Group work in teaching speaking to general english classes at iwep europe usa international english school

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY- HOCHIMINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES GROUP WORK IN TEACHING SPEAKING TO GENERAL ENGLISH CLASSES AT IWEP EUROPE – USA INTERNATIONAL

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY- HOCHIMINH CITY

UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES

GROUP WORK IN TEACHING SPEAKING TO

GENERAL ENGLISH CLASSES

AT IWEP EUROPE – USA INTERNATIONAL

Ho Chi Minh City - 2008

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY

I certify my authorship of the thesis submitted today entitled:

GROUP WORK IN TEACHING SPEAKING TO

GENERAL ENGLISH CLASSES

AT IWEP EUROPE – USA INTERNATIONAL

ENGLISH SCHOOL

in terms of the statement of Requirements for Theses in Master’s Program

issued by the Higher Degree Committee

Ho Chi Minh City, September , 2008

LE HA TO QUYEN

RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS

I hereby state that I, LE HA TO QUYEN, being the candidate for the

degree of Master of TESOL, accept the requirements of the University

relating to the retention and use of Master’s Theses deposited in the Library

In terms of these conditions, I agree that the original of my thesis

deposited in the library should be accessible for purposes of study and

research, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the

Library for the care, loan or reproduction of theses

Ho Chi Minh City, September , 2008

LE HA TO QUYEN

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my thesis supervisor, Mr Nguyen Hoang Linh, M.A., for his valuable comments, instruction and continuing support in the preparation and completion of this thesis

I am thankful to all the lecturers of the TESOL graduate program at the University of Social Sciences and Humanities for their helpful instruction during the course from the year 2004 to 2007

My special thanks also go to academic staff, the teachers at IWEP European-USA International Language School who have offered favorable conditions for my thesis data collection and learners in twelve chosen classes at four campuses for their helpful responses to the survey questionnaires and interviews

I would like to thank my colleagues and my friends, especially Mr Huynh Cong Minh Hung, Ms Kate Orson, Mr Matthew Gist, Ms Ann Patrick, Ms Nguyen Thi Thanh, Ms Duong Thi Tuyet Hanh, Ms Bui Kim Huong, and

Ms Nguyen Thi Minh Hien for their support and encouragement in my fulfillment of the thesis

Last but not least, my deepest gratitude and thanks are sent to my family, especially my mother and my husband, for their great love, encouragement, and support during the time of completing this thesis

ABSTRACT

This thesis is aimed at investigating the effectiveness of using group work to teach Speaking to pre-intermediate general English classes at the IWEP European-USA International Language School Both quantitative and qualitative research methods were employed in the study In order to get in-depth and reliable data, three instruments were combined Questionnaires were delivered to 241 pre-intermediate learners and twenty teachers who were in charge of pre-intermediate general classes at four IWEP campuses Eight classes were then chosen to undergo classroom observation Informal structured interviews were also conducted with ten learners and eight teachers taken from both sample groups The results of the study helped to show, firstly, how group work has been used as one popular technique to teach Speaking at this school Secondly, although this technique, from both learners and teachers’ viewpoints, was a positive change from teacher-centeredness and delivered some improvements to learners’ speaking skills, the findings indicated that the whole process still had many limitations Therefore, thirdly, the study expressed a need for some changes to be implemented to make group work a better solution for teaching Speaking in this specific environment in the future

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Certificate of originality i

