The loss of innocence metaphors in the catcher in the rye and lord of the flies from cognitive perspective

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES ************************ NGUYỄN HÀ MY THE LOSS OF INNOCENCE - MET

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES

************************

NGUYỄN HÀ MY

THE LOSS OF INNOCENCE - METAPHORS IN

THE CATCHER IN THE RYE AND LORD OF THE FLIES

FROM COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE

Sự hồn nhiên bị đánh mất - Ẩn dụ trong Bắt trẻ đồng xanh và Chúa ruồi

dưới góc độ ngữ nghĩa học tri nhận

M A Major Program Thesis

Major: English Linguistics Code: 8220201.01

Supervisor: Huỳnh Anh Tuấn, PhD

Hanoi – 2021

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES

************************

NGUYỄN HÀ MY

THE LOSS OF INNOCENCE - METAPHORS IN

THE CATCHER IN THE RYE AND LORD OF THE FLIES

FROM COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE

Sự hồn nhiên bị đánh mất - Ẩn dụ trong Bắt trẻ đồng xanh và Chúa ruồi

dưới góc độ ngữ nghĩa học tri nhận

M A Major Program Thesis

Hanoi – 2021

i

DECLARATION

I, the undersigned, declare that this thesis is the result of my own research and has not been submitted to any other university or institution partially or wholly Except where the reference is indicated, no other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in text of the thesis

Hanoi, April 2021 Nguyen Ha My

Also, I would like to thank all of the lecturers of the Department of Post Graduate Studies, Vietnam National University for their useful lectures and materials which are of great value to my thesis

Last but not least, I owe my gratitude to my family for their support and encouragement

Hanoi, April 2021 Nguyen Ha My

iii

ABSTRACT

Entitled The Loss of Innocence - Metaphors in The Catcher in the Rye

and Lord of the Flies from cognitive perspective, the study investigates the

conceptualization and framing of metaphors denoting the theme of fading innocence in the two 1950s coming-of-age classics of world literature The theory of conceptual metaphor proposed by Lakoff and Johnson (1980) and Fillmore’s theory of framing (2009) are employed as the analytical framework for the study In both novels, 24 samples signifying the theme of lost innocence are analyzed These metaphors encompass a variety of frames such

as school and education, life, mentality or people/the adults It is concluded that the frame of mentality possess the highest frequency of conceptual

metaphors as both novels heavily deal with the inner turmoil of the characters

On the other hand, the similarities and differences in the conceptualization and framing of the metaphors also provide a fresh outlook on the distinctive writing styles of each author, as well as unveil the hidden social backgrounds which the novels are based on

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1 Rationale 1

2 Aims and objectives of the study 2

3 Research questions 3

4 Research methods 3

5 Scope of the study 3

6 Significance of the study 4

7 Structure of the thesis 5

CHAPTER 2: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW 7

2.1 Cognitive Linguistics 7

2.2 Cognitive Semantics 8

2.2.1 Definition 8

2.2.2 Conceptualization and construal 9

2.3 Conceptual metaphors 10

2.3.1 Metaphor 10

2.3.2 Conceptual metaphor 13

2.4 Metaphor and Framing 19

2.4.1 Frame and framing 19

2.4.2 Framing and metaphor 20

2.5 Novels and metaphor in novels 21

2.5.1 Novels and coming-of-age stories 21

2.5.2 Metaphor and framing in novels 23

2.6 Previous studies 24

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 28

3.1 Research design 28

3.2 Data for the study 29

3.2.1 J D Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye (1951) 29

3.2.2 William Golding’s Lord of the Flies (1954) 30

3.3 Research procedures 31

v

3.4 Data collection 31

3.5 Data analytical framework 32

CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 39

4.1 Conceptual metaphors and frames in The Catcher in the Rye 39

4.1.1 School and education 40

4.1.2 Life 43

4.1.3 People and the adults 45

4.1.4 Mentality 48

4.2 Conceptual metaphors and frames in Lord of the Flies 53

4.2.1 The boys 54

4.2.2 Mentality 58

4.2.3 Life 61

4.3 Comparison of the conceptualization and framing of metaphors 62

4.3.1 Similarities 62

4.3.2 Differences 65

4.4 Implications behind the comparison 68

4.4.1 In terms of artistic style 68

4.4.2 In terms of social and historical context 70

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION 74

5.1 Recapitulation 74

5.2 Concluding remarks 75

5.3 Implications 77

5.4 Limitations 79

5.5 Recommendations for further study 80

REFERENCES 81 APPENDIX I

vi

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES Table 3.1 The analysis of the conceptualization process of a metaphor 35 Table 3.2 The analysis of the framing process of a metaphor 36 Table 3.3 The analysis of the similarities and differences between the

conceptual metaphors in the two novels 38 Figure 3.1 Analytical process of the metaphors and frames 32

Figure 4.1 Conceptual metaphors and frames in The Catcher in the Rye 40 Figure 4.2 Conceptual metaphors and frames in Lord of the Flies 54

on the human experience and thus describes the world as people conceive of

it It is the bridge joining the human thought and language It helps human beings to comprehend the complexity of the world in relations to more tangible notions

The human psychology is always bewildering and that of a youngster is even more mystifying The young are at the threshold of simplicity and intent They are soon to enter adulthood, welcoming challenges as well as losing innocence How they express themselves and how they see the world are what intrigues the researcher More than that, with the aid of conceptual metaphors and the wonder of literature, the theme of innocence appears vibrant and

relatable J D Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye and William Golding’s Lord of

the Flies are the two coming-of-age novels that profoundly explore the theme of

innocence and also gain a classic status among readers These are the literary works with not only thought-provoking theme but also a masterful play on words The researcher has chosen one from America and the other from Britain

in order to make the necessary comparison The conceptualization of innocence

in the two novels may vary due to the mere difference in origin Those differences can open up a whole new kind of revelation on the aspects of culture, artistic value, and the human experience Moreover, innocence, youth, and loss are ideas that seem abstract However, via the conceptualization of conceptual

2

metaphors, they are perceived not only in humbler terms but also encompass a variety of implications The contributions of conceptual metaphors and of the differences in the origin to highlighting the theme are what inspire the researcher

to carry out the study entitled “The Loss of Innocence - Metaphors in The

Catcher in the Rye and Lord of the Flies from cognitive perspective.”

