INTRODUCTION
Rationale
Vocabulary plays a crucial role in mastering English as a second language and as a foreign language In addition to the four essential language skills—listening, speaking, reading, and writing—effective vocabulary acquisition is vital for successful communication and comprehension.
Vocabulary is essential for effective communication, as highlighted by Wilkins, who stated, “Without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed” (1972, p.111) It plays a crucial role in activating learners' minds and their ability to express intended meanings According to Hatch (1983), vocabulary knowledge is fundamental for facilitating communication, as well as for reading and writing in a second or foreign language Furthermore, vocabulary often conveys meaning more effectively than grammar in various contexts (Wilkins, 1972) Consequently, teachers employ diverse vocabulary techniques to enhance their students' vocabulary knowledge, enabling them to select appropriate words for conveying messages in different situations Helping learners retain vocabulary items has become a significant concern for educators.
Focusing excessively on grammar while neglecting vocabulary poses significant challenges for both teachers and foreign language learners This approach confines students to the classroom, disconnecting them from real-world communication where vocabulary is essential As a result, learners often overemphasize grammar at the expense of vocabulary, which is crucial for effective communication Moreover, an exclusive focus on grammar means that classroom activities may not align with students' practical language needs outside the classroom While vocabulary learning issues, such as misconceptions and forgetfulness, can hinder language acquisition in elementary schools, these can be mitigated by teaching vocabulary in context when students recognize its necessity According to Allen (1983) and Lewis and Hill (1990), integrating vocabulary learning with real-life situations is key to overcoming these challenges.
Effective vocabulary teaching techniques include the use of pictures, real objects, synonyms, miming, defining, exemplifying, and translation to address memory challenges Additionally, it is essential to present vocabulary items in rich contexts that offer meaningful clues, enabling learners to remember and correctly use words in various situations.
Many students struggle to retain vocabulary despite dedicating significant time to learning new words, often leading to disappointment with their progress Consequently, English teachers face the critical challenge of finding effective strategies to enhance word retention and motivate students during vocabulary lessons.
To enhance vocabulary retention in students, teachers should employ effective techniques for presenting new words Flashcards and word lists are two proven methods that facilitate easy memorization of vocabulary during lessons.
Research indicates that flashcards are more effective than wordlists for vocabulary acquisition among students (Mondria & Mondria-de Vries, 1994; Schmitt & Schmitt, 1995) A study by Komachali & Khodareza (2012) focused on Iranian pre-university students and found that the use of vocabulary flashcards significantly enhanced their vocabulary knowledge, resulting in notable improvements.
Baleghizadeh and Ashoori (2011) highlighted the effectiveness of wordlists as a common method for teaching vocabulary, noting its economical advantage for students learning new words quickly (Thornbury, 2002) Their study examined the impact of both flashcards and wordlists on EFL students' vocabulary acquisition The findings revealed no significant difference in the effectiveness of flashcards versus wordlists, while providing partial support for the idea that flashcards may enhance learning outcomes.
This study aims to explore the effectiveness of using flashcards and wordlists in vocabulary instruction, focusing on their impact on students' memorization of word meanings, spellings, and pronunciations Additionally, the findings will provide valuable insights for English teachers, enhancing vocabulary lessons and teaching strategies.
Aims of the study
This research aimed to investigate the impact of using flashcards and wordlists for vocabulary instruction on students' ability to memorize word meanings, spellings, and pronunciations By comparing these two techniques, the study sought to determine which method is more effective for teaching vocabulary The findings are anticipated to provide valuable insights for educators in enhancing vocabulary instruction strategies.
Research questions
1 Which technique (flashcards or wordlists) better facilitates EFL secondary school learners’ retention of word meaning?
2 Which technique (flashcards or wordlists) better facilitates EFL secondary school learners’ retention of word spelling?
3 Which technique (flashcards or wordlists) better facilitates EFL secondary school learners’ retention of word pronunciation?
Scope of the study
This research investigates the impact of flashcards and wordlists on vocabulary teaching, specifically assessing students’ retention of word meaning, spelling, and pronunciation The study aims to determine which technique more effectively aids EFL secondary school learners in remembering these aspects of vocabulary Notably, other vocabulary components, such as grammar and collocation, are not addressed in this research The experimental course utilized the 8th Grade English Textbook published in Vietnam.
Education Publishing House The study was conducted among secondary students who were 14 years old They were in grade 8.