Retention and use of the thesis ii

Acknowledgments iii

Abstract iv

Table of contents v

List of figures xi

List of tables xiv

List of abbreviations xv

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background of the problem 1

1.2 Setting of the study 3

1.2.1 A description of the English courses at IWEP 3

1.2.2 Teaching material 5

1.2.3 Learners’ profile 5

1.2.3.4 Teachers’ profile 6

1.3 Aims of the research 6

1.4 Research questions 6

1.5 The significance of the study 7

1.6 Limitations and delimitations 7

1.7 Overview of the study 8

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW 9

2.1 Teaching Speaking in the new era 9

2.1.1 Teaching Speaking with CLT 9

2.1.2 Learner-centered approach 11

2.1.3 The applicability of CLT and learner-centeredness at language school 11

2.2 Cooperative learning 12

2.2.1 Types of cooperative learning 13

2.2.2 Conditions for effective cooperative learning 13

2.3 GW 16

2.3.1 Definition 16

2.3.2 Stages of group development 17

2.3.3 Roles of teachers and learners in GW 18

2.3.3.1 Roles of teachers in GW 18

2.3.3.2 Roles of learners 20

2.3.4 Speaking activities in groups 21

2.3.4.1 Accuracy and Fluency activities 21

2.3.4.2 Types of activities 22

2.3.4.2.1 Discussion 23

2.3.4.2.2 Gap activities 24

2.3.4.2.3 Role-play 25

2.3.4.2.4 Communicative games 26

2.3.5 Advantages of GW 27

2.3.6 Problems of using GW and remedies 28

2.3.6.1 Mistakes and error correction in GW procedure 28

2.3.6.2 Classroom management during GW 29

2.3.6.2.1 Time 29

2.3.6.2.2 Noise and Vietnamese use 30

2.3.6.2.3 Learners’ negative attitudes towards GW 31

2.3.7 Studies on GW 32

2.4 Summary 33

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY 34

3.1 Research questions 34

3.2 The study design 34

3.2.1 Subjects 35

3.2.2 Instruments 37

3.2.2.1 Questionnaires 37

3.2.2.1.1 Questionnaires for learners 37

3.2.2.1.2 Questionnaire for teachers 39

3.2.2.2 Classroom observations 40

3.2.2.3 Interviews 41

3.2.3 Data collection procedures 41

3.3 Summary 44

CHAPTER IV: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 45

4.1 Analysis of learners and teachers’ responses to the questionnaires 45

4.1.1 Analysis of learners’ responses to the questionnaires 45

4.1.1.1 Learners’ background 45

4.1.1.2 How GW was conducted to teach Speaking in class 49 4.1.1.3 GW’s effectiveness 56

4.1.1.4 Learners’ suggestions for improving GW 63

4.1.2 Analysis of teachers’ responses to the questionnaires 65

4.1.2.1 Teachers’ personal information 65

4.1.2.2 Teachers’ evaluation on learners’ speaking skills 67

4.1.2.3 How GW was conducted to teach Speaking in class 68 4.1.2.4 Teachers’ evaluation on GW’s effectiveness 75

4.1.2.5 Teachers’ suggestions for improving GW 79

4.2 Observation comments 80

4.2.1 Speaking activities chosen for GW 81

4.2.2 Steps to conduct GW 82

4.2.2.1 Giving instructions 82

4.2.2.2 Providing necessary vocabulary, structures, and skills 83 4.2.2.3 Deciding on group members 84

4.2.2.4 Learners working in groups 84

4.2.2.5 Teachers’ monitoring 86

4.2.2.6 Reporting stage 87

4.2.2.7 Assessment stage 88

4.3 Answers from the interviews 89

4.3.1 Learners’ answers 89

4.3.2 Teachers’ answers 93

4.4 Summary 97

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 98

5.1 Conclusions 98

5.2 Recommendations 103

5.2.1 Raising learners’ awareness of GW 103

5.2.2 Creating and maintaining learners’ interests in GW 104

5.2.3 Conducting GW steps well 106

5.2.3.1 Assigning learners into groups 106

5.2.3.2 Role assignment 108

5.2.3.3 Giving instructions 109

5.2.3.4 Providing necessary vocabulary, structures, and skills 109 5.2.3.5 Learner group work and teacher monitoring 110

5.2.3.6 Reporting groups’ results 111

5.2.3.7 Group assessment 112

5.3 Recommendations for further research 113

5.4 Summary 114

BIBLIOGRAPHY 115

APPENDICES 120

Appendix 1: Questionnaires 121

A Questionnaires for learners in Vietnamese 121

B Questionnaire for learners in English 126

C Questionnaire for teachers in Vietnamese 131

D Questionnaire for teachers in English 135

Appendix 2: Observation form 139

Appendix 3: Interview questions 143

A Interview questions for learners in Vietnamese 143

B Interview questions for learners in English 145

C Interview questions for teachers in Vietnamese 147

D Interview questions for teachers in English 148

Appendix 4: Classroom management tools 149

A Classroom contract 149

B Speaking strategies reminder 150

C Classroom language and bookmarks 151

D Icebreaker activities 153

E Group roles 154

F English box 155

G Cards 156

H Evaluation forms 159

Appendix 5: Communicative games in group 162

A Categories 162

B Green Bamboo/ Hidden Pairs 163

C Family feud 164

D Stop the bus 165

E Random words 165

F Three-picture-story 165

G Reaching a consensus 166

H Role-play 167

I Using the web to save time 168

LIST OF FIGURES

Chapter I: INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.1 A classroom at IWEP Campus 1 (262-264, Ba Thang Hai

Street, District 10) 3

Chapter IV: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS Figure 4.1 Learners’ age 46

Figure 4.2 Learner’s gender 46

Figure 4.3 Learners’ occupation 46

Figure 4.4 Learners’ length of study 47

Figure 4.5 Reasons to study at IWEP 48

Figure 4.6 Learners’ self-evaluation on their English speaking skills 48

Figure 4.7 The frequency of GW conducted to teach Speaking in class 49 Figure 4.8 The number of members in each group 50

Figure 4.9 The frequency of changing members in groups 51

Figure 4.10 The length of GW 51

Figure 4.11 Source of speaking activities chosen for GW 52

Figure 4.12 Types of speaking activities organized in groups 52

Figure 4.13 The steps of GW that learners usually skipped 53

Figure 4.14 The steps that learners still had difficulties with 54

Figure 4.15 The amount of grammar and vocabulary provided to the learners .55

Figure 4.16 The level of preparation on GW skills 55

Figure 4.17 Was there role assignment in groups? 55

Figure 4.18 Criteria for role assignment 55

Figure 4.19 The roles that learners usually played in groups 56

Figure 4.20 The percentage of time learners used English in groups 57

Figure 4.21 The portion of active members in groups 57

Figure 4.22 Reasons for learners’ inactivity 58

Figure 4.23 The advantages of GW 58

Figure 4.24 Improvement of learners’ speaking skills 59

Figure 4.25 The improved aspects in learners’ speaking skills 59

Figure 4.26 Improvement of learners’ GW skills 59

Figure 4.27 The limitations of GW 60

Figure 4.28 The variation in English competence among group members 61

Figure 4.29 Percentage of teachers who according to learners had methods to overcome the problems of mixed ability in each group 61