Conceptual metaphors in literary works have been the study subject of

countless research Metaphors denoting familiar themes such as love, life, and

death have been investigated extensively However, the theme of fading innocence is infrequently discussed The study of conceptual metaphors, as

well as of the beautiful theme of innocence, is an intriguing issue worth elaborating Innocence and adulthood are what every human being has gone through at some point Nonetheless, each individual will have unique perceptions on the experience, which can be greatly enhanced by the differences in origin It is hoped that this paper will contribute to the comprehension and interpretation of conceptual metaphors in literature, bringing Vietnamese readers closer to these classics and to the notion of metaphors from cognitive perspective

2 Aims and objectives of the study

The researcher aims to give a closer investigation into conceptual metaphors signifying the theme of lost innocence in two world-famous novels

about adolescent growth, The Catcher in the Rye and Lord of the Flies In

detail, the objectives are as follows

 To identify the conceptual metaphors establishing the loss of innocence in the frame of cognitive semantics

 To explore how the metaphors are framed

 To investigate the similarities and differences in the conceptualization and framing of metaphors in the two novels

 How are the metaphors framed?

 What are the similarities and differences between the conceptualization and framing of metaphors in the two novels?

4 Research methods

The study will be conducted via contrastive and comparative analysis, with a view to exploring the similarities and differences in the

conceptualization of conceptual metaphors expressing innocence in the two

novels The Catcher in the Rye (1951) and Lord of the Flies (1954), in the light

of cognitive semantics

The data are investigated within the framework of Lakoff and

Johnson’s Metaphors We Live By (1980) The metaphors are qualitatively

analyzed in order to unravel their meanings Then, they are contrastively and comparatively inspected so as to unveil the similarities and differences, ultimately leading to the conclusions and implications behind the metaphors Consequently, these findings are expected to assist the teaching, learning, and translating of metaphors from cognitive perspective

5 Scope of the study

First of all, two literary works are chosen as data for the study

 The Catcher in the Rye (1951) by American author J D Salinger

 Lord of the Flies (1954) by British author William Golding

4

The research focuses on the conceptual metaphors denoting the theme

of innocence from cognitive perspective Specifically, the greatest theme is

innocence, or the loss of innocence, thus metaphorical expressions indicating

any aspects related to innocence are collected and analyzed The purpose of the study is to accentuate the fading innocence in youngsters when thrown into the so-called real world - where humanistic values seem to be diminished

to make ways for materialism or survival

The metaphorical denotation ranges from the depiction of the society, the adults, to school life/life It also revolves around the characters’ reflection

on the aforementioned aspects For instance, referring to life, there is: “Life is

a game that one plays according to the rules.” Conversely, on describing the boys themselves, this metaphor is chosen: “They walked along, two continents of experience and feeling, unable to communicate.”

6 Significance of the study

The research is expected to be a useful reference material to those interested in cognitive linguistics in general and cognitive semantics in particular Also, it will serve as an accessible source for future related studies,

in the fields of literature, psycholinguistics, or psychology

Moreover, the paper is hoped to help readers understand conceptual metaphors in literary works Consequently, it is aimed at contributing to the teaching of language and literature in departments of foreign languages at universities

Lastly, the researcher hopes to bring The Catcher in the Rye and Lord

of the Flies to more readers as they are truly profound and phenomenal works

of art Additionally, conducting the study on these classic novels about adolescence, the researcher would like readers to reflect and contemplate the

7 Structure of the thesis

The master thesis is divided into five main chapters of Introduction, Theoretical Background and Literature Review, Research Methodology, Findings and Discussion, and Conclusion

Chapter 1: Introduction: It is important, first and foremost, to state

the reasons, objectives, and values of the research Consequently, the Introduction involves six sections: Rationale, Research significance, Research goals, Research questions, Research scope, and Research Method

Chapter 2: Theoretical Background and Literature Review: This

chapter provides details of other studies related to the issue under investigation, and establishes a framework for the thesis Specifically, conceptual metaphors in the light of cognitive semantics are the focus of the thesis Besides, the fundamentals of novels will also be mentioned

Chapter 3: Research Methodology: This chapter discusses the steps

in the conducting of the study and the materials used in each step The description of samples, along with the process of data collection and data analysis, is also described

Chapter 4: Findings and Discussion: This chapter states what can be

learned during the research and interprets the results In detail, the focus is put

upon the analysis of conceptual metaphors expressing “loss of innocence” in

the two chosen novels The ultimate goal is to unveil their intentions, as well

as provide a contrastive account on the use of conceptual metaphors from American and British point of view

6

Chapter 5: Conclusion: This part summarizes how to conduct the

research to the objectives, and offers possible guidelines for future research Five parts are included: Recapitulation, Concluding remarks, Implications, Limitations, and Recommendations for further study