Thesis design
The thesis comprises four chapters:
Chapter 1 is the introduction, which provides a brief introduction, rationale and overview of the thesis
Chapter 2 presents the literature review, in which the definition and classification of vocabulary, the role of vocabulary in language learning, aspects of vocabulary need to be taught, techniques and principles in teaching vocabulary, flashcards and wordlists in foreign language teaching are also discussed
Chapter 3 presents the experimental study in order to compare the effectiveness of two different vocabulary teaching methods (flashcards with wordlists) about students’ memorization of word meaning, word spelling and word pronunciation This chapter also presents the discussion and some suggestions for the study
Chapter 4 consists of summarize of main findings, implications and limitations
LITERATURE REVIEW
Definition of vocabulary
Vocabulary, defined as a collection of words and their combinations in a specific language (Joklova, 2009), is essential for learners to expand their linguistic repertoire, particularly for academic purposes (Komachali and Khodareza, 2012) Effective vocabulary learning can be facilitated in classroom settings when teachers take into account the students' language proficiency levels, ensuring a successful and impactful learning experience.
The term "vocabulary," derived from the Latin "vocabulum," meaning "name," has been part of the English language since the 16th century According to the Macmillan English Dictionary, vocabulary encompasses all the words in a specific language Various definitions exist, with Joklova (2009) describing vocabulary as a list of words and their combinations in a particular language Lewis (1993) expands on this by stating that vocabulary can include individual words or institutionalized phrases that convey specific meanings within a community Pyles and Algeo emphasize that vocabulary is central to language, as it is through words that we construct sentences and engage in conversations (1970).
Harmer used to indicate that “If language structures make up the skeleton of language, then it is vocabulary that provides the vital organs and the flesh” (Harmer,
Understanding a word involves several skills: recognizing it in spoken or written form, accessing its meaning, pronouncing it correctly, and performing these tasks almost instantaneously (Stahl & Fairbanks, 1986).
To summarize, vocabulary is the total number of all the words that a language possesses including single words, two or three words items expressing
7 single idea and multi-word idioms of which meaning cannot be deduced from the analysis of the component words but only understood in the sentences; or in contexts, etc.
Classification of vocabulary
Vocabulary can be classified in various ways according to different criteria Here are three most common ways of vocabulary classification
2.2.1 According to the concept of morpheme
According to McCarthy (1990), vocabulary can be categorized into three types: simple words, derived words, and compound words Simple words consist of a single root morpheme, such as "pen," "cat," or "big." Derived words contain one root morpheme along with one or more affixation morphemes, examples being "unhappy," "careless," and "friendliness." In contrast, compound words are formed from at least two roots, with or without affixation morphemes, including terms like "car park," "feedback," and "rainfall."
Vocabulary can be categorized into two types: notional words and functional words Notional words, which possess lexical meaning, comprise a significant portion of a speaker's vocabulary, naming objects, actions, and qualities These include nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs In contrast, functional words, which convey grammatical meaning, derive their significance from their relationships with other words Examples of functional words include particles, articles, and prepositions.
2.2.3 According to the use of word
Vocabulary is divided into two categories: active and passive Passive vocabulary consists of words that students can recognize in reading or listening but may not use themselves This type of vocabulary is essential for enhancing receptive skills like reading comprehension and listening In contrast, active vocabulary includes words that students can confidently use in their own speech and writing.
8 both understand and use in communication Active vocabularies are useful for the productive skills such as speaking or writing Thus, learners should try to activate the passive vocabulary knowledge
Learners possess a significantly larger passive vocabulary than active vocabulary, meaning they understand many more words than they can use in conversation Throughout one's life, the number of words actively utilized is far less than those comprehended Mastering a new word requires extensive practice and contextual understanding, as words can have various meanings depending on their context and the prepositions they are paired with Consequently, having an extensive English vocabulary does not guarantee the ability to use these words and phrases effectively when needed, highlighting the distinction between passive and active vocabulary.
The role of vocabulary in language learning
Vocabulary serves as a crucial foundation for language learners, enabling effective communication According to Wilkins (1972), vocabulary, alongside grammar and phonetics, is essential for conveying meaning; without it, communication is impossible The breadth of one's vocabulary is a key indicator of English proficiency, as insufficient vocabulary can hinder fluency in conversation and reading comprehension Rivers (1981) further highlights vocabulary's significance, describing language as a dynamic entity enriched by words Thus, a strong vocabulary is vital for successful language acquisition and communication.
Vocabulary is often recognized as the most significant challenge for L2 learners, as noted by Meara (1980) This difficulty may stem from the complexity and openness of vocabulary systems, which contrasts with the more structured nature of syntax and phonology.
9 does not have rules the learners may follow to acquire and develop their knowledge
L2 vocabulary learning lacks clear guidelines on which rules to follow or which words to prioritize, making it a challenging aspect of language acquisition (Oxford, 1990) With its vast array of meanings, vocabulary is often viewed as the most complex component of learning any language Despite these challenges, vocabulary remains a key focus in language assessments (Schmitt, 1999) Many learners approach second language acquisition primarily through vocabulary memorization, frequently relying on bilingual dictionaries for communication Consequently, language educators and applied linguists acknowledge the critical role of vocabulary learning and are actively researching effective methods to enhance it, particularly by examining the strategies learners employ for vocabulary acquisition.
