Improving students’ speaking skill through task based learning a case of 10 th grade students at tay hieu high school

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING VINH UNIVERSITY NGUYEN THI LIEU IMPROVING STUDENTS’ SPEAKING SKILL THROUGH TASK- BASED LEARNING: A CASE STUDY OF 10 th GRADE STUDENTS AT TAY HIEU HI

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

VINH UNIVERSITY

NGUYEN THI LIEU

IMPROVING STUDENTS’ SPEAKING SKILL THROUGH TASK- BASED LEARNING: A CASE STUDY OF

10 th GRADE STUDENTS AT TAY HIEU HIGH SCHOOL

Major: Theory and Methods of English Language Teaching Code: 60140111

MASTER’S THESIS IN EDUCATION

Nghệ An, 8/2017

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

10 th GRADE STUDENTS AT TAY HIEU HIGH SCHOOL

Major: Theory and Methods of English Language Teaching

Code: 60140111

MASTER’S THESIS IN EDUCATION

Student: Nguyen Thi Lieu

Supervisor: Tran Ba Tien, Ph.D

Nghệ An, 8/2017

i

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

I hereby acknowledge that this study is my own work The data and findings discussed in the thesis are true, used with permission, and have not been published elsewhere

Author

Nguyen Thi Lieu

ii

ABSTRACT

This study deals with the fundamental learning activities for improving learners’speaking skill as they are applied by students in the contexts of task- based activities The activities are interacted with students with the help of the task based learning (TBL) as an educational tool to create an meaningful class to meet the need of students’ motivation and learning styles for their participation in speaking the target language Based on the theoretical and practical findings, some kinds of task based activities and their use in teaching students’ speaking skill would be also introduced

To achieve the above aims, in this study the action research method is employed with forty students’ class taught by TBL approach

The findings of the study indicated that TBL is an effective approach for developing students’ speaking skill The participants showed great interest towards TBL which helped to increase students’ comfort level and self-confidence when dealing with the English speaking target Task-based learning is really encouraging for students mainly because the tasks are real, interactive and require them to work in groups, which they prefer especially the tasks they often apply mimically their real-life Furthermore, the results of the analyses of the survey questions confirmed that learners had positive attitude towards TBL, as they provided the students often with a lot of interactive activities which created an environment that was fun, enjoyable and effective for improving the students’ speaking skill

My heartfelt thanks to my colleagues, friends, especially my beloved family They understand and encourage me during my studies at Tay Hieu high school I feel greatly indebted to them for their essential help and encouragement

