Teaching english grammar for 11 graders at thu khoa nghia high school in an giang province

Therefore, some communicative activities are recommended in this thesis in the hope that teachers can make the teaching and learning process at Thu Khoa Nghia High School more effective,

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY – HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES

-

NGUYỄN LƯU ĐÔNG TRÚC

TEACHING ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR

11 GRADERS AT THU KHOA NGHIA HIGH

SCHOOL IN AN GIANG PROVINCE

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULLFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN TESOL

Supervisor

Dr Nguyen Tien Hung

HO CHI MINH CITY

2007

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY

I hereby certify my authorship of the thesis submitted today entitled

TEACHING ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR 11 GRADERS AT THU KHOA

NGHIA HIGH SCHOOL IN AN GIANG PROVINCE

In term of the Statement of Requirements for theses in Master Programs issued the Higher Degree Committee

Ho Chi Minh City, September 2007

NGUYỄN LƯU ĐÔNG TRÚC

RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS

I hereby state that I, Nguyen Luu Dong Truc, being the candidate for the degree of Master of TESOL, accept the requirements of the University of Social Sciences and Humanities relating to the retention and use of Master’s Theses deposited in the library

In terms of these conditions, I agree that the original of my thesis deposited in the Library should be accessible for purposes of study and research, in accordance with the normal condition established by the Library for the care, loan or reproduction of theses

Ho Chi Minh City, September 2007

NGUYỄN LƯU ĐÔNG TRÚC

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Dr NGUYEN TIEN HUNG, who has provided me with his precious advice, assistance, and encouragement so that I can finish this thesis report

I should not forget all the cooperative subjects whom I used for my data They are the indispensable assets of these studies Although I cannot list all the names of people involved in this project, my sense of gratitude toward them is enormous My special thanks to all my friends for their support, friendship and enjoyable company

Finally, I express my thanks to my parents, my sisters and all my close friends for their love, care and support that helped me complete my study and this thesis

ABSTRACT

The thesis examines how the grammatical items are taught for 11 graders at Thu Khoa Nghia High School in order to find out problems and also ways to solve them to support the teaching and learning process there English

is an obligatory subject at high school and all the students need to know the English grammar for both accuracy and fluency (Accuracy helps in getting better results as we all know that tests and exam at high schools evaluating mostly on grammar; Fluency helps in communication)

The suggestions come from the real need of both students of grade 11 and teachers of English at Thu Khoa Nghia high School identified from the survey, which was carried out with 191 students of grade 11 and 10 teachers

of English at Thu Khoa Nghia High School The results were then presented in tables They revealed that teacher faces a lot of difficulties in applying the Communicative Approach to the teaching and that students are not very familiar with using English effectively

Therefore, some communicative activities are recommended in this thesis in the hope that teachers can make the teaching and learning process at Thu Khoa Nghia High School more effective, enjoyable and interesting

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Certificate of originality ………

Retention and use of the thesis ………

Acknowledgements ………

Abstract ………

Table of content………

List of Charts ……… ………

List of Tables ………

List of Abbreviations………

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ………

1.1 The problem ………

1.2 Research questions ……….…

1.3 Significant of the study ……….……

1.4 Overview of the thesis ……… …

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ………

2.1 What grammar is and the need of grammar in language acquisition ………

2.1.1 Definition of grammar ………

2.1.2 The need of grammar in language acquisition ………

2.1.3 The relationship between grammar and communication 2.2 Principles for grammar teaching ……….…

2.2.1 The E – Factor: Efficiency = economy, ease, and efficacy

2.2.2 The A – Factor: Appropriacy ………

2.3 Types of grammar exercise ………

2.4 The main contemporary methods of teaching English ………

2.4.1 Grammar –translation method ………

2.4.2 Audio-lingual method ………

2.4.3 Communicative approach ………

2.5 Communicative language teaching ………

2.5.1 What is Communicative Language Teaching (CTL)? 2.5.2 Principles of communicative language teaching

2.5.3 The role of the teachers ……… … …

2.5.4 The role of the learners ……… …………

2.5.5 The role of the technology ……… …

2.6 Techniques in teaching structures ……… ………

2.7 Linguistics skills and communicative abilities ………

2.8 The need for integration ………

2.9 Teaching teen ………

2.10 Motivation in the classroom ………

2.11 Prior research on the study ………

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ………

3.1 Introduction ………

3.2 The Hypotheses ………

3.3 Research Design ………

3.4 The Subjects ………

3.5 Measurement Instrument ………

3.5.1 About the Questionnaire for teachers ………

3.5.2 About the Questionnaire for students ………

3.5.3 About the class observation sheet ………

3.5.4 About pilot study ………

3.6 The Data Collection Procedure ……….………

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ……….………

4.1 The Results ………

4.1.1 Questionnaire for students ………

4.1.1.1 Question 1: What is (are) your aim(s) in studying English?

4.1.1.2 Question 2: Why do you feel in need of studying grammar? 4.1.1.3 Question 3: How do you want your teacher presents a new grammar rule?………

4.1.1.4 Question 4: How do you like to practice the new structure? 4.1.1.5 Question 5: Which equipment do you prefer learning with? 4.1.2 Questionnaire for teachers ………

o Part 1: The problems 4.1.2.1 Question 1: How long have you been teaching English at high schools? ………