In conclusion, vocabulary is essential for non-native English speakers, particularly secondary school learners, as it enables effective communication and comprehension A broad vocabulary allows students to express themselves clearly and understand others, while a limited vocabulary can hinder these abilities Thus, acquiring a strong vocabulary is crucial for all English learners.
The important role of vocabulary raises question of how can learners increase their vocabulary knowledge Prator and Murcia (1979) stated that
Expanding vocabulary is prioritized over grammar skills, highlighting the importance of vocabulary instruction in foreign language teaching However, this process can be challenging, particularly at advanced levels, as effective vocabulary acquisition demands time and effort.
10 time and effort investment In vocabulary teaching, teachers are advised to organize various learning activities to create motivation for learners.
Vocabulary measurement
Ur (1998) states some aspects that the learner should be mastered and the teacher should be taught in order to help the learners in mastering vocabulary They are namely:
- Aspect of meaning (Denotation, connotation, appropriateness and Meaning relationship),
Teaching young learners in elementary school should focus on two key aspects of vocabulary: form, which includes spelling and pronunciation, and meaning, specifically denotation These elements are fundamental for effective vocabulary presentation According to Nation (1990), vocabulary learning can be categorized into two types: receptive learning and productive learning Receptive learning refers to the ability to recognize a word and recall its meaning upon encountering it, while productive learning encompasses receptive learning along with the skills necessary to use the word appropriately in speaking or writing.
According to Cross (1991) the procedure of teaching vocabulary can be divided into three stages, they are namely:
In the presentation stage, educators should employ a variety of recommended techniques while being mindful of their selection to enhance teaching effectiveness.
In the second stage of learning, teachers provide students with various exercises to practice the subject matter These exercises may include tasks such as completing sentences, matching items, and classifying words, allowing students to reinforce their understanding of the material.
- Production In this stage the students are expected to apply the newly learn vocabulary through the speaking activities or writing activities
Grains and Redman (1986, p.13-52) indicated that there are several aspects of lexis that need to be taken into account when teaching vocabulary:
- Boundaries between conceptual meanings: knowing not only what lexis refers to, but also where the boundaries are that separate it from words of related meaning (e.g: bowl, cup and mug)
- Polysemy: distinguishing between the various meaning of a single word form with several and closely related meanings (e.g: head: of a person, of a pin and of an organization)
- Homonymy: distinguishing between the various meaning of a single word form which has several meanings which are not closely related (e.g: a file: used to put paper in or a tool)
- Homophony: understanding words that have the same pronunciation but different spellings and meanings (e.g: see, sea)
- Synonym: distinguishing between the different shades of meaning that synonymous words have (e.g: big, huge)
Affective meaning encompasses the distinction between attitudinal and emotional factors, highlighting the roles of both denotation and connotation, which are influenced by the speaker's attitude and context Additionally, the socio-cultural associations of lexical items play a crucial role in shaping their meaning.
- Style, register, dialect: Being able to distinguish between different levels of formality, the effect of different contexts and topics, as well as differences in geographical variation
- Translation: awareness of certain differences and similarities between the native and the foreign language
- Chunks of language: multi-word verbs, idioms, strong and weak, collocation, lexical phrases
- Grammar of vocabulary: learning the rules that enables students to build up different forms of the word or even different words from that word (e.g: buy, bought, buying)
- Pronunciation: ability to recognize and reproduce items in speech
In short, when teaching a new English word teachers should provide his learners with its pronunciation, spelling, meaning, collocation as well as aspect of meaning (Ur, 1996)
Effective language learning requires mastery of spelling, pronunciation, and meaning of English words Teaching pronunciation is crucial, as it encompasses more than just individual sounds; it includes word stress, sentence stress, intonation, and word linking, all of which affect spoken English Vietnamese learners face unique challenges due to the significant differences in sound systems, rhythmic patterns, and intonation between Vietnamese and English The complexity of Vietnamese vowels and consonants, combined with the absence of final consonant emphasis, contrasts sharply with English's use of consonant clusters Therefore, educators should familiarize students with articulators, assist them in accurate word transcription, and provide diverse pronunciation practice to enhance their speaking skills.
Teaching the grammar of new words is essential for learners, as they need to understand their grammatical functions, variations in form across different contexts, and the rules of regularity and irregularity Additionally, knowledge of singular and plural forms is crucial for correct usage For instance, when introducing a verb, it is important to explain its grammatical applications to ensure learners can use it accurately.
Understanding word formation is essential in language learning, as it encompasses how words are written and spoken, along with their various forms For instance, the verb "buy" has an irregular past form "bought," and when teaching nouns like "child," it's important to also introduce their plural forms, such as "children."
Collocation refers to the habitual combination of words in a specific language, highlighting the constraints on how words can be appropriately paired in context Understanding collocation is essential for effective language learning and word usage, making it a crucial aspect of vocabulary acquisition.
