e re d , fu n c tio n s and

so on, p o s s ib ly w ith s o m e in d ic a tio n as to h o w m u c h c la s s tim e th e a u th o r th in k s

sh o u ld be d e v o te d to a p a rtic u la r unit C o n s e q u e n tly , it is o fte n u s e fu l to s e e h o w

e x p lic it it is.

о What visual materials do the books contain (Photographs, charts, diagrams) and

it is there for cosmetic value only or it is actually integrated into the text,

о Is the layout and presentation clear?

о Are the materials too culturally biased or specific?

о Do the materials represent minority groups and/ or women in a negative way? Do they present a ‘balanced’ picture of a particular country/ society?

о The inclusion of audio/ video material and resultant cost Is it essential toprossess this extra material in order to use the textbook successful?

о The inclusion of tests in the teaching materials (diagnostic, progress, andachievement) would be useful for your particular learners?

(McDonough and Shaw, 1993，p.71,74)

A fte r c o m p le tin g th is e x te rn a l e v a lu a tio n , and h a v in g fu n d s a nd a p o te n tia l

g ro u p o f le a rn e rs in m in d , w e ca n a rriv e a t a d e c is io n a s to th e m a te ria ls ’

a p p ro p ria c y fo r a d o p tio n / a d a p ta tio n p u rp o s e s If th e e v a lu a tio n s h o w s the

m a te ria ls to b e p o te n tia lly a p p ro p ria te a n d w o rth y o f a m o re d e ta ile d in s p e c tio n , then w e ca n c o n tin u e w ith th e in te rn a l o r m o re d e ta ile d e v a lu a tio n

The internal evaluation

M c D o n o u g h a n d S h a w (1 9 9 3 , p 7 7 ) s u g g e s te d th a t a s e v a lu a to rs w e nee d

to e x a m in e th e fo llo w in g crite ria : “tre a tm e n t and p re s e n ta tio n o f th e s k ills ; th e

g ra d in g a n d s e q u e n c in g o f th e m a te ria ls ; th e ty p e s o f re a d in g , lis te n in g , s p e a k in g and w ritin g m a te ria ls c o n ta in e d in th e m a te ria ls ; a p p ro p ria c y o f te s t and

e x e rc is e s , s e lf-s tu d y p ro v is io n and te a c h e r4 e a rn e r “ b a la n c e ” in 니s e o f the

m a te ria ls ”

21

The overall evaluation

A c c o rd in g to M c D o n o u g h a nd S h a w (1 9 9 3，p 77, 7 8 )，a t th is s ta g e the

te a c h e rs m a k e an o v e ra ll a s s e s s m e n t b y c o n s id e rin g th e fo llo w in g p a ra m e te rs ,

о The usability factor

о The generalizability factor,

о The adaptability factor

о The flexibility factor

• -Teachable? Does the course seem teachable? Does it seem reasonably easy to use,

well-organized, and easy to find your way around?

• -Available Add-ons? Are there any useful ‘add■ᄋns’-additional materials such as teacher’s book, tapes, workbook, etc? If so, are they available?

• -Level? Does the level seem right?

• -Your impression? What is your overall impression of the course?

• -Student interest?Are your students likely to find the book interesting?

• -Tried and tested? Has the course been tried and tested in real classroom? Where? By whom? What were the results? How do yᄋ니 know?

and feel, appealing and attractive? Or does it appear dull?

T-Teacher-friendly: Is the book easy for the teacher to use? Is it well organized? Is there

an index? Does it have an answer key? Does it help save preparation time?

E-Extras: Are there additional materials such as workbook cassette, teacher’s not orseparate teacher’s book? How helpful are these extra materials?

R-Realistic: How authentic is the communication in the book? Does the language seem

true-tᄋ-life and current?

^Interesting: Is the book likely to be interesting for your learners? How do the topics

relate to their lives? Just as important, is it interesting to you?

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A-Affordable: Is the book affordable? Is it worth the price that learners’ parents or the

school will have to pay?

L-Level: Is the level suitable for the class your are teaching?

S-Skills: Does the book cover all the skill you want to teach? Does it mach your

institution’s syllabus?