2.1 Cognitive Linguistics

According to Evans (2007), cognitive linguistics, or cognitive linguistics enterprise, is a modern linguistic discipline that principally

involves examining “the relationship between language, the mind and

socio-physical experience.” The emphasis is the interrelation between meaning,

conceptual processes, embodied experience, and the mind Instead of solely investigating an articulated structure, cognitive linguistics places its focus on the human mind Simply put, cognitive linguistics is the combination of both linguistics and cognitive sciences, which is based on human perception and the individual conceptualization of the world

There are two principal commitments that govern cognitive linguistics, which are Generalization Commitment and Cognitive Commitment

First, Generalization Commitment refers to the representation of general principles that govern all facets of human language This commitment supports the supposition crucial to cognitive linguistics that language reflects general cognitive mechanisms and processes Therefore, generalization commitment makes way for the pursuit of shared organizing principles across different language systems Such common organizing principles involve

In short, cognitive linguistics does not merely stop at the external

structure of language It deals with “the considerably more complex backstage

operations of cognition that create grammar, conceptualization, discourse, and thought itself.” (Fauconnier, 2006) Basically, it is a school of linguistic

practice, focusing on the relationship between human language, the human mind, and embodied experience Cognitive semantics and cognitive grammar are considered the two most advanced sub-fields of cognitive linguistics Specifically for the research, the foundation is cognitive semantics

2.2 Cognitive Semantics

2.2.1 Definition

Cognitive semantics inspects “the relationship between experience, the

conceptual system and the semantic structure encoded by language.” (Evans,

2007:26) In detail, cognitive semantics revolves around how knowledge is presented (the conceptual structure) and how meaning is constructed (the process

of conceptualization) In cognitive semantics, meanings of expressions are mental, and the focus is placed on lexical meaning rather than sentence meaning

Also, language is regarded as “the lens” which examines all the cognitive

9

occurrences Cognitive semanticists are engrossed in not only modeling the human mind but also inspecting the linguistic semantics There are several

outstanding theories in cognitive semantics, including Blending Theory, Mental

Spaces, and Conceptual Metaphor Theory

2.2.2 Conceptualization and construal

According to Evans (2007:31), concept is defined as “the fundamental

unit of knowledge central to categorization and conceptualization.” Concepts

are inbred from the early stages and then re-described by experience through perceptual meaning analysis Concepts can be encrypted in a language-specific format known as the lexical concept Concepts are comparatively stable cognitive entities; however, they can be altered by enduring episodic and repeated experiences

In terms of conceptualization, it refers to the contribution of language

to meaning construction Conceptualization is also related to the nature of dynamic thought Linguistic units such as words not merely transmit meaning, but also contribute to the process of meaning construction which takes place

at the conceptual level In addition, rich encyclopedic input and multifaceted processes of conceptual integration help to consolidate meaning

All in all, it can be summarized that “lexical meanings are dynamic and

sensitive to contextual demands, rather than fixed and stable.” (Paradis, 2004)

On the other hand, construal is described as how language users

“package” and “present” a conceptual representation pinned in language,

which ultimately has effects on the conceptual representation that the utterance arouses in the hearer’s mind This process is operated by selecting a specific focal tuning, leading to a scene that has been linguistically arranged

In turn, the speaker fixates a unique construal upon that scene

10

As stated by William Croft and D Alan Cruse (2004), there are four (iv) main cognitive abilities that play an active part in the construction of construals They are (i) attention/salience, (ii) judgment/comparison, (iii) situatedness, and (iv) constitution/gestalt In detail, attention is a process of gaining control while salience is associated with planned actions that resolve uncertainty Then, the second factor deals with the ability of making

judgments Next, situatedness relates to individual perspectives, and Gestalt

refers to the acquisition and maintenance of meaningful perceptions It is the operations of construals onto the material per se that enrich the meanings of lexical expressions

Overall, cognitive semantics is a part of cognitive linguistics that studies both the linguistic meaning and the human cognitive ability Moreover, language reflects not only the world but also the distinctive human construal of the world This unique viewpoint is composed via the lens of the individual embodiment In other words, human reality can be regarded as

“projected reality.” (Evans and Green, 2006:48)

The first ones to show interest in dissecting metaphors are philosophers They are prone to agree that literal speech is the key part of language; hence metaphorical expressions are merely infrequent deviations

In the definition from Oxford Dictionary, metaphor is “a word or phrase used

to describe somebody/something else, in a way that is different from its

11

normal use, in order to show that the two things have the same qualities and

to make the description more powerful.” Basing on this, metaphors do seem

like a figure of speech with an influence that is more apt for literature For long, metaphors have been treated as part of figurative language such as simile It seems that both similes and metaphors express comparisons in one

way or another (Lycan, 2000) The Aristotelian “comparison view” (as cited

in McGlone, 2007) summarizes the structure of a metaphor with X is Y; which is the equivalent ellipsis of a simile X is like Y Nevertheless, there are

more to metaphors as scholars argue

Beardsley (1966) expresses criticism in those regarding metaphor as a kind of poetic embellishment that is not essential in daily life He debates that metaphors not only emerge from poetry and imaginative works but also play a notable part in expository and persuasive works Being highly functional, they appear in everyday conversation Moreover, with the Conceptual Metaphor Theory as proposed by Lakoff and Johnson in 1980, the role of metaphors has become clearer in the eyes of the public

2.3.1.2 Contemporary views

In contrast to the traditional view of metaphors being the decoration in fictional works; the contemporary ideal views metaphors as the foundation of human thought, which take part in every aspect of life