Collocation also enables learners to identify multi word items and further justifies their treatments as single items of the vocabulary Therefore, collocation can provide a useful framework for revising items
The aspect of meaning encompasses denotation, connotation, appropriateness, and meaning relationships Denotation refers to a word's literal meaning, as found in a dictionary; for example, "cat" denotes a domestic carnivorous mammal In contrast, connotation involves the associations and emotional responses—positive or negative—that a word can evoke in different contexts Understanding both denotation and connotation is essential for grasping the full meaning of a word.
Vocabulary instruction
2.5.1 Techniques to teach English vocabulary as a foreign language
Teaching vocabulary is very important in a language in general and in
To effectively enhance English vocabulary, teachers must employ diverse techniques that motivate learners and enrich their language skills It is essential to select appropriate methods based on students' age, interests, and proficiency levels to achieve the best outcomes By utilizing a variety of teaching strategies, educators can facilitate proper English speaking and expand students' vocabulary knowledge.
According to Gains and Redman (1986), effective teaching techniques include the use of realia, flashcards, and gestures Realia involves incorporating actual objects into the classroom, such as a pencil or a rubber, to clarify word meanings Teachers can utilize various items in the classroom environment, like tables and windows, which students can physically interact with The success of learning is enhanced by engaging multiple senses in the educational process.
Flashcards are invaluable tools in language teaching due to their versatility These cards typically feature a picture on one side and a corresponding word on the other, making them effective for various learning activities.
Using mime, action, and gesture as techniques can effectively illustrate actions and grammar concepts, such as kicking, running, or walking These methods provide an enjoyable and engaging experience for children who enjoy acting and moving during lessons.
The following several techniques can be used only with learners who have some knowledge of English, for instance: upper beginner level
Firstly, contrast is the technique which shows differences and similarities about persons, ideas and things
Secondly, enumeration is technique used when any words difficult to explain visually For example, teacher says “colors” and explains this by enumerating or
15 listing various items The teacher may list a number of colors: red, yellow, tan, grey, blue, etc and then the meaning of the word will become clear
Explanation is a key technique for upper beginners with some prior knowledge of English Teachers must ensure that their language is clear and understandable while explaining new words to facilitate effective learning.
One effective technique teachers use to clarify the meaning of a word is through synonyms, which involves providing another word that students already know and understand, and that has a similar meaning For instance, synonyms such as "huge" for "big," "high" for "tall," and "small" for "little" can enhance vocabulary comprehension.
Antonyms are a valuable technique used by teachers to convey the meanings of words This method involves explaining a word by providing its opposite, such as illustrating "sad" as "not happy."
Definition is a common technique employed by teachers to impart meaning to learners, particularly effective for upper beginners This method involves providing definitions of specific words, which can range from simple to complex, including those sourced from dictionaries.
In this approach, the teacher provides translations of vocabulary words in the students' native language, which is an efficient way to convey meaning However, this method may discourage students from engaging with the words themselves It is essential for teachers to consider effective techniques and to remember that vocabulary is best learned in context, as the meanings of many words can vary based on their usage in specific sentences or situations.
According to Wallace (1998), there are several principles for successful teaching which are valid for any method, here are the four principles:
- Aim: what is to be taught, which words, how many words
- Need: target vocabulary should respond students’ real needs and interests
- Meaningful presentation: clear and unambiguous denotation or reference should be assured.
Flashcards in vocabulary teaching
Flashcards, as defined by John Haycraft (1978), are cards featuring printed or drawn words and/or pictures, serving as effective tools for learning and memorizing new vocabulary in the classroom According to the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (1995), these cards can display words, numbers, or images Haycraft identifies two main types of flashcards: word flashcards and picture flashcards Word flashcards, which contain printed words or phrases, can be utilized to practice sentence structure and word order, allowing students to arrange them correctly either individually or as a class On the other hand, picture flashcards are beneficial for presenting and revising vocabulary, acting as prompts for various activities such as illustrating dialogue characters or aiding in improvisation Additionally, they can facilitate simple substitution drills and help identify action verbs.
2.6.1 Flashcards in foreign language teaching
Flashcards are an invaluable tool for educators, beneficial at every stage of the learning process They effectively present, practice, and reinforce vocabulary, making them ideal for classroom activities Once students become accustomed to using flashcards, they can be distributed to early finishers for collaborative small group work, enhancing engagement and learning.
17 make their own sets of mini flashcards that can be taken home for them to play with, with parents and siblings
Flashcards play a crucial role in vocabulary teaching, serving as effective tools for assisting learners in acquiring new words Defined as cardboards featuring a word or simple image, flashcards should have large, clear letters to ensure visibility for all students, regardless of their seating position Using capital letters is recommended for better readability Furthermore, teachers are encouraged to utilize both sides of the flashcards to enhance vocabulary instruction.