Figure 4.30 Percentage of learners who were said to have methods to overcome the problems of mixed ability in their group 61

Figure 4.31 GW’s favorability 63

Figure 4.32 Teachers’ gender 66

Figure 4.33 Teachers’ age 66

Figure 4.34 Teaching experience 66

Figure 4.35 Teachers’ degree 66

Figure 4.36 Teachers’ evaluation on learners’ speaking skills 67

Figure 4.37 Learners’ self-evaluation on their speaking skills 67

Figure 4.38 The variation in knowledge among learners in class 67

Figure 4.39 Reasons for the variation in knowledge 68

Figure 4.40 The necessity of conducting GW to teach Speaking 68

Figure 4.41 The frequency of conducting GW 70

Figure 4.42 The length of GW 71

Figure 4.43 Source of speaking activities chosen for GW 71

Figure 4.44 Types of speaking activities organized in groups 71

Figure 4.45 The number of members in groups 72

Figure 4.46 Who decided on group formation? 72

Figure 4.47 Decision on group members was made 72

Figure 4.48 The best way(s) to group learners 72 Figure 4.49 The frequency of changing members in groups 73 Figure 4.50 The steps teachers usually skipped when conducting GW 73 Figure 4.51 The GW steps that teachers still had difficulties with 74 Figure 4.52 Under the view of teachers, learners were able to… 75 Figure 4.53 The effectiveness of GW in the classroom 76 Figure 4.54 The percentage of English spoken by learners in GW process 76 Figure 4.55 The accuracy of English spoken by learners in GW process 76 Figure 4.56 The advantages of GW 77 Figure 4.57 The limitations of GW 78 Figure 4.58 The percentage of teachers who had methods to overcome the problems of mixed ability in group 78 Figure 4.59 Learners working in groups in class 8 85

LIST OF TABLES

Chapter III: METHODOLOGY

Table 3.1 Numbers of pre-intermediate classes at IWEP 35 Table 3.2 The classes involved in the study 36

Chapter IV: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

Table 4.1 Cross-tab of learners’ classes and their length of study 47 Table 4.2 Cross-tab of learners’ self- evaluation on their Speaking divided by gender 49 Table 4.3 Cross-tab of learners’ classes and the person who decided on group formation 50 Table 4.4 Cross-tab of learners’ classes and the length of GW activities 51 Table 4.5 Cross-tab of teachers’ age and the necessity of conducting

GW to teach Speaking 69 Table 4.6 Cross-tab of teachers’ teaching experience and the necessity

of conducting GW to teach Speaking 69 Table 4.7 Cross-tab of teachers’ degree and the necessity of conducting

GW to teach Speaking 69 Table 4.8 Cross-tab of teachers’ teaching experience and the stages they chose to conduct GW 70 Table 4.9 The classes observed 81

LIST OF ABBREVIATION

HCMC : Ho Chi Minh City

IWEP : International Web-London English Product Europe-USA

International English School

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

This introductory chapter will indicate a problem concerned with English teaching at language schools in Vietnam, particularly at a language school in Hochiminh City (HCMC) The setting, research questions, purposes, significances of the study and the overview of it will also be stated in this chapter

1.1 Background of the problem

The ability to use English has become vital in Vietnam recently It is not only a requirement for studying abroad and finding a job but also for daily work and life Therefore, English has become a compulsory subject in the curriculum from elementary school to the last year of university, though the amount of time studied can be different in certain schools

However, the capacity of English taught and learned at schools seems to be insufficient for learners in the new era of international communication and integration As a result, language centers have mushroomed in the city more than ever, all of which have to meet the main demand of being able to help learners

to communicate in English To satisfy that need and keep the high motivation of learners, most of the language schools in HCMC use a foreign textbook and require teachers to apply communicative language teaching (CLT) with various communicative activities to make lessons more effective and interesting Most activities in the textbooks and resources available follow the new trend of teaching and learning, student-centeredness, which emphasizes the need for learners’ interaction Therefore, teachers usually conduct GW in the classroom, especially when teaching speaking skills

The chair arrangements, flexible schedule, and the active role of teachers in deciding the content of the lesson seem to make the language school context ideal for conducting GW Teachers hope that by using GW, learners can have more time to practice what they have learned, more opportunities to discuss, negotiate to solve problems, and reach conclusions, which are the first steps for real communication GW might also be able to solve the problem of mixed ability classes because learners can help each other more effectively in groups However, there is still a concern that GW might just be a waste of time The concern turns out to be true when it is observed that in most GW processes at IWEP (IWEP Europe-USA International Language School), learners get together, talk some sentences in English, and then easily revert to Vietnamese to solve the tasks’ requirements Stronger members usually dominate the whole task while others keep silent or chat privately in Vietnamese and make themselves “free-riders.” Teachers may have to spend a lot of time preparing and conducting GW However, the problems of trying to make sure every group member participates, helping the weaker learners improve, and keeping the stronger ones challenged remain unsolved Using GW can fail to meet the criteria of being a communicative way of teaching and does not help to improve learners’ speaking skills It can even widen the gap between strong and weak learners These are the matters often raised and complained about at teachers’ workshops and meetings