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP i

ABSTRACT ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iv

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1 Rationale 1

2 Aims and objectives 4

3 Scope of the study 4

4 Methods of the research 4

5 Organization of the thesis 5

Chapter 2:LITTERATURE VIEW 6

2.1 A historical review of teaching methods 6

2.1.1 Grammar Translation Method (GTM) 6

2.1.2 Direct method 7

2.1.3 The Audio-lingual Method (ALM) 8

2.1.4.Present, Practice, Produce (PPP) approach 9

2.1.5 Total Physical Response (TPR) 10

2.1.6 Communicative language teaching (CLT) 12

2.1.7 Task-based learning (TBL) 14

2.1.8 Characteristics of TBL .15

2.1.8.1 Definition of a task 15

2.1.8.2 Types of tasks in TBL approach 16

2.1.8.3 Task Components 20

2.1.8.4 TBL design 23

2.1.8.5.The frame for TBL: Pre-task- Task cycle – Post-task 24

2.1.8.6 Participants roles 25

v

2.1.8.7 Advantages of task-based learning 27

2.2 Previous research on task-based learning .27

2.3 Speaking skill 30

2.4 Testing and asessement in TBL 32

2.5 Principles of designing speaking tasks 33

2.6 Major types of speaking tasks 35

Chapter 3:THE METHODOLOGY 39

3.1 Research setting 39

3.2 Participants 40

3.2.1 The teachers 40

3.2.2 The students 41

3.3 Research instrument 41

Materials 43

3.4 Research questions 44

3.5 Procedure: 44

Chapter 4:FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 45

4.1 Findings 45

4.1.1 Common problems the students often encounter when performing Task- based activities 45

4.1.2 Students’ perception of learning the speaking skill through Task-based learning 46

4.1.3 Does Task-based learning help students improve their speaking skill ? 50

4.1.4 Results from at the end of experiment observations 52

4.2.Discussion 53

Chapter 5: CONCLUSION 56

References 60

Appendices .62

vi

List of tables

Table 4.1 Students encounter problems about TBLT 45

Table 4.2 Students encounter problems about TBLT 48

Table 4.3 Students’ ideas about effectiveness of TBL 50

Table of figures Figure 2.1 Task Components 20

Figure 2.2: A model of organising lessons 21

Figure 4.1 Students encounter problems about TBLT 47

Figure 4.2 Students’ perception about TBLT 49

Figure 4.3 Students’ ideas about effectiveness of TBL 51

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

1 Rationale

Nowadays English becomes more and more important in the daily lives of the Vietnamese people for many years due to its influence on education, careers and economics Therefore, developing speaking skills in English for learners to communicate with foreigners confidently is necessary in this modern stage, along with understanding differences in culture and holding positive attitudes towards using English ( Genc & Bada, 2005) Bailey and Savage (1994) state that to communicate on a daily basic skill that also helps an English learner become a good reader and writer spontaneously Moreover, Ellis (2003) states that the main purpose of a learner studying English as a Second Language (ESL) is to reach a personal goal to achieve success

The Ministry of Education of Vietnam is focusing on new standards for English in school curriculum design The new standards are absolutely flexible, and offer teachers opportunities to determine the suitable methodology to be used They added that the aim of the new curriculum is to raise four domains of language learning like access to information, social interactions, in obtaining and presenting information, and in developing appreciation of the English language and its literature

In recent times, when speaking about teaching and learning English, Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Education and Training Nguyen Thien Nhan showed a quite challenging vision: How to turn the capacity of English use of Vietnamese people in the next 10 to 15 years become a strength Responding to global challenges, English has been placed in the curriculum from primary to advanced levels According to the draft Development Strategy 2008-2020, English

will be a compulsory elementary course (from grade 3) in the Vietnam education system Problems in teaching and learning English as a foreign Foreign language (TEFL) are the concerns of not only teachers but also learners This problem is partly affected by teaching methods, i.e many Vietnamese instructors teach English

by lecturing and focusing on grammatical rules instead of language use They often provide insufficient opportunities for learners to practice English Making the situation worse, not only teachers but also learners frequently use Vietnamese throughout English classes Another obstacle to EFL learners is that Vietnamese teachers mainly make use of the traditional teacher- centered approach in which teachers control learning and teaching process According to Ruso (2007), students

do not like teachers who spend most of the class time lecturing Lecturing time make learners less eager to work because they do not like being passive in classroom As a result, the students have limited input to learning process Learners encounter more other difficulties in learning English Many EFL learners cannot effectively use English in conversation Although many of them have learned English for ten years, they still cannot practice it in real life situations They tend to avoid using target language and cannot apply it in genuine communication Hashim (2006) shows that learning a language flourishes most when learners are in positive environment and are given chances to communicate in authentic situations Effectively, it has been suggested that teachers abandon the traditional teaching approach and change it into communicative language teaching (CLT) (Lochana and Deb, 2006)

A field of CLT is task- based learning This is a practical approach to the learning process, using different tasks and challenges for learners to think freely and develop their competence Task- based learning offers diverse advantages by helping learners develop cognitive processes, creative thinking and problem- solving skills Many learners say that when performing a variety of tasks, they have opportunities to use language communicatively They also state that it is enjoyable

doing tasks within in group, and this help them learn language ( Lochana and Deb, 2006)

Research demonstrates that task- based learning has been considered as an alternative methodology to solve the crisis of teaching English Oxford (2006) states that task-based learning and teaching is an exciting field which provides enormous riches if explored by teachers in their dual roles as instructors and action researchers In addition, Muller (2006) holds that after using task- based learning, teachers can be confident that they are meeting institutional requirement and facilitating the development of genuine communication skills among students The task based language teaching approach views the learning process as a set of communicative tasks that are directly linked with the curricular goals and purposes This is a good approach because provides learners real practice with the target language but we think it is impossible to learn applying only this approach

Task- based learning provides many advantages in teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) because it offers language experience in the classroom Task- based learning places the students in real world situation, so the learning skills can be applicable to real situations In addition, Task- based learning implies that an oral communication is essential for doing a specific task The learners are also exposed to as much of the foreign language as possible in the order to merely observe it Willis (1998) holds that the task- based learning framework, combined with tasks and texts provides learners rich exposures to language more opportunities

to use it themselves Throughout the task cycle, emphasis is on learners’ understanding and expressing meaning to complete tasks

This approach to teaching communicative English has been popular for over the past few years This is the reason for my decision to conduct the research on improving students’ speaking skills through Task- based learning

2 Aims and objectives

The study aims to help students improve their English speaking skill through Task-based activities It attempts to investigate the problems that the students often have when doing task based activities It also looks into students’ perception of TBL and finds out measures to help students to improve their speaking competences

