2. Lecture 2 - Quantitative Research Method Final

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Lecture 2 – Quantitative research methods

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Process of Quantitative Research

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Concepts and the measurement of concept:

•Concepts are the building blocks of theory and represent the points around which business research is conducted.

•E.g: structure, agency, deskilling, organizational size,

technology, charismatic leadership, followers, TQM,

functional subcultures, knowledge, managerial identity,

motivation to work, moral awareness, productivity, stress

management, employment relations, organizational

development, competitive success, etc.

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• Bulmer (1984: 43) succinctly puts it, concepts ‘are categories for the

organization of ideas and observations’

•E.g: IQ is not a concept! It is a measure of a concept—namely, intelligence.

•The concept of intelligence has arisen as a result of noticing that some

people are very clever, some are quite clever, and still others are not at all bright

•These variations, we have come to call the concept of ‘intelligence’ seem important, because we might try to construct theories to explain these

variations.

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•If a concept is to be employed in quantitative research,

•Once they are measured, concepts can be in the form

of independent or dependent variables

•In other words, concepts may provide an explanation of

a certain aspect of the social world, or they may stand

for things we want to explain

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•A concept of organizational performance

• may be used in either capacity: for example, as a possible explanation of culture (are there differences between highly commercially successful

organizations and others, in terms of the cultural values, norms, and beliefs held by organizational members?)

• or as something to be explained (what are the causes of variation in

organizational performance?)

•The concept of worker quality, job satisfaction, etc.

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Why measure the concepts?

There are 03 main reasons for measurement in quantitative research.

1.Measurement allows us to delineate fine differences between

people in terms of the characteristic in question.

2.Measurement gives us a consistent device or yardstick for making

such distinctions.

3.Measurement provides the basis for more precise estimates of the degree of relationship between concepts (for example: correlation

analysis)

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Why measure the concepts?

E.g: Thus, if we measure both job satisfaction and the things with which it might be related, such as stress- related illness , we will be able to produce more

precise estimates of how closely they are related than

if we had not proceeded in this way.

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Indicators v measure:

•Measure refer to things that can be relatively unambiguously counted: At an individual level: personal salary, age, or years of service; at an organizational level: annual turnover or number

of employees => Measures, in other words, are quantities

•Indicators are used to tap concepts that are less directly

quantifiable eg job satisfaction need indicators that stand

for the concept.

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Indicators:

In order to provide a measure of a concept (often referred

to as an operational definition, a term deriving from the idea of operationalization), it is necessary to have an

indicator or indicators that will stand for the concept.

e.g: using litmus paper to measure

pH level

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Indicators:

There are a number of ways in which indicators can be devised:

-Through a question/questions: e.g Attitude (job satisfaction), status

(job title), behavior (job tasks)

-Through the recording of individuals’ behaviour using a structured

observation schedule : e.g managerial activity, consumers’ behavior (Williness to pay – WTP)

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Indicators:

There are a number of ways in which indicators can be devised:

-Through official statistics: Workplace Employment Relations Survey

(WERS) data to measure UK employment policies and practices; CPI, PCI, PAPI etc.

-Through an examination of mass media content analysis: fb,

twitter etc.

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Indicators:

•Direct and indirect indicators of concepts: Indicators may be direct or

indirect in their relationship to the concepts for which they stand E.g.:

an indicator of marital status has a direct relationship to its concept

than an indicator (or set of indicators) relating to job satisfaction

•Sets of attitudes always need to be measured by indirect indicators It

is similar to many forms of behaviour

•When indicators are used that are not true quantities, they will need

to be coded to be turned into quantities Eg: male = 1, femal = 2 etc

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Indicators: Likert scale (1-5; 1-7)

•Likert scale is used to measure believe, attitute, and behavior of people toward an issue/concept

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-divulging confidential information;

- calling in sick to take a day off;

- pilfering organization’s materials and supplies; •

-giving gifts/favours in exchange for preferential

treatment;

- claiming credit for someone else’s work

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1 Asking the attitude:

Do you think that actions below are ethical or unethical/ Please give your scaore to actions below!

five-point scale: 1 = unethical; 5 = ethical

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2 Asking about their behavior:

How often do you do following actions!

five-point scale: 1 = infrequently; 5 = frequently

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Dimensions of concepts:

•The general approach to measurement is to consider the possibility that the concept in which you are

interested comprises different dimensions

•This specification of the dimensions of a concept

would be undertaken with reference to theory and

research associated with that concept

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Eg.: four dimensions of cultural difference: power

distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism, and masculinity

e.g.: poverty, gender inequality, market power,

competitiveness, competency etc

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Motivating Potential Score (MPS) of a job:

1 Skill variety: ‘The job requires me to use a number of complex or high-level skills.’

2 Task identity: ‘The job provides me with the chance completely to finish the pieces of

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•Respondents are asked to indicate how far they think each statement

above is accurate, from 1 = very inaccurate, to 7 = very accurate, with a

study of 658 individuals working in 62 different jobs across 7 organizations

•Interpreting an individual’s MPS score involves comparison with norms for specific job ‘families’: technical jobs have an average MPS of 154, whereas clerical jobs normally have a score of 106

•Workers who exhibit high growth need strength, adequate knowledge,

and skill, and are satisfied with their job context, are expected to respond best to jobs with a high MPS

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Reliability and validity:

•The reliability is fundamentally concerned with issues

of consistency of measures

•the stability of a measure is the test–retest method

This involves administering a test or measure on one occasion and then readministering it to the same

sample on another occasion

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Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure of a concept The following are three prominent factors involved:.