It is a loss if the supposed advantages of GW for teaching Speaking cannot be exploited fully in the classroom Teachers need to learn new ways to conduct

GW activities that really improve learners’ speaking skills Therefore, a careful examination of the effectiveness of using GW to teach Speaking in English

classes at IWEP with useful implications provided based on the study’s results is necessary and worth doing

1.2 Setting of the study

1.2.1 A description of the English courses at IWEP

IWEP has been operating for more than ten years It has six campuses: one in district 10, one in district 11, two in Binh Thanh, one in Tan Binh, and one

in Phu Nhuan district The total number of learners at those six campuses is about

3, 600 The English training program at IWEP consists of many levels ranging from basic to advanced Depending on their own levels and interests, learners can choose from general English classes, Grammar classes, preparation classes for TOEIC, IELTS, TOEFL certificates, and so on In general, each course lasts three months, and classes meet three times a week for ninety minutes

The number of learners in each class varies from eighteen to twenty-five The classrooms are equipped with air-conditioner, CD player, whiteboard, and easily–moved chairs, which are adequate for the process of teaching and learning

Figure 1.1 A classroom at IWEP 1 (262-264, Ba Thang Hai Street, District 10) There is a video room for learners to have lessons based on watching a film Every class will study there once every month The computer room is also available but not many learners use it

Learners have a placement test for grammar and speaking at the beginning, but it does not guarantee that all the class members are at the same level The general English classes, including Base 1, Base 2, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5 and C6 classes, especially C3 and C4, have the largest number of learners because nearly all of them start with these classes to get the basic knowledge before going to higher levels That is the reason why the thesis focused on the pre-intermediate level of C3 and C4

The general English courses are integrated ones with the main focus on speaking and listening skills Though learners in these classes also study with native speakers twice a month, Vietnamese teachers play the decisive role in their progress In Base 1, 2, C1, and C2 classes, learners devote a lot of time listening to teachers’ lectures, memorizing grammatical rules, and pronunciation They are usually put in pairs and sometimes in groups However, because of the limitation in their language competence, teachers just get them familiar with cooperative learning and do not have high expectations for those tasks At C3 and C4, teachers and learners spend much more time for GW activities and they expect to get the utmost benefits from this type of learning Learners at this level can hold basic conversations in English and they are ready to do more Due to the fact that the end-of-course tests are not carefully designed, the levels of learners in these classes are more varied than in lower level classes This reason seems to make effective GW difficult to achieve

After finishing C4, learners can choose to enter TOEIC, TOEFL, or IELTS preparation classes, depending on their levels Some learners who do not intend

to take a certificate but only want to improve speaking and listening skills will continue to take C5 and C6 classes, though not many learners do this The study also does not focus on this group of learners

1.2.2 Teaching material

The main textbook for C3 and C4 is Step Forward 3 by Jenni Currie Santamaria, which is the continuity of Step Forward 1 and 2 in the previous

classes

Step Forward 3 is an integrated book, in which grammar and the four skills

listening, speaking, reading and writing are developed Speaking is a focus of the book Many elements (e.g., vocabulary, grammar, listening, and pronunciation) provide support for oral communication The whole book consists of twelve units

Step Forward Step-By-Step Lesson Plans 3 is also given to the teachers at the

beginning of the courses

1.2.3 Learners’ profile

Learners in most language centers are from various backgrounds, and at different ages Learners at IWEP are not the exception The majority of them are teenagers, young adults, and adults

Teenagers are from fourteen to seventeen and young adults aged between eighteen and twenty-nine Most of them are high school students, non-English major students at universities in HCMC, graduate students looking for a job, high school graduates wishing to study or move abroad, and working people They all have a basic background in English from their high schools, universities or previous courses Now they want to achieve a certain efficiency level in using English communicatively for their future

The number of adults aged between thirty and forty is small They are working people, housewives, and retired people They come to the center with the hope that they will be able to use English in daily life as a mean of communication

Most of the learners are highly motivated Though some of them do not have time to review the lessons at home, they are quite active and can adapt well with the new methods of teaching and learning introduced by teachers

1.2.4 Teachers’ profile

Teachers at IWEP obtained a bachelor’s or master’s degree Most of them are high school or university teachers Some work in foreign companies in the morning Most of the young teachers are preferred to be assigned to teach general English classes for their activeness They are able to conduct the classes with the proficiency level they achieved The lack of real exposure to English-speaking communities results in their uncertainty in teaching sometimes However, they are eager to learn and apply new methods of teaching

1.3 Aims of the research

The two main objectives of the study are (1) to examine how GW is

conducted to teach Speaking to pre-intermediate general English classes at

IWEP and (2) to find out the strengths and weaknesses of the whole GW process

Based on the findings, suggestions would be made on how to use GW more effectively in this specific context

1.4 Research questions

The research proceeded based on one guiding question:

“How effective is the use of GW in teaching Speaking to pre-intermediate general English classes at IWEP?”