4.1.2.2 Question 2: Have you ever been trained in Communicative Language Teaching Methodology? Where? ………

4.1.2.3 The teachers’ understanding of CLT………

4.1.2.4 Question 4: How do you usually present a new grammar rule? 4.1.2.5 Question 5: Which of the following do you do in practising stage? ………

4.1.2.6 Question 6: What are the difficulties you have in teaching

grammar to students at the high school when you apply

Communicative Language Teaching? …………

o Part B: Solutions

4.1.2.7 Question 1: When your students lack of motivation to study

English in communicative way, you: ……… ….………

4.1.2.8 Question 2: What should you do to prevent your student

from using Vietnamese during pair or group work? …………

4.1.2.10 Question 4: What should you do to overcome your students’

passive learning style? ………

4.1.2.11 Question 5: To surmount your misunderstanding

4.1.2.14 Question 8: What should the administrators to solve lack

of authentic materials? They should: ………

4.1.2.15 Question 9: What should you do if your students like

to work alone? You: ………

4.1.2.16 Question 10: To overcome the state of crowded and

4.1.3 The results of the observation sheet ………

4.1.4.1 Pre-test and post test of the classes taught

4.1.4.2 Pre-test and post test of the classes taught by CLT

4.2.1 Difficulties caused by teachers and solution ………

4.2.2 Difficulties caused by students and solution ………

4.2.2.1 The four main problems ………

4.2.2.2 Solutions to difficulties caused by students …………

4.2.3 Difficulties caused by the educational system ………

4.2.3.1 The problems ………

4.2.3.2 Solutions to the difficulties from the educational system ………

4.2.4 Discussion of pilot study ………

4.3 Conclusion ………

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION ………

5.1 The summary of the main findings ………

5.2 Conclusion ………

5.3 Limitation and recommendation for further research REFERENCES ………

APPENDICES ………

LIST OF CHARTS

1

2

3

4

5

Students’ Aims in Studying English

Students’ Reasons of Studying Grammar

Students’ Like In Presenting a New Grammar Point

Students’ Like in Practice New Grammar Rules

Students’ Like in English Learning Equipment

38

39

41

42

43

The Teachers’ Understanding of CLT

Teachers’ Ways in Presenting New Grammatical Rules

Teachers’ Ways in Giving New Structure Practice

Teachers’ Difficulties in Applying CLT

Solutions to students’ low motivation

Solutions to “using Vietnamese in pair and group work”

Solution to low English proficient students

Solutions To Students’ Passive Learning Style

Solutions to teachers’ misunderstanding of CLT

Solutions to teachers’ lack to be trained in CLT

Solutions to lack of authentic teaching materials

Solutions of administrators to lack of authentic materials

Solutions to students’ own habit of learning

Solution to crowded and multilevel classes

The Comparison of Pre-test and Post-test of the Classes

Taught by Traditional Method

The Comparison of Pre-test and Post-test of the Classes

Students’ Aims in Studying English

Students’ Reasons of Studying Grammar

Students’ Like In Presenting a New Grammar Point

Students’ Like in Practice New Grammar Rules

Students’ Like in English Learning Equipment

Teachers’ Knowledge on CLT

The Teachers’ Understanding of CLT

Teachers’ Ways in Presenting New Grammatical Rules

Teachers’ Ways in Giving New Structure Practice

Teachers’ Difficulties in Applying CLT

Solutions to students’ low motivation

Solutions to “using Vietnamese in pair and group work

Solution to low English proficient students

Solutions To Students’ Passive Learning Style

Solutions to teachers’ misunderstanding of CLT

Solutions to teachers’ lack to be trained in CLT

Solutions to lack of authentic teaching materials

Solutions of administrators to lack of authentic materials

Solutions to students’ own habit of learning

Solution to crowded and multilevel classes

The Results of the Observation Sheet

24

25

26

27

Result of the Pre-test (traditional method)

Results of the Post-test (traditional method)

Result of the Pre-test (CLT)

Result of the Post-test (CLT)

64

64

65

66

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 The problem

Nowadays, learning a second language is found useful in all areas

in the modern society English is one of the compulsory subjects being taught at schools Thus, the needs of learners, their parents, and the needs of using English should be put into consideration in the process of teaching and learning English at high schools As a result, English became one of the ‘main’ subjects among other subjects being taught at high schools Therefore, there is a real need to equip learners with a good method of learning as well as teachers with new interesting ways to teach lessons in order to motivate learners and to get more effective results In addition, it has been accepted with no doubt that, communicative competence is the aim of language teaching We can achieve this aim with the aid of grammar since the first component of communicative competence is ‘knowledge of grammar and vocabulary of the language’ (Richards & Roger, 1992:9-10) However, in most high schools in An Giang province, teachers still apply the traditional method and sometimes apply the traditional method and some activities of other methods in teaching English grammar This method results in long explanation in teaching vocabulary and grammar and the lack of time to practice English in real situations Therefore, learners try as much as possible to learn grammatical items and vocabulary taught by their teachers and going

to colleges is what most learners desire, but it seems a real challenge for them to speak meaningful English sentences and to read English materials As a result, a communicative foundation needs to be established as soon as possible to help learners master such a language as a means to serve various purposes like widening knowledge, using the language in life