In the words of Lakoff and Johnson (1980:4), metaphor is “pervasive”

on a daily basis; and that the human’s conceptual system, which determines

how one thinks and acts, is “fundamentally metaphorical in nature.” Saeed

(2003) also expresses agreement and adds that cognitive semantics is also identified by how thought and language affect metaphor Cognitive linguists claim metaphor as significant and not minimal at all, stressing the construal of

meanings and the embodied understanding of the situation Metaphors We

12

Live By (1980) has truly arisen a revolution in the area of cognitive

linguistics From then on, scholars have been following the cognitive approach and researching in the same direction, claiming that metaphor is essentially a way of thinking, rather than mere characteristic of language

As observed, people often talk about abstract notions by using the words of more concrete concepts People employ words of concrete source field to talk about an abstract target field It is typical of speakers to consider life a journey For instance, people frequently use the following phrases to indicate that life is a journey:

He’s without direction in life

I’m where I want to be in life

I’m at a crossroads in life

She’ll go places in life

He’s never let anyone get in his way

She’s gone through a lot in life

(Kovecses, 2002)

As can be seen, these are casual, day-to-day expressions; not some kind

of poetic displays Moreover, these are instantiations that do not support the

external linguistic structure of X is Y There is a deeper conceptual level that

goes beyond the level of word meaning, because one simply cannot go or

walk through life Now, there are versions of life is a journey; time is money;

or ideas are plants These interpretations lead to the theory of conceptual

metaphor Such thinking turns metaphor from language into conceptual domains From the cognitive view, people comprehend one conceptual domain in terms of another conceptual domain There must be certain similarities that connect the two domains The two domains of conceptual metaphor are called source domain and target domain The former domain is

13

called the source domain, from which we will draw metaphorical meaning to comprehend the latter In detail, conceptual metaphors make use of the components in the source domain that are more familiar and direct, yet still associated with the characteristics of the target domain, to signify the ideas in the target domain In simpler terms, people are trying to understand the abstract concept through the use of the more concrete one

Metaphor is claimed to have a vital role in shaping the thinking and the

talking about the world They are “ubiquitous” in everyday-life conversations

and reflect how individuals perceive the world It can be summarized that the

“metaphorical essence of language is the refection of human nature.” (Ma &

Liu, 2008)

For the research, contemporary views on metaphor serve as the guiding principles Thoughts and actions are naturally embedded in metaphors They are not the mere embellishment of literary language but are omnipresent in everyday language How the characters converse and how they perceive the world are manifestations of metaphors, which are brilliantly created by the writers Investigating metaphors in terms of contemporary views, or in other words, in the field of cognitive linguistics, is far more liberating and profound compared to their traditional views

2.3.2 Conceptual metaphor

2.3.2.1 Definition

Conceptual metaphor in the light of cognitive semantics, especially within the theoretical framework of Lakoff and Johnson (1980), is definitely

an intriguing study subject

Lakoff and Johnson (1980:5) state that “the essence of metaphor is

understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another.” Evans

(2007:136) further adds that metaphor is a “form of conceptual projection

represented in the source domain can be applied to the target domain LOVE

IS A JOURNEY is a typical example of a conceptual metaphor; in which the

target domain LOVE is structured within the source domain JOURNEY, allowing people to think and talk about love in terms of journey A conceptual

metaphor is constructed by a set of conventional mappings which are enduringly accumulated in long-term memory As a result, conceptual

metaphor is indicated as “a basic and indispensable instrument of thought.”

(Evans, 2007:136)

2.3.2.2 Classification

According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980), there are three (iii) main types of metaphors: (i) structural, (ii) orientational, (iii) and ontological

First, structural metaphors are “metaphors […] where one concept is

metaphorically structured in terms of another.” For instance, ARGUMENT IS WAR Here, ARGUMENT is structured and directly referred to as WAR

Second, orientational metaphors “give a concept a spatial orientation.” I’m

feeling up is an example where HAPPY IS UP Third, ontological metaphors

are created when one’s experiences are established as entities and substances

For example, Inflation makes me sick; in which INFLATION IS AN ENTITY

Nevertheless, in the 2003 edition of Metaphors We Live By, the authors have made some corrections in the Afterword, declaring that such

classification is artificial as all metaphors are structural

15

2.3.2.3 Related concepts

There are several key notions related to conceptual metaphors, which are (i) domains, (ii) mappings, (iii) projections, (iv) image schema, and (v) entailment

(i) Domains, also experiential domains, are comparatively complex knowledge structures which relate to the intelligible aspects of experience Obviously, there are source domain and target domain in conceptual metaphors Any conceptualization or knowledge configuration, no matter how simple or intricate, can serve as the cognitive domain for the characterization

of meanings For example, the conceptual domain journey is supposed to include representations for traveller, mode of transport, route, or destination

A conceptual metaphor aims to establish connections known as cross-domain mappings between a source domain and a target domain by projecting representations from one domain unto the equivalent representations in another domain There must be somewhat similarities between the source and target domain

(ii) Mapping “governs the way in which parts of an attention pattern

are mapped onto parts of the scene described by a linguistic utterance.”