Flashcards, featuring new vocabulary in L2 alongside images and translations, serve as an effective tool for both teachers and students for self-study Historically, they have been utilized for various teaching purposes and have been shown to enhance vocabulary acquisition more effectively than traditional word lists (Mondria & Mondria-de Vries, 1994; Schmitt & Schmitt, 1995) Research by Ehri and Roberts (1979) demonstrated that first graders learned printed words more quickly when taught in isolation, although those taught in context gained a better understanding of semantic meanings The versatility of flashcards allows educators and learners to engage in a wide range of activities and games, making them a valuable resource in language learning (Hill, 1990).
According to Haycraft (1978, p.102) and Cross (1991, p.120), there are some advantages of using flashcards in language teaching
- First, flashcards can be used for consolidating vocabulary;
- Second, flashcards are motivating and eye-catching;
- Third, flashcards are effective that can be used for any level students;
- Fourth, flashcards can be taken almost everywhere and studied when are has free moment;
- Fifth, flashcards can be arranged to create logical grouping of the target words;
- Sixth, flashcards are cost effective/inexpensive;
- Seventh, flashcards provide visual link between L1 and the target language;
- Last, flashcards also can be used for practicing structure and word order or for a variety of games
Flashcards offer numerous benefits in the teaching and learning process, particularly for elementary school students They serve as an effective tool for motivating and engaging learners, making lessons more stimulating Additionally, flashcards are versatile and can be utilized by teachers in various situations, enhancing the overall educational experience.
Activities that can be done with flashcards
Flashcards can be done with many different activities, such as:
- Flash: this activity can be used to introduce or review the vocabulary Teacher gets students’ attention then shows them the flashcards very fast
- Slowly: teacher gradually reveals the pictures to the learners
In an engaging classroom activity, the teacher displays at least six flashcards on the board, encouraging students to repeat the associated words After this interactive session, the teacher instructs the class to close their eyes, skillfully removes one flashcard from the board, and conceals it, prompting students to recall which card is missing.
- Lip reading: teacher sticks the flashcards on the board Teacher say a word with her lips then students guess the word
- Flashcards riddles: teacher sticks the flashcards on the board Then teacher describes the feature of the word, students guess the meaning of the word
Kim's game is an engaging classroom activity where the teacher displays flashcards on the board for one minute After this brief observation period, the teacher removes the flashcards, challenging students to recall and write down the words they remember This exercise not only enhances memory retention but also encourages active participation among students.
Wordlists in vocabulary teaching
Wordlists play an important role in vocabulary teaching Teacher uses wordlists to present new words as well as review vocabulary in the lessons
2.8.1 Wordlists in foreign language teaching
A wordlist is a practical tool for language learners, allowing them to write down the second language alongside the first language definition for each word This method effectively presents vocabulary during lessons and is a cost-effective strategy commonly used in classrooms Additionally, wordlists can be mastered quickly, making them a valuable resource for students (Thornbury, 2002).
Wordlist learning is a traditional strategy for vocabulary acquisition, where students write L2 words alongside their L1 definitions This method, as noted by Oxford (1990), relies on the assumption that learners can effectively memorize vocabulary without much context Advocates like Meara (1995) and Nation (1995) argue that wordlists are highly effective for learning L2 vocabulary However, critics suggest that understanding words in various meaningful contexts is crucial for grasping their complexities Baumann and Kameeuni (1991) emphasize the importance of connecting new vocabulary to prior knowledge for effective learning Despite extensive research on vocabulary acquisition, Griffin and Harley (1996) highlight a lack of focus on list learning, which remains popular among learners Yongqi (2003) explores the efficiency of wordlist learning, noting that learners can quickly master a surprising number of word pairs with sufficient repetition.
Baldwin and Lobo (1967, as cited in Yongqi, 2003) discovered that intermediate Spanish college students were able to recall 65% of 100 words after a single exposure Yongqi (2003) further explores the ideal number of words to study at once While Hulstijn (2001) suggests that list learning should be abandoned as a behaviorist method, some empirical research indicates that it can be an effective strategy for teaching and learning second language vocabulary.
2.8.3 Activities that can be done with wordlists
Like activities in flashcards Here are some activities that can be done with wordlists:
- Flash: this activity can be used to introduce or review the vocabulary Teacher gets students’ attention then shows them the words very fast
- Slowly: teacher gradually reveals the words to the learners
In an engaging classroom activity, the teacher displays at least six words on the board and encourages the class to repeat them aloud Afterward, students are instructed to close their eyes while the teacher discreetly removes one word from the board and hides it This interactive exercise enhances memory retention and reinforces vocabulary learning in a fun and effective manner.
- Lip reading: teacher sticks the words on the board Teacher say a word with her lips then students guess the word
- Matching: student match the words with their meanings
Kim's game is an engaging classroom activity where the teacher displays a list of words on the board for one minute After this brief observation period, the teacher removes the words, prompting students to recall and write down as many words as they can remember This exercise not only enhances memory retention but also encourages active participation among students.