Many teachers of English at Thu Khoa Nghia High School in An Giang province find it difficult to apply the communicative approach to large class, ranging from forty to more than fifty students Moreover, some teachers and students have regarded communicative activities

as forms of entertainment, not serious ways of language learning They feel that any methods that are not directly related to language learning are a waste of time This is not much welcome by Vietnamese teachers, who think that correcting their students’ mistakes is necessary in educational system Furthermore, the Vietnamese examination system, which is usually designed to test pupils’ knowledge on grammar (not skills), forms the pupils’ habits in learning English Consequently, grammar-translation method and audio-lingual method are welcome and teachers spend most of the time on teaching grammar and reading, and very little time on developing listening and speaking skills In addition, individual exercises are widely used in practising at school and at home These may have been the main reasons that could explain why students have acquired very little ability to actually use the language after learning English as a compulsory subject at schools Hence in this research, all the problems arisen in the course of teaching grammar

at Thu Khoa Nghia High School and the suggested solutions to solve these problems are clearly presented

1.2 Research questions

The thesis focuses on the two main questions:

- What are the difficulties in applying CLT to teach English grammar for 11 graders at Thu Khoa Nghia High School?

- How to solve all the above difficulties and how to teach English grammar more effectively under the light of the Communicative Language Teaching theory?

1.3 Significance of the study

The thesis supplies the general information about the actual learning and teaching of English for 11 graders at Thu Khoa Nghia high school

in An Giang province Through real data, the researcher can have a firm base to suggest the appropriate method applied to teach English grammar for 11 graders at Thu Khoa Nghia high school more effectively

This thesis consists of 5 chapters Chapter 1 introduces the background and the purpose of the study Chapter 2 reviews literature related to the research Chapter 3 expounds the methodology of the thesis Chapter 4 presents the results and discussion Chapter 5 is the thesis conclusion

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 What grammar is and the need of grammar in language

acquisition

2.1.1 Definition of grammar

Notions of grammar have changed over the years “These days, at least, grammarians are a little more careful than in the Cobbett’s day to focus on describing language as it is used, rather than prescribing how it should be used.” (Nunan, 1999: 96-97)

In 1856, Cobbett wrote in the book, English Grammar for the Use of Schools, “Grammar teaches us how to make use of words; that is to say,

it teaches us how to make use of them in proper manner to be able to choose the words which ought to be placed, we must be acquainted with certain principles and rules; and these principles and rules constitute what is called grammar” According to Platt & Richards “a description of structure of

a language and the way in which linguistic units such as words and phrases are combined to produce sentences in the language It usually takes into account the meanings and functions these sentences have in the overall system of the language.” Cobbett gave out a clearer definition in 1992

“grammar is: (1) an analysis of the structure of a language, either as encountered in a corpus of speech or writing (a performance grammar) or

as predictive of a speaker’s knowledge (a competence grammar) A contrast

is often drawn between a descriptive grammar, which provides a precise account of actual usage, and a prescriptive grammar, which tries to establish rules for correct use of language in society; (2) an analysis of the structural properties, which define human language (a universal grammar); (3) a level of structural organization, which can be studied independently of phonology and semantics

2.1.2 The need of grammar in language acquisition

There are many different opinions on the demand of teaching and learning L2 grammar Followings are some of the viewpoints related to the subject:

“There is no doubt that knowledge – implicit or explicit – of grammatical rules is essential for the mastery of a language.”

(Penny Ur, Grammar Practice Activities)

“A sound knowledge of grammar is essential if pupils are going to use English creatively.” (Tom Hutchinson)

“Grammar, after all, is a description of the regularities in a language, and knowledge of these regularities provides the learner with the means to generate a potentially enormous number of original sentences The number

of possible new sentences is constrained only by the vocabulary at the learner’s command and his or her creativity the teaching of grammar offers the learner the means for potentially limitless linguistic creativity.” (Scott Thornbury)

“The evidence seems to show beyond doubt that though it is by communication use in real ‘speech acts’ that the new language ‘sticks’ in learner’s mind, insight into pattern is an equal partner with communicative use in what language teachers now see as the dual process of acquisition/learning Grammar, approached as a voyage of discovery into the patterns of language rather than the learning of prescriptive rules, is no longer a bogey word”

(Eric Hawkins, 1984, 150)

According to Sandra J Savignon (1991: 261), the displacement of attention to syntactic features in learner expression in favors of a focus on meaning has led in some cases to the impression that grammar is not important In fact, while involvement in communicative events is seen as central to language development, this involvement necessarily requires attention to form Communication cannot take place in the absence of

structure or grammar In their carefully researched and widely cited paper proposing components of communicative competence, Canale and Swain (1980) did not suggest that grammar was unimportant They sought rather

to situate grammatical competence within a more broadly defined communicative competence Similarly, the findings of Savignon’s study (1972) did not suggest that teacher forsake the teaching of grammar

To conclude, grammar needs to be taught especially at the beginning and elementary levels to provide learners a grammatical base and later the new structures can be incorporated into a functional exchange