(Evans, 2007:130) In other words, mapping directs the attention onto the parallel representations in the two aforementioned domains In detail, mappings are correspondences between units of the conceptual system Some mappings have temporary associations owing to the dynamic processes of meaning construction On the other hand, others are stable and consistent in long-term memory Those which hold in long-term memory are generally connected to Conceptual Metaphor Theory and are known as cross-domain mappings

16

(iii) Projection relates to conceptual operations involving mappings in conceptual metaphors Projection is basically the bridge between the two domains and their mappings It is the knot binding one domain with another; and the condition for such conceptual integration as the matching of corresponding concepts across domains

(iv) Image schema is an abstract representation that originates from the very own human’s interaction with and observation of the world Image schemas arise from sensory and perceptual experience (Evans, 2007:106) They involve patterns that develop from recurring occurrences of embodied

experience It can be inferred that words such as thing or container has more schematic meanings than words like pencil or teacup Lakoff and Johnson

further argue that image schemas could serve as source domains for metaphoric mapping In short, image schemas are the knowledge structures that derive directly from bodily experience

Image schema can be an alliance with the Conceptual Metaphor Theory In detail, abstract notions, facilitated by metaphor, are seen as having

an image-schematic basis with the ultimate root of embodied experience Undoubtedly, highly abstract concepts are unlikely to be constructed in terms

of simple image schemas but more likely to be structured in complex ways by

a network of intermediate mappings called “inheritance relations.” It can be

also indicated that specific concepts must relate in part to subjective experiences as the likes of emotions Conceptual Metaphor Theory proposes that abstract concepts can partially be traced back to image schemas

(v) Entailment, or inference, can provide additional knowledge to the conceptualization and perception of metaphor This is due to the fact that some facets of the source domain cannot be overtly stated in the mappings, yet can be inferred and mapped onto the source domain by particular

17

linguistic utterances Accordingly, metaphoric mappings can convey “rich

inferences” known as metaphoric entailments Consider the following

instances with the conceptual metaphor AN ARGUMENT IS A JOURNEY:

1 We will proceed in a step-by-step fashion

2 We have covered a lot of ground

(Evans and Green, 2006)

In this metaphor, PARTICIPANTS in the argument are referred to as TRAVELLERS, ARGUMENT corresponds to JOURNEY, and the PROGRESS of the argument parallels the ROUTE taken In the source domain JOURNEY, travellers can get lost, they can stray away from the path,

or they can fail to reach their destination The association between the source and target domain gives rise to the entailment that these events can also occur

in the target domain ARGUMENT

All in all, the conceptualization of metaphors involves various steps yet there are five main concepts that are closely related to the process, which are domains, mappings, projections, image schema, and entailment While domains with source and target domain serve as the core foundation for metaphor, mappings are the correspondence of those two domains and projections are the bridge between Image schema and entailment are also closely related to metaphor with image-schema being the abstract representation and entailment giving further details into the conceptualization and comprehension of metaphors

2.3.2.4 Conceptual Metaphor Theory

On the whole, the study of conceptual metaphors is compiled in Conceptual Metaphor Theory, a theoretical framework established by Lakoff and Johnson

18

This is a theoretical framework developed by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, but also allied with other eminent researchers including the likes of Zoltán Kövecses, Raymond Gibbs, and Mark Turner Conceptual Metaphor

Theory was first presented by Lakoff and Johnson in 1980 with Metaphors

We Live By As aforementioned, this is a revolutionary step towards the study

of metaphors, paving the way for other linguists to look at metaphor as an instrument of thought rather than of mere language Conceptual Metaphor Theory is one of the founding theoretical frameworks in cognitive semantics and has since served to establish the relationship between language, mind and embodied experience The basic principle of Conceptual Metaphor Theory is that thought is essentially and naturally metaphorical Accordingly, conceptual structure is systematized by cross-domain mappings or correspondences between conceptual domains Evans (2007:35) adds that while some of the mappings are a result of pre-conceptual embodied experiences, others build on these experiences in order to form more complex conceptual structures Again, conceptual operations relating to mappings, such as conceptual metaphor, are known more commonly as conceptual projection

Overall, concerning metaphors from cognitive perspective, it can be summarized within three ideas Firstly, metaphor is not merely of linguistic endeavor; it is also related to the human mind, hence having an impact on how people think and act Secondly, metaphor is not the decorative language used in poetry; it is in the usual communication that takes place each day Thirdly, metaphor is the conventional mapping from the source domain to the target domain The mapping comes from one’s embodied experience within the domains and his/her ability to construct one concept with regards to the other

19

2.4 Metaphor and Framing

2.4.1 Frame and framing

Knowledge represented in the frame is the conceptualization of the experience that often does not match reality How an experience is framed is a matter of construal; it depends on how the speaker conceptualizes the experience to be communicated, for the understanding of the hearer

Frame, script, or schema is referred to as “structures of

expectation.” It is based on past experiences and seen in the surface

linguistic form of the sentences of a narrative In the end, it helps us to process and comprehend stories which serve to filter and shape perception In other words, expectations about social interaction are

organized into structured sets, or “frames.”