It was supported by three sub-questions:

a) What do teachers and learners do before, while and after a GW activity in the pre-intermediate general English classrooms at IWEP? b) What are GW’s strengths and weaknesses in these classes?

c) What suggestions should be made to make GW more effective in this specific context?

1.5 The significance of the study

The benefits of cooperative learning in general and GW in particular have been widely demonstrated around the world However, these theories may be too general to apply to Vietnamese context Therefore, first of all, it is useful to provide a practical framework and detailed guidelines for teachers to follow when conducting GW to teach Speaking in general English classes at foreign language centers Next, there are also not many studies on the process of learning and teaching English at language centers in HCMC The study on the application of GW in this context is a small contribution to that need Last but not least, this study is concerned with how to improve classroom management, which plays a vital role to the success of the process of teaching in the classroom Through effective GW management, the matters of how to help the weaker students to improve as well as to keep the strong ones challenged are not overlooked but considered carefully

1.6 Limitations and delimitations

Vietnamese students are not used to doing questionnaires and some may even give the answers that are different from what they think for some unknown reasons Therefore, it is considered to be difficult to get one hundred percent reliable results from the questionnaires However, the data collection process was conducted carefully and in combination with the observations and interviews, the reliability and validity of the data could be acceptable Due to the time limit, the study only examined the explicit factors which could be observed and explained normally Those implicit factors such as the mental factors were not discussed

The research was processed limitedly in the conditions of IWEP Language School and only for pre-intermediate general English classes As a result, it must

be considered whether or not the findings of the study can be generalized to different populations

1.7 Overview of the study

The study comprises five chapters in sequence as follows:

Chapter I: Introduction – gives an introduction of GW as integral parts in the

current trend of teaching Speaking at language schools in order to serve the need for learners’ communication This section also describes the learning environment and the learners’ and teachers’ characteristics for an understanding

of what will be addressed in later parts The researcher’s motivation to undertake this study is also explained in this chapter The research questions are included in logical relation to the aims of the study

Chapter II: Literature Review – provides the theoretical bases and critical

overview of the existing work in this field

Chapter III: Research Methodology – includes a presentation of the

research questions, followed by a description of the subjects, instruments and data collection procedure

Chapter IV: Findings and Discussions – presents the study results after the

collected data were analyzed and discusses the findings

Chapter V: Conclusion and Recommendations – summarizes some

important findings and provides recommendations for using GW in teaching Speaking at language schools Besides that, suggested areas for further research are also included

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter, the literature relevant to the study is reviewed in three separate sections: teaching Speaking in the new era, cooperative learning, and theory of GW

The first section presents the applicability of CLT and learner-centeredness

in English classrooms at language schools It also proves the important role of cooperative learning in the current teaching approach The second part states the definition of cooperative learning, styles, and conditions for it to be effective The theory will be the background to go further into one specific kind of cooperative learning, GW The third part includes GW’s definition, stages of group development, roles of teachers and learners in GW, speaking activities that can be used in groups, GW’s advantages, and its problems and remedies Finally in this part is the review of recent studies on GW in teaching English as a foreign language in HCMC

2.1 Teaching Speaking in the new era

2.1.1 Teaching Speaking with CLT

In language teaching, communication is divided into four main skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing Listening and reading are considered receptive skills while speaking and writing are productive ones (Davies & Pearse, 2000: 74) Each category has been proven to be equally important and a learner must be competent in each skill in order to master a language

Due to Vietnam current Open Door Policy with many foreign investments and cooperative ventures, learners in general are more concerned with learning productive skills, especially speaking They do not merely need to know how to

assemble grammatically correct sentences, but have to use and adapt them to

real life circumstances They also need to make decisions rapidly and adjust their

conversations when unexpected problems arise CLT has met these demands and

is currently the main approach for teaching English speaking skills to

Vietnamese learners

CLT has been popularly used in language teaching and learning in many countries since 1980 Its great emphasis is placed on training learners to use the

language for communication In order to accomplish that, as Davies & Pearse

(2000) suggested, learners are required to have communicative competence,

which is not only applying the grammatical rules of a language in order to form

sentences but also knowing when and where to use them and with whom To

clarify the concept of communicative competence, Larsen-Freeman & Long

(1991) have divided it into sub-skills necessary to master it These are linguistic

competence, pragmatic competence, discourse competence, strategic competence

and fluency (p 56)

However, communicative competence is not an easy goal for learners to

achieve Harmer (1990) was doubtful about whether teachers can successfully

teach learners these special skills in the classroom, which may be far different

from the language community, and whether they can actually give this

knowledge to the students Therefore, according to him, it may be an impossible

and unnecessary goal He suggested what can be aimed at in the language

classroom is communicative efficiency, which he defined as learners being able

to express what they wish to say (p 23) In the Vietnamese context,

communicative efficiency can be set as the first goal for learners It is only built

up by learners’ taking part in more interaction-based activities in the classroom