2.1.3 The relationship between grammar and communication

Wardhaugh, discussing theory and practice in 1969, spoke for the decade of the 1980s as well as the 1970s, when he wrote his blunt caveat:

“First of all, we must say that our pupils still have to learn certain things

if they are to speak the second language, regardless of the state that theoretical linguistics find itself in For example, pupils who are learning English must still learn to distinguish beet from bit, bait from bet, and bet from bat They must learn that in English those words that we may still want

to refer to as adjectives in front of nouns, and those subjects usually precede predicates They must still learn that adjectives do not agree in number with nouns this may seem to be primarily a matter of syllabus design, but in fact, it is central to how we teach as well for it affects crucially the way we review the language and the activities we practise For the moment I would just emphasize that, notwithstanding everything written here about the importance of “use”, it is possible and may in certain cases and contexts be legitimate to ignore “communication” altogether and focus

on the forms of the language.”

Contradictory, a method that aims to develop the ability of pupils to communicate in a foreign language will aim to replicate as far as possible to

processes of communication, so that practice of the forms of the target language can take place within a communication framework

The usefulness of grammar in language teaching has been debated about the value of overt grammatical knowledge for the acquisition of proficiency We, the teachers, must realize that how much emphasis on grammar depends on the specific proficiency objectives At high schools, grammar should be taught more overt since the graduation test bases most

on it

But the problem is that the ability to write correct sentences is not the only ability we need to communicate Widdowson thought, “Communication only takes place when we make use of sentences to perform a variety of different acts of an essentially social nature.” We cannot communicate by composing sentences, but by using them to make statements of different kinds to describe, define, classify or to ask questions, make requests, give orders and so on Therefore, how to put words into correct sentences is a part of knowing a language and a base to communicate

It seems that the two aspects, grammar and communication, are paradoxical to each other in teaching and learning process When we mention grammar, there are boring and exhausting theories and tremendous exercises On the other hand, the communication gives pupils more freedom and motivation while they do a variety of activities such as talking, sharing information and ideas

Therefore, how to combine the two aspects in teaching language is challenging the teachers

2.2 Principles for grammar teaching

2.2.1 The E – Factor: Efficiency = economy, ease, and efficacy

Thornbury S strongly believe that dealing with grammar is only a part

of teacher’s activities and given that classroom time is very limited, it would seem imperative that whatever grammar teaching is done must be done as

efficiently as possible When considering as activities for the presentation

or practice of grammar we ourselves ask the first question How efficient is it? Efficiency can be broken down into three factors: economy, ease, and efficacy

Economy implies that when presenting a new structure, teacher should try to make it as short as possible because “the more the instructor piles on instructions, the more confused the trainee is likely to become.” Also, “the easier an activity is to set up, the better it is.”

What is its efficacy? As we have known in the above part, attention is prerequisite for learning That means we can partly measure the efficacy of

a grammar activity by the “degree of attention it arouses” Attention without understanding, however, is useless So efficacy will partly depend on the

“amount and quality of contextual information, explanation and checking.” But understanding without memorization is ineffective, too In short, an efficacious activity is one that is memorable And these conditions are not sufficient if there is a lack of motivation That means tasks and materials should be involving and relevant to learners’ needs, should have ‘achievable outcome’ and have an 'element of challenge’

2.2.2 The A – Factor: Appropriacy

Thorbury S also thought that no class of learners is the same: not only are their needs, interests, level and goals going to vary, but their beliefs, attitudes, and values will be different too Thus, an activity that works for one group of learners – i.e that fulfills the E – factor criteria – is not necessarily going to work for another It may simply not be appropriate Factors to consider when determining appropriacy include:

- ‘The age of the learners’

- ‘The size of the group’

- ‘The constitution of the group, e.g monolingual or multilingual’

- ‘Their needs and interests’

- ‘The available materials and resources’

- ‘The learners’ previous learning experience and present expectations’

- ‘The cultural factors that might affect attitudes’

- ‘The educational context’

2.3 Types of grammar exercise

Grammar exercises may take a wide range of different forms Widdowsons puts them into three basic types: completion, conversion and transformation exercises

‘A completion exercise is one, which requires the learner to insert linguistic elements into a given syntactic framework Conversion and transformation exercises differ from completion exercises in that they call for operations on existing sentences They differ from each other in that the conversion exercise requires the learner to derive one sentence from another in such a way as to change the latter’s signification whereas the transformation exercise calls for structural change without corresponding change in signification.’