There have been various arguments on what the concepts of frame are According to Bateson (1955), frames explain how individuals exchange signals that allow them to agree upon the level of abstraction at which any

message is intended Ross (1975) further clarifies that the “structures of

expectations” are based on human’s experience of the world in a given

culture A person organizes knowledge about the world and uses this knowledge to predict interpretations and relationships regarding new

information, events, and experiences More recently, it is argued that frame

“originated as a narrowly defined technical problem in logic-based artificial

intelligence” yet now it has become deeply personal and construal, as an

“embellished and modified form by philosophers of mind, and given a wider

interpretation.” (Shanahan, 2003)

Basically, frame is the background knowledge that (i) concerns a particular aspect of the world, (ii) generates expectations and inferences, and

20

(iii) links with particular lexical and grammatical choices in language Frame

is the combination of knowledge and language

As stated by Semino et al (2016), framing involves selection and salience, meaning that frame is responsible for selecting certain aspects of reality and making them more salient Metaphors are important in cognition

as they express, reflect, and reinforce different ways of making sense of particular aspects of life Therefore, the central function of metaphor can be

referred to as “framing.” An example is given by Semino et al (2016) is being

ill with cancer can be regarded as going through a fight or a journey The difference in the two framings implies the difference in the conceptualization

of the experiences Ultimately, from cognitive perspectives, it can be stated that metaphors are operated and accentuated in thought

All in all, metaphor and framing, both are universal yet deeply personal They are formed via the basis of the most humanistic needs

2.4.2 Framing and metaphor

The relationship between framing as a process and types of conceptual

metaphor is rather unclear, which gives rise to such terms as “scenario” and

“specific sub-domain category.” In detail, “scenarios” provide a platform to

link the conceptual side of metaphor to its usage pattern Conceptual metaphors then serve as overarching frames which inform and influence discourse Therefore, it is safe to state that metaphorical descriptions of the same topic can influence people’s reasoning

The bias between the source domain and the target domain constitutes

the “framing” power of metaphor According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980),

“domain” can be regarded as “chunks” of conceptual structure involved in the

mappings As frame is the sub-domain structure, a domain can subsume

21

multiple frames For instance, the BODY domain may include EXERCISE and

INGESTION frames

Framing is the process of involving the use of metaphorical expressions

to reflect and facilitate particular understanding and evaluations Framing is how individuals perceive themselves and manifest in their metaphors Thus, metaphorical expressions reflect personal experiences In addition, conceptual metaphors compare the broad metaphorical framings of the same idea across different languages or cultures An example taken from Semino’s article

(2016) is that, some cancer patients would like to be called “fighter” for it is

empowering; while some detest that title, claiming that it would make them feel weak, losing a battle that cannot be won

In general, the “framing” function of metaphor and its framing effects

are highly powerful Framing implications consider the more specific

sub-domain conceptual structures (scenarios) and the context-sensitive properties

of specific expressions Metaphor and framing, though following particular thinking patterns, are greatly individualistic; differing from cultures and ultimately stemming from personal experiences Again, the relation between metaphor and culture is deepened

2.5 Novels and metaphor in novels

2.5.1 Novels and coming-of-age stories

Defining literature, American author Henry Van Dyke appeals,

“Literature consists of those writings which interpret the meanings of nature

and life, in words of charm and power, touched with the personality of the author, in artistic forms of permanent interest.” Literature is the manifestation

of life, the representation of the artists, and the passion of the people

Novel is one genre of literature A novel is “a fiction in prose of a

certain context.” (Chevalley, as cited in Forster, 1954) In short, novel refers to

22

a form of fictional writing, with characters and events, in a particular setting,

altogether creating a story Though invented, a novel still “allows a more

immediate imitation of individual experience.” (Watt, 2001) A novel must

present a candid slice of the human life and experience

Coming-of-age novels, evidently, focus on the coming-of-age transition

of individuals As defined by Oxford Dictionary, “coming of age” is “the time

when a person reaches the age at which they have an adult’s legal rights and responsibilities.” In genre studies, a coming-of-age story is a genre of

literature, or film that sets a sight on the growth of a protagonist from youth to adulthood Coming-of-age stories tend to emphasize dialogue or internal monologue over action The subjects of coming-of-age stories are typically teenagers However, coming-of-age books are not solely aimed at youngsters;

they are “timeless” because “there are so many different ways you can make a

connection” and they comfort readers that “you are not alone.” (Lee, 2018)

The struggles of what will become, the new yet challenging threshold of adulthood is a universal experience Sometimes the young may feel misunderstood, they may feel lost and they may feel rebellious Some may say the young are a plague with bad manner and reckless attitude However, internally, everyone wants to feel belonged and yearns for connection Coming-of-age novels offer a closer look into the mind of youngsters; and hopefully, their voice will be heard They are gradually losing the innocent and carefree mentality from before, to enter a chaotic world of responsibility and calculation The loss of innocence, or the mourn for it, especially expressed via conceptual metaphors; is an intriguing study subject, not only in terms of linguistic and literary devour but also in human psychology

There are numerous elements constituting a novel; including characters, theme, and such rhetorical devices as irony or metaphor In this paper, the

23

focus is put upon the set of conceptual metaphors which denote the theme of innocence

2.5.2 Metaphor and framing in novels

Formerly, metaphors were considered a product of literature They were once seen as the flowery and fancy language, made specifically for literary works However, in the light of cognitive linguistics, metaphors are regarded as an instrument of thought, and they are omnipresent in everyday life According to Semino and Steen (2008), metaphor in literature needs to be

examined within its relationship with “discourse analytical, corpus-linguistic

and psycholinguistic techniques.” In addition, as proposed by Goodbody

(2018), frames in novels offer “the complexity and ambivalence” which distinguishes literature among other types of discourse Therefore, when dealing with framing in novels, “sensitivity” should be taken into notice so as

to uncover the implications and message behind the linguistic choices of the authors

On the whole, combining literary approaches with humanistic perspectives is the current method to assess and analyze metaphors in literature Henceforth, investigating metaphors via cognitive perspective can unveil a variety of aspects, useful for not only for literary and linguistic study but also for social studies