3 Scope of the study

The research only focuses on teaching common tasks used in speaking teaching and their benefits to 10th graders at a mountainous high school in Nghe

An From the findings of the research, adapted tasks will be given to improve effectively the students’ English speaking In this study the action research method

is employed with the treatment of an experimental group of 40 students in class 10

H taught by using the TBL approach.In fact, these students groups have the same level of English background They will learn four speaking lessons in the second term in the School Year 2016- 2017 at Tay Hieu high school

4 Methods of the research

The study employs the experimental research method In order to achieve the research goals, it attempts to answer the following questions:

1 What are problems that the students often encounter when performing based activities?

2 What is the students’ perception of learning the speaking skill through based learning?

Task-3 Does Task-based learning help students improve their speaking skill ? If so, to what extent?

5 Organization of the thesis

The study will consist of the following parts:

Chapter 1- Introduction- provides rational, the aims and objectives, scope of the

study and methods of the research

Chapter 2- Literature review- presents the previous study related to the thesis and

some concepts as theoretical basic for the study

Chapter 3- Methodology- describes research setting, a brief introduction of

participants, research instruments, research questions and procedure of the research

Chapter 4 - Findings and Discussion- presents the results and discussions

developed after the linguistics figures and explained

Chapter 5- Conclusion– summarizes the main findings touched upon in the

research, limitations of the research and some suggestions for further studies Following the chapters are the references and appendices

Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2 1 A historical review ofteaching methods

2 1 1 Grammar Translation Method (GTM)

GTM is sometimes also known as the Classical Method, which is a traditional teaching technique that was used to teach Latin and Greek and was particularly in vogue during the 16th century.The focus at this time was on the translation of texts, grammar, and rote learning of vocabulary There was no emphasis on speaking and listening comprehension because Latin and Greek were taught more as academic subjects rather than a means of oral communication

GTM tended to be referred to in the past tense as if it no longer existed and had died out to be replaced world- wide by the fun and motivation of the communicative classroom If we examine the principal features of Grammar Translation, however, we will see that not only has it not disappeared but that many

of its characteristics have been central to language teaching throughout the ages and are still valid today The Grammar Translation method embraces a wide range of approaches but, broadly speaking, foreign language study is seen as a mental discipline, the goal of which may be to read literature in its original form or simply

to be a form of intellectual development The basic approach is to analyze and study the grammatical rules of the language, usually in an order roughly matching the traditional order of the grammar of Latin, and then to practise manipulating grammatical structures through the means of translation both into and from the mother tongue The method is very much based on the written word and texts are widely in evidence A typical approach would be to present the rules of a particular item of grammar, illustrate its use by including the item several times in a text, and practise using the item through writing sentences and translating it into the mother tongue The text is often accompanied by a vocabulary list consisting of new lexical

items used in the text together with the mother tongue translation Accurate use of language items is central to this approach Generally speaking, the medium of instruction is the mother tongue, which is used to explain conceptual problems and

to discuss the use of a particular grammatical structure

It all sounds rather dull but it can be argued that the Grammar Translation method has over the years had a remarkable success Millions of people have successfully learnt foreign languages to a high degree of proficiency and, in numerous cases, without any contact what so ever with native speakers of the language There are certain types of learners who respond very positively to a grammatical syllabus as it can give them both a set of clear objectives and a clear sense of achievement Other learners need the security of the mother tongue and the opportunity to relate grammatical structures to mother tongue equivalents Above all, this type of approach can give learners a basic foundation upon which they can then build their communicative skills GTM can also be boring for many learners, but if it is combined with the more enlightened principles of the Communicative Approach may well be a suitable combination for many learners On the one hand, they have motivating communicative activities that help to promote their fluency and, on the other, they gradually acquire a sound and accurate basis in the grammar

of the language Although considered outdated, this teaching method is still common in many countries and institutions around the world, and still appeals to those interested in languages from an intellectual or linguistic perspective

2.1.2 Direct Method

This approach, known as the “oral” or “natural” method, originated around the 1900s as an alternative to the traditional grammatical translation method At this time teachers were starting to experiment with teaching and educational models as previous techniques were failing to improve spoken communication The focus is

on good pronunciation, with spontaneous use of the language, no translation, and little grammar analysis The Direct Method is also based on the direct involvement

of the student when speaking, and listening to, the foreign language in common everyday situations Consequently, there is lots of oral interaction, spontaneous use

of the language, no translation, and little if any analysis of grammar rules and syntax.The focus of the lessons is on good pronunciation, often introducing learners

to phonetic symbols before they see standard speaking examples

The Direct Method continues to provoke interest and enthusiasm today, but it

is not an easy methodology to use in a classroom situation It requires small classes and high student motivation, and in the artificial environment of a classroom it is difficult to generate natural situations of understanding and guarantee sufficient practice for everyone