(Widdowson H G 1990, 112-115)

2.4 The main contemporary methods of teaching English

2.4.1 Grammar –translation method

This method usually consists of the following activities:

a Explanation of grammar rules, then example sentences

b Vocabulary, presented in the form of a bilingual list

c A reading selection, emphasizing the rule and vocabulary presented in a and b above

d Exercises were designed to provide practice on grammar and vocabulary of the lesson These exercises emphasize the conscious control of structure and include translation in both directions (Krashen, 1987:127)

In grammar – translation method, grammar is taught deductively (rules first, then examples and exercises)

Obviously, grammar was strongly emphasized in this method, whereas no attention was paid to communicative competence

There are many reasons that make this method common in Vietnam First, it requires few specialized skills on the part of teachers Second, it takes less time to help students understand the lessons Moreover, tests on grammar rules are easy to construct and can be objectively scored Also, this helps students easy to study themselves The comprehensibility is considered as a basic and necessary factor in the first step of learning a foreign language Therefore, the problem is how to make the learners understand words and rules of a foreign language in combinations To sum

up, learners’ understanding is emphasized and so are grammar rules

2.4.2 Audio-lingual method

This method, also known by such names as the Oral-Aural Approach, the Mim-Mem (mimicry-memorization) Method, was in one sense a return to the Direct Method Oral-aural activity was emphasized, and translation was forbidden in most versions of the ALM Conversation centered around topical dialogues, with a great deal of drilling activity and emphasis on pronunciation (Brown, 1980:242) ‘The memorizing of rules and grammatical paradigms were not very useful for learning second or foreign languages.” Therefore, rather than using the grammatical categories developed for analyzing classical languages, they tried to analyze each new language in its own terms, maintaining that each new language is basically different, each demands its own form of structural analysis They attempted to isolate

significant linguistic structures and patterns which were segmented into smaller and smaller constituents, which were considered to be the basic building blocks of the language under investigation.” A typical lesson might look something like the following:

a Present the new language item to be learned, giving a clear demonstration of its meaning, through non-verbal means

b Model the target pattern using a number of examples

c The whole class engages in mimicry-memorization following the teacher’s model

d Progressive substitution drill with the whole class, followed by the class divided into two, followed by individual responses

e Repeat the first four steps using negative versions of the target structure

f Repeat the first four steps using interrogative versions of the target structure

g Check for transfer using previously unrehearsed cues Solicit both whole class and individual responses

(Nunan, 1991:231)

This method is used as a part of teaching in using repetition drills at high schools especially in controlled practice stage So, grammar rules are learned through memorization exercises On the other hand, language must

be taught and learned as a functional system applicable in communicative contexts, and not as a lot of drills, abstract rules and memorization But, in fact, this approach is presently manifested to some degree in communicative language teaching

2.4.3 Communicative approach

Since the 1970s, the communicative approach has expanded Both American and British proponents saw it as an approach (not a method) that aims to (a) make communicative competence the goal of language teaching

and (b) develop procedures for the teaching of the four language skills that acknowledge the interdependence of language and communication They saw the need in language teaching to focus on communicative proficiency rather than on only knowledge of structures It has been accepted that language is a system for the expression of meaning, rather than simply a system of abstract syntactic rules ‘In terms of learning, we need to distinguish between learning what and learning how In other words, we need to distinguish between knowing various grammatical rules and being able to use the rules effectively and appropriately while communicating.’ (Nunan, 1989:12)

In this approach, students regularly work in groups or pairs to transfer meaning in situations where one person has the information that the other lacks Students also participate in role-play or dramatization to adjust their use of target language to different social contexts Classroom materials and activities are often authentic to reflect real-life situations and demands The primary role of teachers is to facilitate communication Therefore, the teacher should use the target language fluently and appropriately to act as model

2.5 Communicative Language Teaching

2.5.1 What is Communicative Language Teaching (CTL)?

The origins of Communicative Language Teaching are to be found in the changes in the British language teaching tradition dating from the late 1960s, when linguists saw the need to focus on communicative proficiency rather than on mastery of structures

According to Douglas Brown (1992:161), CLT is an approach to foreign or second language teaching It emphasizes that the goal of language teaching is communicative competence The six characteristics of this approach are:

a Classroom goals are focused on all of the components of communicative competence Goals therefore much intertwine the organizational aspects of language with the pragmatic

b Language techniques are designed to engage learners in the pragmatic, authentic, functional use of language for meaningful purposes Organizational language forms are not the central focus, but rather aspects of language that enable the learner to accomplish those purposes

c Fluency and accuracy are seen as complementary principles underlying communicative techniques At times fluency may have

to take on more importance than accuracy in order to keep learners meaningfully engaged in language use

d Students in a communicative class ultimately have to use the language, productively and receptively, in unrehearsed contexts outside the classroom Classroom tasks must therefore equip students with skills necessary for communication in those contexts

e Students are given opportunities to focus on their own learning process through an understanding of their own styles of learning and through the development of appropriate strategies for autonomous learning

f The role of the teacher is that of facilitator and guide, not an knowing bestowal of knowledge Students are therefore encouraged to construct meaning through genuine linguistic interaction with others

all-So, a person who has communicative competence has linguistic, socio-linguistic, discourse and strategic competence It seems to be understood that a competent learner has to know phonology, vocabulary, grammar and how to perform utterances Socio-linguistic competence means “the understanding of what language is appropriate in certain

situations” (Harmer, 1992:18) Discourse competence refers to a person’s knowledge of organizational sequence which enables him/her to order utterances Finally, strategic competence is a person’s ability to know how

to use language rather than to know it In other words, he/she knows how to employ strategies to initiate, terminate, maintain, repair and redirect communication