THE EXPERIMENT
Research questions
1 Which technique (flashcards or wordlists) better facilitates EFL secondary school learners’ retention of word meaning?
2 Which technique (flashcards or wordlists) better facilitates EFL secondary school learners’ retention of word spelling?
3 Which technique (flashcards or wordlists) better facilitates EFL secondary school learners’ retention of word pronunciation?
Materials
The present study utilized an 8th Grade English Textbook as the primary resource for participants This textbook encompasses sixteen topics, each designed to introduce and practice vocabulary effectively.
22 grammar, as well as develop four language skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing)
Vocabularies in the 8 th Grade English Textbook are learnt by topics These are sixteen topics corresponding with the sixteen units:
- Unit 1: My friends - Unit 9: A first-aid course
- Unit 2: Making arrangements - Unit 10: Recycling
- Unit 3: At home - Unit 11: Traveling around Viet Nam
- Unit 4: Our past - Unit 12: A vacation abroad
- Unit 5: Study habits - Unit 13: Festivals
- Unit 6: The young pioneers club - Unit 14: Wonders of the world
- Unit 7: My neighborhood - Unit 15: Computers
- Unit 8: Country life and city life - Unit 16: Inventions
The experiment focused on two units, specifically unit 14 and unit 15, and consisted of eight lessons delivered over three weeks After each lesson, participants took vocabulary tests assessing word meaning, spelling, and pronunciation, with each test comprising five questions on newly learned words The total score for each test was ten points, with two points awarded for each correct answer The word meaning test required participants to provide definitions in Vietnamese, while the spelling test involved rearranging jumbled letters to form correct words For the pronunciation assessment, participants read the words aloud, and their performances were recorded by the researcher.
Write the meanings of the words:
Read aloud the following words:
Prior to the experimental study, participants completed a general A1 level test sourced from http://www.englishtag.com This assessment comprises five sections, with Parts A and B evaluating students' understanding of grammar, including the verb "to be," present simple tense, imperatives, and negatives.
The article discusses a vocabulary assessment designed for eighth-grade students, focusing on common verbs and nouns related to countries, nationalities, days, numbers, months, weather, and colors It also includes a section on the use of prepositions such as "in," "near," "on," and "under." Additionally, the researcher incorporated forty specific words into the experimental course to evaluate participants' familiarity with them Overall, the tests are deemed suitable and reliable for measuring students' English knowledge at this grade level.
Participants
The study involved 70 participants, aged 14, from Quang Trung Secondary School, comprising 40 males and 30 females They were divided into a treatment group and a control group, each consisting of 35 students Prior to the experiment, a test was administered to ensure all participants were at the same skill level The research focused on these two groups, with data collected and analyzed in the following chapter While some unavoidable variables, such as intelligence and individual characteristics, existed, efforts were made to minimize differences between the two groups.
Procedures
The experimental course spanned three weeks and consisted of eight lessons, during which the researcher taught both the experimental and control groups directly The treatment group utilized flashcards as a learning tool, while the control group relied on wordlists for their instruction.
Prior to the experimental course, a general test was administered to participants in both groups to ensure they were at the same proficiency level The results revealed that students provided several correct answers in part C of the test.
The study assessed vocabulary retention among students who have been learning English since grade 3 Most participants scored four to six correct answers on vocabulary tests, with those achieving six indicating strong memorization skills Some students relied on guesses, associating capitalized words with countries, nationalities, days, and months Results revealed that both groups exhibited similar levels of vocabulary knowledge, although individual memorization abilities varied The experimental course, covering units thirteen to fifteen of the 8th Grade English Textbook, focused on vocabulary and the four language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing, along with grammar Due to time constraints, vocabulary lessons were conducted in the morning, followed by word meaning, spelling, and pronunciation tests in the afternoon, with each vocabulary lesson lasting ten minutes.
The researcher collected word spelling tests after five minutes and conducted a word pronunciation test, where participants read aloud five new words they had learned within two minutes, while their presentations were recorded The scores from the word meaning, spelling, and pronunciation tests were used to evaluate the impact of flashcards and wordlists on learners' abilities to memorize word meanings, spellings, and pronunciations.
Results
The section presents the findings from tests assessing word meaning, spelling, and pronunciation for both the treatment and control groups It also analyzes the score differences across these three types of assessments.
3.5.1 Results from the word meaning tests
This part is about the results obtained from the eight tests on word meaning
The analysis examines the changes in performance by two groups of participants, focusing on those who showed no improvement throughout the course The primary goal was to assess the participants' ability to memorize word meanings after each lesson To evaluate their progress, the researcher employed two distinct scoring methods.