Listening to and talking only to the teachers are not enough Learners need

partners to practice and experiment with the language That is the reason why

cooperative learning is the choice when applying CLT

2.1.2 Learner-centered approach

The development of CLT has been the basis for the change from centeredness to learner-centeredness As the name suggests, the needs of learners are the most important factors in this approach Learners decide on the success of the whole teaching and learning process They only study what they need and see as important to communicate effectively with outside world The learner-centered approach has had a positive response from both learners and teachers It succeeds in developing learners’ responsibility for their learning and giving them a sense of independence It also helps learners to become more confident by creating a relaxing atmosphere, in which openness and respect for the learners’ own opinions and ideas are encouraged

teacher-In learner-centeredness, the learning is focused on communication fluency rather than accuracy Therefore, the classroom tasks are not limited to drills and pattern practice but discussions, dialogues, role-plays, games, and so on Language and materials used in classroom are authentic, related to learners’ experience, and emphasize genuine daily language The large amount of time in the classroom is reserved for learners doing oral practice in groups and pairs Cooperative learning, once again, is the focus of the new trend

2.1.3 The applicability of CLT and learner-centeredness at language

schools

Though CLT and learner-centeredness are new concepts in Vietnamese classrooms, they are the target of language teaching in Vietnam, especially teaching speaking skills

From a general view, CLT and learner-centeredness are especially suitable for young and adult learners at the language centers, who are expected to be different from “typical”, “traditional” students or schoolchildren, with higher motivation and expectation According to Knowles (1975), adult learners are self-directed, goal-oriented, relevancy-oriented, and practical (p 181) In other words, adult learners need to be free to direct themselves They know what goal they want to attain They need a reason for learning something and learning has

to be applicable to their work or other responsibilities They may not be interested in knowledge for its own sake but focus on the aspect of language learning that is most useful to them They also have accumulated a foundation of life experience and knowledge which they bring to classroom

However, it is still not an easy job for the learners to take advantage of CLT and the learner-centered approach to become successful learners They need a lot of help from teachers to set the first basic steps for these changes Moreover,

if teachers only emphasize the importance of learning how to communicate meaning and pay little attention to making language accurate, learners may not

be able to effectively use English in real life Therefore, cooperative learning is learner-based and irreplaceable in teaching Speaking communicatively but how

to make it effective in this context is still a question for great consideration

2.2.1 Definition

As Richards (1993) defined, “cooperative teaching is an approach to teaching and learning in which the classrooms is organized so that students work together in small cooperative teams” (p 87) The notion of “cooperative” is the main factor in this approach

2.2.2 Types of cooperative learning

Johnson & Johnson (1987) divided cooperative learning into three smaller interrelated types:

a Informal cooperative learning is used primarily to enhance direct

instructions It is typically temporary and formed for only a brief period of time Teachers can form this kind of group easily by having learners turn to classmates near them to briefly discuss a question or to summarize what has just been presented It focuses the learners’ attention on the materials and ensures that they process them cognitively

b Formal cooperative learning means learners working together, for one

period to several weeks, to achieve shared learning goals aimed at joint completion of specific tasks and assignments

c Cooperative base groups are longer-term groups (lasting for at least a

whole course) with stable membership whose primary responsibility is to provide each student the support and encouragement he or she needs to make academic progress and to complete the course successfully

These three types of cooperative learning support each other and might all be used in a single class session

2.2.3 Conditions for effective cooperative learning

It is only under certain conditions that cooperative learning can bring benefits to language learning and teaching According to Johnson & Johnson

(1987: 12), group learning is called “cooperative” learning when they have the following characteristics:

a Positive interdependence

Group members are required to fulfill two responsibilities: learn the assigned materials and ensure that all members of the group learn them too Each member contributes his or her strengths to the group and balances the weaknesses they may have Deustch (1962) insisted that learners need to perceive that they can reach their learning goals if and only if the other students in the learning group also reach their goals This notion is considered important and difficult to achieve Though the learning situation at the language school is not as seriously graded as at high schools or universities, the learners still have to understand the real value of working together, which is only achieved by clear instructions and careful preparation from the teachers

Dividing resources (giving each group member a part of the whole task) and giving complementary roles so every member holds an irreplaceable part in the whole group’s process are different ways to structure positive interdependence within a learning group

b Promotive (face-to-face) interaction

When working together, group members need to help, support, encourage, praise one another’s effort, and give useful feedback face to face Group interactions include explaining to each other how to solve problems, sharing one’s knowledge with other members, and so on After each activity, teachers should let group members do a self-evaluation and group evaluation on their interactions This evaluation gives learners a chance to look back on how much encouragement they gave each other and what attitudes they should have toward other group members next time

c Individual accountability or personal responsibility

Individual accountability emphasizes that each member of the group is responsible for the others The group’s findings must be contributed by the entire group One of the ultimate purposes of GW is to make each member a stronger individual in his or her own right Therefore, there is no reason for any group member to rely on others or let others do nothing

In order to ensure that each member does his or her fair share of the work, teachers should keep group sizes small, randomly examine learners by calling on one member to present his or her group’s work, observe, and record the contributions of each member Within the group, teachers can assign the role of checker to one member who can ask other group members to explain the reasons for the group’s answers

d Interpersonal and small-group skills

In order to achieve mutual goals, learners must: get to know each other, communicate accurately and unambiguously, accept and support each other, and resolve conflict constructively People are not born instinctively knowing how to interact effectively with others, therefore, learners must be taught the interpersonal and social skills required for high quality cooperation