In the communicative viewpoint of language learning theory, there are three principles needed to facilitate the learning process: communication principles require activities to involve real communication; task principle which promotes activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful task; and meaningfulness principle which requires language to

be meaningful to the learner

2.5.2 Principles of communicative language teaching

According to Keith Morrow (1981:172), there are five essential principles

we need to follow

™ Principle one: Know what you are doing

The goal of a lesson should be learning how to do something For example, in speaking, it might be learning to order food in a restaurant; in writing, it might be learning how to write a business letter This can be approach on a variety of different levels of sophistication, and bearing them

in mind throughout the teaching process that there is a clear answer to student who asks ‘Why am I learning this? What am I learning to do?’ that means every lesson should end with the learner being able to do something that he could not do at the beginning, and that “something” is communicatively useful

™ Principle two: The whole is more than the sum of the parts

While language consists of several components and these can be studied individually, communication as a “dynamic and developing phenomenon” cannot be easily analyzed into component features But the

ability to handle these language elements does not ensure the ability to deal with strings of sentences and ideas and in the oral modes (speaking and listening); these strings must be processed in what is called ‘real’ Although

in the written modes, the time pressure may not be so hard but it is not easy

at all to decipher or produce individual elements of messages because what

is needed is the ability to work in the context of the whole Therefore, we can say that one of the most important features is that it “operates with stretches of language above the sentence and operates with real language

in real situations.”

™ Principle three: The processes are as important as the forms The three processes, which can be isolated and incorporated either individually or together in teaching procedures, are information gap; choice and feedback

person in an exchange knows something that the other person does not The purpose of communication is to bridge this communication gap If both people know ‘It is raining’, the exchange is not really communicative In classroom, to do an information gap exercise, one student must be in the position to tell another something that the latter does not already know

to say and how to say it This means that he must choose not only the ideas he wants to express at a given moment, but also appropriate linguistic forms to express them Deciding on these under severe time pressure is obviously a problem to the speaker The choice also causes the same problem to the listener because there is always a doubt in his mind about what is to come next Therefore, an exercise where the speaker and the listener are

controlled in their language and students say something in only one-way fails to help them practice this aspect of communication

™ Principle four: To learn it, do it

In CTL, it is the fact that the learner is responsible for their learning The teacher can help, advise, teach but only the learner can learn Moreover, what happens in the classroom must involve the learner in doing things, making choices, evaluating feedback and bridging information gaps, and must be judged in terms of its affects on him However, the teacher is not free at all While the students get on with the above things, he/she goes around to help and to take notes of the mistakes A framework within which learning can be structured is still appreciated, and the provision of this framework is mainly the responsibility of the teacher

™ Principle five: Mistakes are not always mistakes

Some criticize that communicative language teaching encourages learners to make mistakes, especially of grammar There are probably two reasons First, some teachers believe that ‘trivial’ mistakes of grammar are not important as long as the student gets his message across Second, students may be forced to talk about topics they do not know much about and do not have any preparation so in an effort to deal with them he makes mistakes This objects to behaviorist view of language acquisition which assumes that learners need to build up their language knowledge by practising only the correct forms and that teachers avoid letting beginner learners to speak freely, i.e to make mistakes could become a habit

However, supporters of CTL have argued that mistakes are a natural part of learning language Learners trying their best to use the language creatively and spontaneously are bound to make mistakes They believe that constant correction is unnecessary and even counter-productive

2.5.3 The role of the teachers

Two main roles of a teacher are to facilitate the communication process between all participants and the various activities and texts; and to act as an ‘independent participant’ within the learning-teaching group That means he has many roles to fulfill First, he is the manager of classroom activities with the main responsibility of establishing situations likely to promote communication Second, during the communication process, he acts as an advisor, answering students’ questions and monitoring their performance At other times, he might be a ‘co-communicator’ or a participant to engage in a communicative activity with his students A teacher must be a researcher and learner to ‘contribute appropriate knowledge and ability, actual and observed experience of nature of learning and organizational capacities.’ (Breen and Candlin, 1980:99) Another role assumed for the teacher is a need analyst He has the responsibility to determine and respond to learners’ language needs This may be done informally through ‘one-to-one sessions’ with students or formally through

“administering a needs assessment instrument’ to understand students’ motivation for studying the language and so to plan group and individual instruction that responds to the learners’ needs.” (Littlewood, 1981:77-78)

2.5.4 The role of the learners

Firstly, students in CTL are negotiators – “between the self, the learning process and the object of learning” That means they should contribute as much as they gain and so learn in an interdependent way Students are also the ones who bring “preconception of what teaching and learning should be like” Secondly, students are communicators They learn

to communicate by communicating through various forms such as pairs, triads, small groups, and the whole class And because the teacher’s role is less dominant, students are expected to be more responsible managers of their own learning They interact primarily with each other rather than with the teacher and error correction maybe “absent or infrequent”