For this research, The Catcher in the Rye and Lord of the Flies are

chosen Both are praised as classics of young adult fiction They represent the beauties and complexities of the human mind, and in this specific case, of the youngsters Though their setting and plot could not be more different, both novels deal with the same, universal theme of adolescent growth and the loss

of innocence Despite being written a long time ago, their relevant and thought-provoking theme has enduringly held them in high regard in the

24

literature world The metaphors and frames abounding in these two novels certainly help shape and create the envisioned worlds of the authors, eventually leading unto the implied message that lies behind

To put it briefly, novels, though fictitious, serve to reflect some kind of aspects of the human life and experience One way to investigate the characters’ psyche, the novels’ value, and the authors’ message is via the set

of metaphors

2.6 Previous studies

Cognitive linguistics is a relatively modern school of linguistics It has been receiving vigorous scholarly attention since the 1970s Cognitive linguistics has emerged as a powerful approach to the study of language, conceptual systems, human cognition, and general meaning construction Not

only focusing on the “linguistic” side of language, cognitive linguistics is also

related to other fields such as social psychology, artificial intelligence, and anthropology

Within the scope of cognitive linguistics, conceptual metaphor is a subject that garners one of the most impressive explorations It all started with

the 1980 volume Metaphors We Live By composed by Lakoff and Johnson

Thanks to this work, metaphors, as well as cognitive linguistics, have been brought closer to the public Metaphors now are not a matter of poetic and far-fetched language They are the basis of human thought and action, which take place every day

The study of conceptual metaphors has spawned various research trends, highlighting the different facets of conceptual metaphors, ranging from cross-domain mapping to the very specific cases of metaphors signifying certain themes It is clear that every notion can now be mapped unto and expressed effortlessly via conceptual metaphors For instance, Cemal Çakir’s

in the translation corpus indicate that conceptual metaphors should be among the criteria in the selection and design of materials in teaching English lexicon, and that a cross-linguistic perspective would be useful while teaching the English metaphors to the learners of English as a foreign language Also,

The relationship between conceptual metaphor and culture is a dedicating

piece of work offered by Iraide Ibarretxe-Antuñano in 2013 This paper discusses the role that culture plays in the conceptualization of metaphors The importance of culture is illustrated with two case studies from two popular conceptual domains in metaphor studies, which are perception and

body parts Moreover, the recent Conceptual Metaphors and Metaphoric

Expressions in Images (2017) by Marianna Bolognesi is also intriguing and

fresh as it deals with the non-linguistic side of language - visuals Generally, conceptual metaphors have close relationship with culture; and its influence in every-day language, be it linguistic or non-linguistic, is pervasive

In Vietnam, there have been various studies on cognitive linguistics and conceptual metaphors Investigations range from research papers to printed books Tran Van Co and Ly Toan Thang are among the most notable scholars

in the field Ly Toan Thang started the 2005’s cognitive linguistics movement

with the publication of 2005’s Ngôn Ngữ Học Tri Nhận - Từ Lí Thuyết Đại

Cương Đến Thực Tiễn Tiếng Việt Tran Van Co has then offered 2009’s Khảo luận - Ẩn dụ tri nhận and 2011’s Ngôn ngữ học tri nhận, Từ điển The main

aspects of cognitive linguistics are introduced in these books, ranging from

26

the historical background, the basic concepts such as mental spaces or category, and especially conceptual metaphors There are plenty of published books so far on the subject, and the number of working papers is not to be taken slightly Nguyen Ngoc Vu (2015) has proposed his take on cognitive

linguistics with English and Vietnamese Idioms: From Traditional to

Cognitive View Phan Thi Huong (2011) further elaborates with The metaphor

“love is a journey” in English and Vietnamese The paper examines the

representations of the conceptual metaphor Love is a journey in English and

Vietnamese, discussing the operations that help language users to denote an

abstract concept (love) in terms of another concept (journey) Afterwards,

comparisons are made between the two languages This is an intriguing approach to conceptual metaphors, also utilizing contrastive analysis Le Thi

Khanh Hoa gives a more comprehensive look on the metaphor of love with her 2015’s master thesis An investigation into conceptual metaphors denoting

“Love” in American and Vietnamese romantic novels from 2008 to 2013 In

fact, there are numerous studies on the conceptualization of love in literature and music The data ranges from novels, short stories, poems to songs Love

seems to be the theme that receives great passion from researchers Overall, the topic of metaphors denoting ordinary theme is proven stimulating and exhaustive with a variety of extraordinary studies

There already exists a variety of research on the subject of metaphor conceptualization in cognitive linguistics Nevertheless, the theme of innocence and the characteristics of coming-of-age stories are not yet fully discovered In addition, the theory of framing is put to work in this study to expansively analyze the groupings of metaphors Also, previous research usually focuses on comparing between the English and Vietnamese language With this study, the researcher would like to expand to other dimensions - the

27

American and British cultures Despite being classified as “Western culture,”

there are certainly differences that expose the culture, lifestyle, and the value

of the society Eventually, how conceptual metaphors denote the theme of life

is never an outdated topic, as life is

The theories of conceptual metaphors and framing in the light of cognitive semantics have been discussed throughout this chapter It should be noted that metaphors are not the flowery language that appear only in

literature, they are the product of thought that are ubiquitous in everyday language Moreover, framing is considered the structures of expectation that

shape a person’s viewpoints and choices of interaction In novels, metaphor and framing are not merely an element of literary tropes; they should be studied in accordance with other humanistic approaches such as psychology

or sociology The findings from theories and empirical research have pinpointed the areas of interest, as well as provided a guideline for how the study is to be conducted