The scoring methods utilized by Chung and Nation (2006), specifically the 20th minus 1st scoring method and the average scoring method, are recognized as conservative approaches for yielding reliable results in research The last score minus the first score method assesses participants' ability to memorize word meanings by comparing their scores from the last test to the first However, this method's reliance on a single test can compromise its reliability, as various factors, such as test familiarity and mood, may influence performance To enhance reliability, the average scoring method is employed, which calculates scores in two ways: by comparing the average of the last two tests to the first two tests and the average of the last four tests to the first four tests This dual approach provides a more comprehensive evaluation of participants' progress throughout the course.
To enhance the reliability of the results, we utilized 27 scoring methods, which included calculating the difference between the last two tests and the first two tests, as well as the difference between the last four tests and the first four tests.
3.5.1.1 The comparison of the scores on the first and the last tests on word meaning made by the two groups
To assess the improvement of two groups from the beginning to the end of the course, we utilized the method of subtracting the initial score from the final score This was calculated by determining the average score of the last test and subtracting the average score of the first test The following table displays the means and standard deviations for both the initial and final tests on word meaning for the treatment and control groups.
Table 3.1 Means and standard deviations of the first test and the last test on word meaning for the treatment and control groups:
Control group Average score on the 1 st test
Average score on the last test
The initial test results revealed a significant difference in average scores between the treatment group (mean: 6.3, SD: 1.6) and the control group (mean: 5.7, SD: 1.4), indicating varying abilities in memorizing word meanings at the start of the course This disparity persisted through to the final test, where the treatment group achieved a mean score of 8.3 (SD: 1.1), compared to the control group's mean of 6.6 (SD: 1.1) Both groups demonstrated improvement throughout the course.
The treatment group demonstrated significant improvement in test scores, starting with a mean of 6.3 (SD: 1.6) on the first test and achieving a mean of 8.3 (SD: 1.1) on the final test In contrast, the control group only showed a modest increase of 0.9 points from their initial score.
Using flashcards to present vocabulary to the treatment group significantly enhanced word meaning memorization, as evidenced by the results from the first and last tests The accompanying table illustrates the fluctuations in scores among participants, highlighting both increases and decreases.
Table 3.2 Result of score on the last test minus score on the first test on word meaning by participants from the two groups:
Group increased the same decreased
Table 3.2 presents the results of two groups, calculated by subtracting the first test scores from the last test scores (refer to Appendix G) This method effectively highlights the changes in vocabulary meaning memorization among participants Notably, 29 participants (83%) in the treatment group demonstrated an increase in their scores.
In a recent study, 23 participants (66%) improved their scores by 2 points, while 5 participants (14%) increased by 4 points, and 1 participant (3%) achieved a 6-point increase Notably, 5 participants (14%) showed no improvement, and 1 participant (3%) experienced a decrease of 2 points In the control group, 17 participants (49%) also increased their scores, all by 2 points.
In a recent study, 46% of participants in the control group showed no improvement, while only 5 participants from the treatment group experienced similar results Notably, two individuals in the control group exhibited a decline in performance, with their scores dropping by 2 points from the first to the eighth test These findings indicate that the treatment group demonstrated significantly greater progress in vocabulary retention and understanding word meanings compared to the control group.
3.5.1.2 The comparison of the scores on the first two tests on word meaning and the last two tests made by the two groups
The average scoring method was determined by subtracting the average score of the first two tests from the average score of the last two tests This approach acknowledges that a single test score may not accurately reflect a participant's abilities, as performance can vary from one day to another By analyzing the scores from both the initial and final tests, the researcher aimed to gain a clearer understanding of the participants' overall progress and capabilities.
Table 3.3 Means and standard deviation of the first two tests and the last two tests on word meaning for the treatment and control groups:
Measure Treatment group Control group
Average score on the 1 st two tests
Average score on the last two tests
The analysis of the test scores reveals significant differences between the treatment and control groups The treatment group achieved a mean score of 6.4 (SD: 1.2) in the first two tests, while the control group had a mean of 5.9 (SD: 0.9) In the subsequent tests, the treatment group improved to a mean of 8.0 (SD: 0.9), reflecting an increase of 1.6 points, whereas the control group only increased to a mean of 6.6 (SD: 0.8), with a 0.7-point rise This results in the treatment group outperforming the control group by 0.9 points Both groups showed improvement, but the treatment group demonstrated a more substantial gain, suggesting a higher number of participants may have boosted their scores significantly For a detailed view of the score changes, refer to Table 3.4.
Table 3.4 Result of score on the last two tests minus score on the first two tests on word meaning by participants from the two groups:
Group increased the same decreased
The results indicate that in the treatment group, 30 participants showed improvement in word meaning memorization, with score increases ranging from 1 to 4 points Notably, participants A24 and A30 achieved the highest increases, while three others improved by 3 points Additionally, 16 participants increased their scores by 2 points, and 9 improved by 1 point In contrast, the control group had 22 out of 35 participants show score increases, with no participants improving by 3 or 4 points; only 7 increased by 2 points and 15 by 1 point The data also revealed that 3 participants in the treatment group did not improve, compared to 11 in the control group, with both groups having 2 participants who decreased their scores by 1 point.