2.5.5 The role of technology

The role of technology as a resource for instruction of second language learners is increasing as educators recognize its ability to create both independent and collaborative learning environments in which students can acquire and practice a new language Using the Internet, word processors, multimedia, hypermedia and drill and practice programs, students can engage in individualized instruction designed to meet their specific needs and participate in cooperative projects that foster communication with peers in their classrooms and throughout the global community Research in second language acquisition (Krashen, 1989) has clearly suggested the need of comprehensible input in order for second language learning to take place Perhaps the single most important role of the second language teacher is to act as a facilitator in providing this intensive input Traditionally, teachers have relied heavily on the use of pictures, realia, and gestures to convey meaning to beginning learners The computer with its Internet and hypermedia capabilities is a powerful addition

to the second language teacher’s resources Computers utilize a sensory collection of text, sound, pictures, video, animation, and hypermedia to provide meaningful contexts to facilitate comprehension Technology is equally important in the sheltered, academic-area classrooms where its ability to provide comprehensible input serves as a scaffold to support students as they study academically challenging subject matter (Bruner, 1986) While anxiety and lack of motivation can impede language learning by acting as filters blocking comprehension (Krashen, 1989), technology can assist teachers in creating a supportive affective environment in the classroom Douglas Brown also listed some other types

multi-of technological aids - beside computer - that are commonly available to language teachers today

1 Commercially produced audiotapes

2 Commercially produced videotapes

3 Self-made audiotapes

4 Self-made videotapes

2.6 Techniques in teaching structures

According to Harmer ‘discovery techniques’ is very important and it should be depended on the students’ level and need Because

we all know that “these techniques are not suitable for all students on all occasions” He divided the activities in teaching into 4 types: preview, matching techniques, text-study, and problem solving

- In preview activities, “students are exposed to the new language; they do not concentrate on it at this stage, but the fact of having seen the grammar ‘in action’ will help them to deal with it when they have to study it later” Reading and listening to texts expose students to language in this way

- In matching techniques, students are asked to match parts

of the sentences and phrases The point of matching exercises is to get students to work things out for themselves: they have to make choices about what goes with what, and the activities of making choices helps them to discover correct facts about grammar

- Text-study is another way to get students to discover new grammar and students must concentrate on its use in a text Text-study exercises usually appear in the form of contrasting reading text (E.g., the simple past tense in

contrasting with simple present tense is given out in the two reading or listening passages

talk about grammar and to analyze its properties when students get higher level (especially from beginner to intermediate) By using this kind of activities, students can look at areas of grammar rather than small details Teachers’ work is to set up a problem that their students can solve

2.7 Linguistics skills and communicative abilities

In language teaching, the mode or manner in which language is used Listening, speaking, reading and writing are generally called the four language skills Sometimes speaking and writing are called active/productive skills and reading and listening, the passive/receptive skills (Jack C Richards, John Platt and Heidi Platt, 1993:205) those skills are defined with reference to medium are linguistic skills They refer

to the way in which the language system is manifested, or recognized to

be manifested, as usage And we will refer to those skills, which are defined with reference to the manner, and mode in which the system is realized as use as communicative abilities Communicative abilities embrace linguistic skills but not the reverse The ultimate aim in language learning is to acquire communicative competence The issue is not whether this is the aim of language learning but how this aim is to be achieved But the acquisition of linguistic skills does not seem to guarantee the consequent acquisition of communicative abilities in a language In brief, essentially communicative abilities are ways of creating or re-creating discourses in different modes This activity involves an understanding of communicative value of linguistic elements

in context and this is based on knowledge of how these elements may

serve as clues that can be interpreted by reference to shared conventions of communication

2.8 The need for integration

The teaching of language as communication calls for an approach, which brings linguistic skills and communicative abilities into close association with each other We all know that a particular exercise may focus on a particular skill or ability and its effectiveness will often require the learner to make reference to other aspects of his communication competence Therefore, it is not unusual to find grammar exercises providing practice in areas of usage which the reading passage and comprehension questions have already presupposed a knowledge of and which the learner must himself to bear in answering the questions Again, one frequently finds that the composition section makes much greater demands on the learner than the grammar section has prepared him to meet For example, the grammar exercises may require the learner to carry out elementary completion, conversion and transformation operations on single and isolated sentences and these might be followed without further warning or preparation by an exercise which requires the learner to write a short essay or a summary of the passage he has read In cases like this, the grammar exercises, focused as they are on usage, provide only a very partial and inadequate preparation for such a complex writing task (Widdowson, 1990: 144-145)

Michael Lewis and Jimmie Hill wrote language is a system and learning language is learning what, how and why The teacher who understands language as a system will see the necessity for activities, which lead to understanding Also, the language can be seen in many ways, but for teaching purposes there are particularly important: ‘what’ is said are vocabulary and structures; pronunciation, stress and intonation are ‘how’ it

is said; and function is ‘why’ it is said So, teaching a language means

teaching ‘what, how, why’ at the same time and language teachers need to maintain a balance so students are aware of, and practice, each of structure, stress and intonation, and function

To sum up, integration is needed in the process of language teaching

2.9 Teaching teenagers

The age of “teen” ranged between twelve and eighteen so teens are students at high schools The “terrible teens” are at the age of transition, confusion, self-consciousness, growing and changing bodies and minds Teens are in between childhood and adulthood, and therefore a very special set of considerations applies to teaching them Douglas Brown (2001:91) has given some advices as simple reminders in language teaching at this level

around the age of twelve Therefore, some sophisticated intellectual processing is increasingly possible Complex problems can be solved with logical thing This now means that linguistic