Teachers can provide learners with activities to “break the ice” in which learners discuss or question each other about their interests and so on to make members know more about each other After that, teachers equip learners with the skills needed to work effectively as a group, such as time management, decision-making, problem solving, leadership, negotiation, conflict management, and more These skills can be taught separately or involved in speaking activities They will not be too difficult for adult learners to acquire

e Group processing

Group processing is defined as reflecting on a group session Group members will decide together what actions were helpful or unhelpful, and what actions should be continued or changed

To do this, teachers can observe the group, analyze the problems they have when working together, and give feedback to each group Teachers can also ask one member from each group to do the cross observations and evaluations Each group needs to be able to focus on maintaining good working relationships, ensure that members receive feedback on their participation, provide the means

to celebrate the success of the group, and reinforce the positive behaviors of group members

The more the group has achieved these five criteria, the more cooperative it

is Teachers and learners need to be fully aware of these requirements to make the group learning in the classrooms cooperative

In language teaching, GW is explained as “a learning activity which involves

a small group of learners working together The group may work on a single task, or on different parts of a larger task Tasks for group members are often

selected by the members of the group (Richards, 1993: 163).” GW has

“particular value in the practice of oral fluency.” (Ur, 1996: 32)

In this paper, GW is defined as a learning activity in the classroom with three

or more students working together to do a communicative speaking task The tasks can vary from simple ones such as exchanging ideas to more difficult ones such as performing a play

Similar to three types of cooperative learning, the group can be formed and kept only for a short time or during the whole course The contribution of each member in groups can be graded formally However, due to the short time for each lesson, the frequent absence of learners, and the poorly developed system

of grading at language schools, forming informal groups to do some activities for part of a lesson is usually the choice of teachers The groups can also be kept for weeks to make the members know each other more or finish longer projects, but normally not the whole course

The five criteria of cooperative learning mentioned above must be met for

GW to be truly effective

2.3.2 Stages of group development

In 1965, Tuckman described the five stages that a group can go through, which are:

Stage 1: Forming – the stage when members get together Individuals will gather information about each other, about the task, and how to approach it This

is a simple preliminary stage before the learners discuss the task

Stage 2: Storming – members begin to find out ways to solve the task together As the name suggests, some minor or serious conflicts may arise when roles and responsibilities are approached in this stage It is important for the

teacher to give clear instructions and rules to solve conflicts and help the group

to get past this difficult step

Stage 3: Norming – rules and responsibilities are clear and agreed in the group Having argued, group members now understand each other better They start to listen to each other, appreciate, and support one another However, they have to work hard to attain this stage and go to the next one or else they will revert back to the storming stage

Stage 4: Performing – group members work together as a team with interdependence and flexibility Members know each other very well Every one takes part equally and performs their roles effectively

Stage 5: Adjourning – the stage when individuals are proud of having fulfilled the task successfully and glad to have been part of a wonderful job They may move on with the group or take another one

Not all groups reach stage 4 and stage 5 and many remain at stage 1 By understanding the ways groups evolve, teachers can recognize the stage the group is at and then guide them to reach the “performing stage” Moreover, members of groups should be kept together for a certain length of time so that the group members can understand and work well together

2.3.3 Roles of teachers and learners in GW

¾ Make a number of pre-instructional decisions on the academic and skill objectives, group’s size, group formation, roles of each learner in group, the materials needed, the way the seats will be arranged, and so on

social-¾ Explain the task to learners, set the goals, teach the required vocabulary and strategies, and specify the expected social skills Task’s instructions should

be demonstrated and checked for clear understanding

¾ Set learners into groups and suggest roles for each member Forming heterogeneous group (learners of different levels working together) has been recommended in order to guarantee the peer meditation (learners take the responsibility for learning from and teaching one another) in group However, groups of strong learners together and groups of weak learners together are also applicable, provided that teacher prepares different sets of materials for each group

¾ Monitor and intervene when needed to assist learners with tasks or with interpersonal and group skills

¾ Request groups to present their results in front of the class Group members should take turns to do this part

¾ Assess group results and help learners process how well their groups functioned Constructive feedback among members is encouraged

These stages are also regarded as steps of GW conducting Depending on each class, teachers can decide on the order and the time for each one They may also skip some of them As the class is learner-centered, teachers do not decide everything by themselves Learners need to state their ideas on what kind of topics they want to discuss, what GW skills they need to strengthen, how much vocabulary they need, how they want to present the results, and so on Though it

may take a lot of time to get learners used to making these decisions, it is the only way to make sure that learner needs are considered and satisfied

2.3.3.2 Roles of learners

In order to achieve the five criteria of effective GW mentioned in 2.2.3, learners are also required to commit to more active and responsible roles in their own learning process and progress Wright (1987: 37) listed out the learners’ responsibilities in GW as follows:

Learner encourages others to keep working, learner refuses to accept majority decision, learner willingly agrees to change role in group, learner brainstorms ideas about tasks, learner accepts group’s decision, learner converses on task solution, and learner takes on a new role which is accepted by the group

These responsibilities cannot be fulfilled right away Only some Vietnamese learners are active language learners, while the majority of them are shy and familiar with the concept that they should be constantly corrected by the teacher

or the teacher should control the whole lesson

Giving every member a clear role can clarify what learners should do and help them to be more involved in group process Depending on learners’ language competence and personalities, they can take different roles Mallard suggests the four roles essential to the success of most group activities:

- Leader / Facilitator is responsible for keeping the conversation going, for calling on the quiet member, and for helping to monitor those that tend to monopolize the conversation

- Scribe / Recorder who participates by taking notes about the GW Though the oral participation is limited, the role is important because the group needs a record of main points and decisions

- Reporter who is responsible for taking the recorder’s notes and reporting the results of the group’s work to the class

- Participants are who responsible for giving ideas about the issues in a timely manner

Johnson et al (1991) provides another set of roles of (1) the coordinator

(organizes assignment into subtasks, allocates responsibilities, and keeps group

on task), (2) the checker (monitors both the solutions and every team member’s comprehension of them), and (3) the recorder (checks for consensus and writes the final group solution) Heller et al (1992) proposes (4) the skeptic (plays

devil’s advocate, suggests alternative possibilities, and keeps group from leaping

In the language classroom, taking roles is considered more relaxing Learners can take turns to play different roles to gain experience with each one At the beginning, teachers can assign roles for learners to save time The requirements for roles need to be kept simple and learners should be reminded of the roles often After a while, learners will be aware of role assignment and can get roles quickly by themselves

By regarding the classroom as a small community and emphasizing the subjective side of human communication, teachers can provide learners the classroom experiences that involve both learning English and general human development (Sano, Takashaki, & Yoneyama, 1984: 176)

2.3.4 Speaking activities in groups

2.3.4.1 Accuracy and Fluency activities

Speaking activities are generally divided into two main types: accuracy and fluency Accuracy activities involve the repetition of [a] language pattern(s) Fluency activities, on the other hand, aim to get learners to use the items in conversations and other communication without hesitation, even if they make mistakes

It has been argued that as learners move through the levels of an English program, increasing time should be allocated to fluency work Learners at pre-intermediate or higher levels need opportunities to use the resources they have acquired to stimulate real language use As a result, fluency work is the choice for GW tasks for learners at pre-intermediate level

It, however, does not mean that teachers should only conduct fluency activities in groups Though learners in pre-intermediate classes have passed basic levels and can do basic conversations, they still have inaccuracies in grammar, pronunciation, and use a narrow range of vocabulary Therefore, maintaining or even increasing the amount of accuracy work might eliminate some of the mistakes/errors and enrich their language repertoire Teachers can have accuracy-based practice in groups provided that they are meaningful and contextualized Accuracy work can even be done within fluency activities, such

as when groups analyze recorded activities

Depending on each class size, resources, and time available for GW, fluency

or accuracy activities, or the combination of two, can be chosen to be GW tasks

2.3.4.2 Types of activities

There is a wide range of oral fluency activities available to the teacher to conduct in groups of three or more The four basic types are discussion, role-play, gap activities, and communicative games

2.3.4.2.1 Discussion

There are two kinds of discussion: controlled and free discussions in which teachers provide questions or simply let learners control their own discussion According to Hedge (2000), discussion can encourage learners to use the language needed to sustain conversation over a period of time by drawing in other speakers (p 277) It provides learners with opportunities to practice the strategies required in interpersonal communication, such as taking turns, introducing a topic, shifting to a new topic, encouraging response and other contributions, and so on

This type of fluency activity does not always achieve good results Learners may get anxious in formulating opinions or ideas about topics which may be unfamiliar and which they may never have discussed in their first language before The anxiety can keep them silent during the whole discussion There is also a possibility of a few more confident, more extroverted, or more proficient learners dominating, or of the teacher dominating in his or her efforts to stimulate a quiet group Even if it takes place in small groups, discussion does not ensure participation from all members

For these reasons, teachers cannot merely get learners together and ask them

to start talking about a topic The activities chosen should include some materials

to prompt the discussion such as pictures, quotations, or a text about the topic Teachers can also phase the activity into many stages before learners get focusing on the discussion

It is suggested that teachers would be involved in decision making of the following kinds before conducting discussions:

- what the interesting topics for discussion are

- how much support to give for content and how this is presented

- how much to structure the activity with phases and group roles

- whether to establish a goal and what kind of goal to set

- how to organize feedback

- how to encourage as much participation and negotiation of meaning as possible

Hedge (2000: 278) Learners must be motivated to take turns to contribute their ideas Group members can circularly interview each other The review on their contributions

at the end of the activity should also be done so that learners can monitor and check their own progress This group-assessment will then be compared with the teacher’s own evaluation to give suggestions for better performance of the group next time

2.3.4.2.2 Gap activities

The “information gap” activity is usually conducted in pairs when two students ask and answer to find out the information they lack Teachers can also conduct information gap activities in groups by dividing the material into more than two parts The outcome can be various from filling the gaps on worksheets