T h o u g h ty p e s o f e v a lu a tio n h a v e b e e n d e fin e d b y m a n y fa m o u s re s e a rc h e rs , e.g G ra n d (1 9 8 7 )，T a n n e r a n d G re e n (1 9 9 8 ), M c D o n o u g h a nd S h a w (1 9 9 3 ) etc.,

th e y a re s o m e w h a t th e sa m e In fa ct, th e y a re u s e fu l re fe re n c e to o ls fo r th e w rite r

in th e e v a lu a tio n o f H e a d w a y P re니n te rm e d ia te s p e a k in g c o m p o n e n ts

2.2.4 Materials adaptation.

A c c o rd in g to R ic h a rd s et al (1 9 9 2，p 5), “a d a p ta tio n is a p ro c e s s o f

m a k in g c h a n g e s to p u b lis h e d te x ts o r m a te ria ls to m a k e th e m m o re s u ita b le o r

a p p ro p ria te fo r a p a rtic u la r te a c h in g n e e d s ”

T h is ta s k s h o u ld be re a liz e d b y th e te a c h e rs o f E n g lis h T h e re is a c le a r

re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n e v a lu a tin g a n d a d a p tin g m a te ria ls both in te rm s o f th e

re a s o n s fo r d o in g so and th e c rite ria u se d T h e fo llo w in g s e c tio n w ill d is c u s s th e

c o n te x t o f a d a p ta tio n and s o m e o f th e re a s o n s fo r a d a p tin g m a te ria ls in use T h is

s e c tio n w ill be fo llo w e d b y th e p rin c ip le s a n d p ro c e d u re s use d in a d a p ta tio n

M c D o n o u g h a n d S h a w (1 9 9 3 ) c la im th a t “a s tra ig h tfo rw a rd s ta rtin g p o in t

fo r c o n s id e rin g th e re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n e v a lu a tio n a n d a d a p ta tio n is to th in k o f

th e te rm s ‘a d o p tin g ’ a n d ‘a d a p tin g ， ， A d a p ta tio n is a p ro c e s s s u b s e q u e n t to, a nd

d e p e n d e n t on a d o p tio n F u rth e rm o re , w h e re a s a d o p tio n is c o n c e rn e d w ith w h o le

c o u rs e bᄋo ks, a d a p ta tio n c o n c e rn s w ith th e p a rts th a t m a k e up th a t w h o le It is

m o re re a lis tic to a s s니m e th a t, h o w e v e r c a re fu l th e d e s ig n o f th e m a te ria ls and

e v a lu a tio n p ro c e s s , s o m e c h a n g e s w ill h a ve to be m a d e a t s o m e le ve l in m o s t

te a c h in g c o n te x ts It is o b v io u s ly th a t a d e c is io n a b o u t w h e th e r a p a rtic u la r

c o u rs e b o o k s h o u ld be u se d in a s p e c ific te a c h in g s itu a tio n ca n be ta k e n on the

b a sis o f a n u m b e r o f e v a lu a tiv e c rite ria

M c D o n o u g h a n d S h a w a lso a rg니e th a t w ith a w id e r p e rs p e c tiv e in m in d ,

a n d a s a s ta rtin g p o in t fo r th in k in g a b o u t th e p ro c e s s o f a d a p ta tio n , it w ill be

u s e fu l to e x te n d little th e c rite ria p u t fo rw a rd to th e h e a d in g o f ‘e x te rn a l，a nd

‘in te rn a l， E x te rn a l fa c to rs c o m p ris e both th e o v e rt c la im s m a d e a b o u t m a te ria ls

a n d m o re s ig n ific a n tly fo r th e p re s e n t c h a p te r, th e c h a ra c te ris tic o f p a rtic u la r

te a c h in g s itu a tio n s In te rn a l fa c to rs a re c o n c e rn e d w ith c o n te n t, o rg a n iz a tio n and

In s u m , a d a p ta tio n is e s s e n tia l a p ro c e s s o f m a tc h in g Its p u rp o s e is to

m a x im iz e th e a p p ro p ria tio n fo r te a c h in g m a te ria ls in c o n te x t b y c h a n g in g s o m e o f

th e in te rn a l c h a ra c te ris tic s o f a c o u rs e b o o k to b e tte r s니it o u r p a rtie니la r

External (what we have) Internal (what the materials offer)

Learner characte^0*:"40

Physical enviror Resources Class size Grading of exercises

Choice of topics

^Skills covered Proficiency level

Figure 3: External and internal factors for the material adaptation

(McDonough and Shaw, 1993, p 83)

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