‘metalanguage’ can theoretically have some impact But the success of any intellectual endeavor will be a factor of the attention a learner places on the task; therefore, if a learner is attending to self, to appearance, to being accepted, to sexual thoughts, to a weekend party or whatever, the intellectual task at hand may suffer

maturation but once again, with many diversions present in a teenager’s life, those potential attention spans can easily be shortened

increasing capacities for abstraction lessen the essential nature of appealing to all five senses

4 Factors surrounding ego, self-image, and self-esteem are at their pinnacle Teens are ultra sensitive to how others perceive their changing physical and emotional selves along with their mental capabilities One of the most important concerns of the secondary school teacher is to keep self-esteem high by

and

taken more easily by teen

increasingly adult like in their ability to make those occasional diversions from the “here and now” nature of immediate communicative contexts to dwell on grammar point or vocabulary item But as in teaching adults, care must be taken not to insult them with stilted language or to bore them with over analysis

(The term “secondary school” above depended on the country’s education system of the author.)

2.10 Motivation in the classroom

What is motivation? Motivation is the extent to which you make choices about (a) goals to pursue and (b) the effort you will devote to that pursuit (Douglas Brown, 2001: 72) It is important to consider the question of motivation from the point of view of the student in language teaching from

the start It is not for us, teachers, to attempt to manipulate it but our role is

to seek to understand it And then, we try to meet the needs and wants of our students with the best we can provide We can help them clarify these two, needs and wants, so that their natural motivation – that energizing forces, each living entity possesses – may carry them forward to joyful and satisfying learning under our care and nurture For the students, their motivation is one of the vital factors, which connects with the successful application of CLT Harmer (1991) defines motivation as “some kind of internal drive that encourages somebody to pursue a course of action” Also, he distinguishes motivation into the two kinds, which the students possess: extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation The former related to the factors outside the classroom includes integrative motivation and instrumental motivation The latter related to those inside the classroom is affected by factors as physical conditions, method, the teacher and success

Douglas Brown has given six general guidelines to motivate learners:

1 Teachers are enablers, not rewarders Therefore, when you teach, focus less on how to administer immediate or tangible rewards and more on how to get students to tune in to their potential and to be challenged by self-determined goals

2 Learners need to develop autonomy, not dependence Therefore, be careful not to let learners become dependant

on your daily praise and other feedback Rather, administer praise selectively and judiciously, helping students to recognize their own self-satisfaction in having done something well

3 Help learners to take charge of their own learning through setting some personal goals and utilizing learning strategies

4 Learner-centered, cooperative teaching is intrinsically motivating Therefore, give students opportunities to make

choices in activities, topics, discussions, etc Sometimes a simple either/ or choice helps students to develop intrinsic motives They feel less like puppets on a string if you can involve them in various aspects of looking at their needs and self-diagnosing, of planning lessons and objectives, of deciding in which direction a lesson might go, and of evaluating their learning

5 Content-based activities and courses are intrinsically motivating Therefore, you might strive to focus your students on interesting, relevant subject-matter content that gets them more linguistically involved with meanings and purposes and less with verbs and prepositions

6 Tests, with some special attention from teacher, can be intrinsically motivating

Also, other factors affect learning outcomes: native ability, age, context of learning, style preferences, background experience and qualifications, availability of time to give the effort needed, and the quality

of input that is beyond the immediate control of the learner

Therefore, teachers consider all the factors to motivate their students and help students get better results while they try their best to design the lesson plans and to prepare the facilities

2.11 Prior research on the study

Some researchers pay attention to the role of grammar teaching and learning Therefore, some studies have been carried out in order to find good way to apply communicative language teaching to real situations in schools and universities in Vietnam Some of their findings are worth mentioning

Desiring for more attractive and exciting classes at the beginning level (primary schools) in Tra Vinh province, Nguyen Thi Hue (1999) carried

out a study to find the needs of learners and teachers in primary schools and suggest some ways in presenting grammar structures 1424 pupils and 28 teachers in 6 schools attended in the research and the results show that most of the pupils needed English to travel or contact with foreigners or to use as a means to widen knowledge Therefore, Tra Vinh primary schools should be supplied more teaching and learning facilities, more teachers and more communicative activities

Another effort that was done to get more successful results in teaching grammar is the research of Nguyen Lien Huong (2005) The research took place in Nong Lam University The researcher tried to identify the reality of learning English and difficulties that students have met in learning grammar at Nong Lam University And basing on the facts found, the author tended to find out the way to apply the Communicative Approach to the teaching of English grammar at Nong Lam University and to suggest some motivative activities She said that

in order to apply the Communicative Approach to the teaching of English

at Nong Lam University, there should be a lot of changes in syllabus, textbooks, evaluation method, and learning condition She thought “if the teachers try to do their best to properly use Communicative Language teaching activities, students will gradually get used to them and sooner

or later will find them fun and interesting”

On the basis of their careful research findings, Canale and Swain (1988:73) defined communicative competence as follows:

In our view, an integrative theory of communicative competence may

be regarded as one in which there is a synthesis of knowledge of basic grammatical principles, knowledge of how language is used in social contexts to perform communicative functions, and knowledge of how utterances and communicative functions can be combined according to the principle of discourse