28

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

In this chapter, a brief summary on the research methodology; including the research design, data, data analytical framework, and research procedures; is presented The data, instruments, methods and procedures are under thorough consideration with a view to fulfilling the research goals and objectives The appropriate methodology will serve to address the research questions, ultimately guaranteeing the results of the study

3.1 Research design

The research employs a qualitative approach since it involves describing the types of characteristics that the research subjects represent, rather than focusing on comparing measurements and amounts as often seen

in quantitative methods This is also a descriptive research that focuses on describing the situation of the study Specifically, the process consists of gathering, analyzing and presenting the collected data By implementing this in-depth research design, the researcher is able to provide insights into the

how of research

Moreover, the theoretical pillar of the research is Conceptual Metaphor Theory proposed by Lakoff and Johnson, Fillmore’s theory of framing, and backed up by a contrastive analysis The framework on conceptual metaphor and framing assists the researcher in determining the implications behind the metaphors In addition, the contrastive analysis comes at the end to offer a compare-and-contrast account on the conceptualization of metaphors in the two novels belonging to two different countries The ultimate goal is to unveil the novels’ value and message, uncover the differences in the two cultures, and provide suggestions for the study of the English language and culture in Vietnamese context

29

3.2 Data for the study

Both novels chosen are among the classics of coming-of-age stories which heavily deal with the theme of innocence and the gradual decay of it Both were published in the early 50s, when World War II had just ended They subtly include a large number of conceptual metaphors, covering a variety of frames Moreover, within the almost identical time frame, the conceptualization of metaphors can reveal a great deal in terms of writing style and social surroundings However, likeness is not the only factor being examined The conspicuous differences in the cultural background in America and Britain can also be unveiled via the set of metaphors All in all, a compare-and-contrast approach towards the conceptualization of innocence-related metaphors in the two novels can be enlightening to the study of linguistics, literature, and humanities

3.2.1 J D Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye (1951)

Regarding The Catcher in the Rye, it was written by American author

J D Salinger and first published in 1951 It is considered a classic among

readers of all ages In 2010, the novel was included on Time’s list of the

100 best English-language novels written since 1923 It also ranked 15 on

the BBC’s survey The Big Read in 2003 Though originally aimed at adult

readers, the novel became extremely popular among adolescences because

of its relatable theme of teen angst and alienation It is commended as “the

defining work on what it is like to be a teenager.” (Rohrer, 2009) The novel

deals with issues of identity, loss, and connection; revolving around its

protagonist - the rebel icon - Holden Caulfield The Catcher in the Rye is in

Holden’s narration of the hectic incidents that happen to him when he decides to run away on his own to New York City during Christmas

30

The Catcher in the Rye’s protagonist Holden Caulfield is the ultimate

rebel icon of modern literature His reckless and destructive behaviors may make him come off as a spoiled brat yet a lot of factors have to be taken into consideration to justify his actions His ways of doings is the reflection of the corrupted adults that he has encountered and the product of a society so materialistic that humanity value is overall forgotten Holden’s yearn for connection and his overprotective attitude towards the young have compelled

such a powerful case of loss of innocence that has inspired this research

3.2.2 William Golding’s Lord of the Flies (1954)

Lord of the Flies is the 1954’s debut of Nobel Prize–winning British

author William Golding The novel tells the story of a group of schoolboys who get stuck on a deserted island in the aftermath of a plane crash The boys,

at first, without adults’ supervision, feel as free as the wind As time goes by, the burden and dread of self-governing prove too much for them, entailing a series of catastrophic events The novel’s theme is centered on the conflicting human desires between living in civilization and gaining supreme power Here, the line separating innocence and corruption becomes thinner In 2003,

Lord of the Flies was voted number 70 on BBC’s The Big Read In 2005, Time hailed it as one of the 100 best English-language novels from 1923 to

2005 Conrad (2011) regards Lord of the Flies as a “masterpiece” that “has

never lost its relevance.”

The schoolboys from Lord of the Flies are in their middle childhood or pre-adolescence They are still called “kids.” However, what the so-called

“kids” can do is beyond readers’ imagination When the group of boys is

trapped on a deserted island after a plane crash, their vision of freedom and autonomy is not what they intended at all The boys are slowly losing sense of civilization, turning to savages and abandoning their innocence On the

31

whole, the novel is an allegory for a world without order In depth, it is also a story of kids being pushed into the real world; and without proper guidance, the world can be a dangerous and tempting place that turns even the

3.4 Data collection

24 samples of metaphorical expressions signifying the theme of innocence, or the loss of innocence, are collected in the two 1950s’ novels

There are 14 expressions in The Catcher in the Rye and 10 from Lord

of the Flies They are the contemplations, opinions or reflections of the

characters; at times they are the author’s depictions of the characters

32

These samples, after having been gathered, are categorized into frames

There are four main frames in Catcher and three main frames in Lord Some frames are overlapped among the two novels For Catcher, they are (1)

School and education; (2) Life; (3) People and the adults; and (4) Mentality

On the other hand, Lord offers three frames of (1) The boys; (2) Mentality;

and (3) Life

3.5 Data analytical framework

The analytical process of the metaphors and frames is illustrated as follows

Figure 3.1 Analytical process of the metaphors and frames

The ultimate goal of the study is to explore the meaning of the metaphors and the cultural connotations that ensue Basically, the conceptual metaphors are analyzed in smaller components The source domain and target domain are studied in order to discover their mapping and investigate the

Surface linguistic cue

in bad shape

Conceptual metaphor

EMOTIONAL HEALTH IS PHYSICAL FORM

Frame

mentality