3.5.1.3 The comparison of the scores on the first four tests on word meaning and the last four tests made by the two groups
In addition to comparing the scores from the first two tests with those from the last two tests for two groups, the researcher conducted a further analysis by calculating the average score of the last four tests and subtracting the average score of the first four tests This approach accounts for the possibility that some students may not have performed well on the final test while still achieving good scores on earlier assessments By including the scores from the first two tests of the second half of the course along with the previous two tests, the study enhances its reliability The findings are presented in the table below.
Table 3.5 Means and standard deviation of the first four tests and the last four tests on word meaning for the treatment and control groups:
Measure Treatment group Control group
Average score on the last four tests
The Table 3.5 indicates the differences between the average score on the first four tests and the last four tests on word meaning for treatment and control groups
Discussion
This study aimed to compare the effectiveness of two vocabulary teaching methods—flashcards and wordlists—among EFL secondary school learners The initial assessment administered to the students was a word meaning test.
This study examined the impact of flashcards versus wordlists on learners' ability to memorize word meanings Two groups were involved: a treatment group using flashcards and a control group utilizing wordlists The results highlighted the effectiveness of these different methods in enhancing vocabulary retention.
The study involved a spelling test consisting of 43 words to assess learners' memorization skills in spelling, alongside a pronunciation test aimed at evaluating their ability to memorize word pronunciation The results of the experiment provided valuable insights into the effectiveness of using flashcards and word lists for vocabulary instruction.
3.6.1 The effect of the flashcards and wordlists presentation on memorizing the word meaning
Researchers employed two methods to evaluate the outcomes of the word meaning test: the last score minus the first score method and the average scoring method The findings from the vocabulary course indicate that learners demonstrated a more significant improvement in retaining word meanings when utilizing flashcards compared to using word lists.
The experiment demonstrates that both flashcards and wordlists enhance students' word meaning memorization abilities, but flashcards yield significantly better retention among EFL learners compared to wordlists Research supports the notion that flashcards are more effective for memory retention, as evidenced by studies such as the one conducted by Komachali.
Khodareza (2012) found that using vocabulary flashcards significantly enhances students' vocabulary knowledge, leading to greater improvement compared to traditional methods In contrast, Baleghizadeh & Ashoori (2011) highlight the effectiveness of word lists as a cost-efficient strategy for vocabulary acquisition, as noted by Thornbury (2002) However, Komachali & Khodareza (2012) suggest that word lists may be less engaging for learners, resulting in decreased attention and retention Overall, findings indicate that students taught with flashcards demonstrate superior word memorization skills, as evidenced by stronger performance in word meaning tests compared to those using word lists.
3.6.2 The effect of the flashcards and wordlists presentation on memorizing the word spelling
The research examined the impact of flashcards and wordlists on both word meaning and spelling memorization Consistent findings showed that the treatment group achieved significantly higher average scores than the control group, using both the last score minus the first score method and the average scoring method These results reinforce the undeniable effectiveness of flashcards in enhancing word meaning retention.
Research indicates that flashcards significantly enhance EFL secondary school learners' memorization of both word meanings and spellings compared to traditional wordlists The treatment group demonstrated an average improvement of 1.0 points in their test scores, while the control group only improved by 0.4 points This suggests that wordlists are less effective in helping learners retain new vocabulary The findings imply that the visual elements of flashcards engage learners more effectively, leading to better identification and retention of words than the text-based approach of wordlists.
3.6.3 The effect of the flashcards and wordlists presentation on memorizing the word pronunciation
The researcher utilized two methods to analyze the results: the last test minus the first test method and the average scoring method Data indicated that learners taught with flashcards and wordlists showed significant improvement in their vocabulary skills Specifically, the treatment group’s average score increased by 0.9 points from the first to the last test, while the control group only saw an increase of 0.4 points.
The analysis revealed a difference in performance between the treatment and control groups, with the control group showing an increase of 1.2 points (the last two tests minus the first two tests), compared to a 0.9 point increase in the treatment group Notably, the results of the last four tests minus the first four tests mirrored the findings of the last test compared to the first test, indicating consistent trends across the assessments.
The treatment group showed an average score increase of 1.0 points, while the control group improved by 0.8 points, indicating that both groups made progress However, the use of flashcards proved to be a more effective method for enhancing students' pronunciation memorization Results indicate that EFL secondary school learners retain word pronunciation better with flashcards compared to wordlists Post-course feedback from strong students revealed they focused on the ending sounds of words like "present" and "saint," successfully recalling the /t/ sound and pronunciation Weaker students were able to infer ending sounds based on the letters.
“t” By this way, they could pronounce the word they learnt easier From the results in the experimental course, there will be some suggestions in the next session