1 Stability: whether or not a measure is stable over time, so that we can be

confident that the results relating to that measure for a sample of respondents do not fluctuate This means that, if we administer a measure to a group and then readminister it, there will be little variation over time in the results obtained.

2 Internal reliability: whether or not the indicators that make up the scale or

index are consistent—in other words, whether or not respondents’ scores on any one indicator tend to be related to their scores on the other indicators.

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Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure of a concept The following are three prominent factors involved:.

3 Inter-observer consistency: When a great deal of subjective judgement is

involved in such activities as the recording of observations or the translation of data into categories and where more than one ‘observer’ is involved in such

activities, there is the possibility that there is a lack of consistency in their

decisions This can arise in a number of contexts, for example: in content analysis where decisions have to be made about how to categorize media items; when answers to open-ended questions have to be categorized; or in structured

observation when observers have to decide how to classify subjects’ behaviour

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an indicator/indicators that is devised to gauge a

concept really measures that concept?

•There are several ways of establishing validity are

explored in the text: face validity; concurrent validity; predictive validity; construct validity; and convergent validity

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•Face validity: the measure apparently reflects the content of the

concept? those with experience or expertise in a field might determine whether or not on the measure seems to reflect the concept

concerned Face validity is an essentially intuitive process.

•Concurrent validity: job satisfaction and absenteeism A measure of

higher job satifaction will negatively related to absenteeism.

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•Predictive validity: whereby the researcher uses a

future criterion measure, rather than a contemporary one, as in the case of concurrent validity

•With predictive validity, the researcher would take

future levels of absenteeism as the criterion against

which the validity of a new measure of job satisfaction would be examined

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Construct validity: researcher is encouraged to deduce hypotheses

from a theory that is relevant to the concept

e.g: upon ideas about the impact of technology on the experience of work, the researcher might anticipate that people who are satisfied with their jobs are less likely to work on routine jobs; those who are not satisfied are more likely to work on routine jobs Accordingly, we could investigate this theoretical deduction by examining the

relationship between job satisfaction and job routine

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•Convergent validity: In the view of some methodologists, the validity

of a measure ought to be gauged by comparing it to measures of the same concept developed through other methods

•For example, if we develop a questionnaire measure of how much

time managers spend on various activities (such as attending meetings, touring their organization, informal discussions, etc.), we might

examine its validity by tracking a number of managers and using a

structured observation schedule to record how much time is spent in various activities and their frequency.

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The main preoccupations of quantitative researchers:

•Both quantitative and qualitative research can be

viewed as exhibiting a set of distinctive but contrasting preoccupations

•These preoccupations reflect epistemologically

grounded beliefs about what constitutes acceptable

knowledge

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•There are four distinctive preoccupations that can be discerned in quantitative research will be outlined and

examined: measurement, causality, generalization,

and replication.

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•Measurement: The most obvious preoccupation is

with measurement, a feature that is scarcely surprising

in the light of much of the discussion in the present

chapter so far From the position of quantitative

research, measurement carries a number of

advantages that were previously outlined

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•Causality: There is a very strong concern in most

quantitative research with explanation Quantitative researchers are rarely concerned merely to describe how things are, but are keen to say why things are the way they are

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• Generalization: In quantitative research the

researcher is usually concerned to be able to say that his or her findings can be generalized beyond the

confines of the particular context in which the research was conducted Thus, if a study of motivation to work

is carried out by a questionnaire with a number of

people who answer the questions

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Sampling

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Sampling

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Sampling

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3 Quantitative

[ ]🞇 Survey research involves the collection of

information from a sample of individuals

through their responses to same questions

(Schutt, 2015; Neuman, 2007).

🞇 Used mainly when there is a need representative data.

🞇 Type of survey research :

o Census: collect and analyse data from every possible case or group member.

o Sample: collect and analyse data only from a sub-group rather than all possible cases or

elements.

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① Identify sampling frame

from research objectives;

② Decide on a suitable

sample size;

③ Select the appropriate

sampling technique;

 Interview with

questionnaire

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3 Quantitative

[ ] Sample size

o The quantity/number of observations/cases or element you need to have.

o Choice of sample size is influenced by:

• Confidence needed in the data;

• Margin of error that can be tolerated;

• Types of analyses to be undertaken;

• Size of the total population and

distribution.

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o A large sample size alone does

not guarantee a representative

sample;

o A large sample without

random sampling or with a poor

sampling frame?;

o The smaller the population,

the larger the sampling ratio

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3 Quantitative

[ ] Sampling method 1 - Simple random

o Number each of the cases in your sampling frame with a

unique number.

o Select cases using random numbers until actual sample size

is reached.

o Computer aided telephone interviewing (CATI) software.

o Online Platform for determining sample‟s number:

http://stattrek.com/statistics/random-number-generator.asp x

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o Divide the sampling frame into

the discrete strata/subsets;

o Number each of the cases within

each stratum with a unique

number;

o Select your sample using either

simple random or systematic

random sampling

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