2.1.3 The Audio-lingual Method (ALM)

With the outbreak of World War II armies needed to become orally proficient in the languages of their allies and enemies as quickly as possible This teaching technique was initially called the Army Method, and was the first to be based on linguistic theory and behavioral psychology.Based on Skinner’s Behaviorism theory, it assumed that a human being can be trained using a system of reinforcement Correct behavior receives positive feedback, while errors receive negative feedback.This approach to learning is similar to the Direct Method, in that the lesson takes place entirely in the target language.Emphasis is on the acquisition

of patterns in common everyday dialogue.The Audio-lingual Method was widely used in the 1950s and 1960s, and the emphasis was not on the understanding of words, but rather on the acquisition of structures and patterns in common everyday dialogue

These patterns are elicited, repeated and tested until the responses given by the student in the foreign language are automatic.The Audio-lingual Method is still

in use today, though normally as a part of individual lessons rather than as the foundation of the course These types of lessons can be popular as they are

relatively simple, from the teacher’s point of view, and the learner always knows what to expect.The method’s insistence on repetition and memorization of standard phrases ignored the role of context and knowledge in language learning As the study of linguistics developed, it was discovered that language was not acquired through a process of habit formation, and that errors were not necessarily bad.It was also claimed that the methodology did not deliver an improvement in communicative ability that lasted over the long term

2.1.4 Present, Practice, Produce (PPP) approach

Present Practice Procedure (PPP) is a variation of Audio Lingual Method that

is implemented in a situation which contextualizes the language to be taught PPP has similarities with the classic ALM, the language is contextualized by the situation so that it will carry more meaning than the ALM drills Later, using the new language, students make sentences of their own, and this is referred to as production

A PPP lesson would proceed in the following manner:

The teacher PRESENTS an item of language in a clear context to get across its meaning This could be done in a variety of ways: through a text, a situation build, a dialogue, a picture etc Students are then asked to complete a controlled PRACTICE stage, where they may have to repeat target items through choral and individual drilling, fill gaps or match halves of sentences All of this practice demands that the student uses the language correctly and helps them to become more comfortable with it

Finally, they move on to the production stage, sometimes called the “free practice” stage Students are given a communication task such as a role play and are expected

to PRODUCE the target language and use any other language that has already been learnt and is suitable for completing it.In addition, there are some problems with

PPP It all sounds quite logical but teachers who use this method will soon identify problems with it:

- Students can give the impression that they are comfortable with the new language

as they are producing it accurately in the class Often through a few lessons later, students will either not be able to produce the language correctly or even won’t produce it at all

- Students will often produce the language but overuse the target structure so that it sounds completely unnatural

- Students may not produce the target language during the free practice stage because they find they are able to use existing language resources to complete the task

2.1.5 Total physical response

Total physical response (TPR) is a language teaching method developed by James Asher It is based on the coordination of language and physical movement In TPR, instructors give commands to students in the target language, and students respond with whole-body actions.The method is an example of the comprehension approach to language teaching The listening and responding (with actions) serves two purposes: It is a means of quickly recognizing meaning in the language being learned, and a means of passively learning the structure of the language itself Grammar is not taught explicitly, but can be learned from the language input TPR

is a valuable way to learn vocabulary, especially idiomatic terms, e.g., phrasal verbs

Asher developed TPR as a result of his experiences observing young children learning their first language He noticed that interactions between parents and children often took the form of speech from the parents followed by a physical response from the child Asher made three hypotheses based on his observations: first, that language is learned primarily by listening; second, that language learning

must engage the right hemisphere of the brain; and third, that learning language should not involve any stress Total physical response is often used along side other methods and techniques It is popular with beginners and with young learners, although it can be used with students of all levels and all age groups

In terms of principles, the majority of class time in TPR lessons is spent doing drills in which the instructor gives commands using the imperative mood Students respond to these commands with physical actions Initially, students learn the meaning of the commands they hear by direct observation After they learn the meaning of the words in these commands, the teacher issues commands that use novel combinations of the words the students have learned There is little error correction in TPR Asher advises teachers to treat learners’ mistakes the same way a parent would treat their children’s Errors made by beginning- level students are usually overlooked, but as students become more advanced teachers may correct more of their errors This is similar to parents raising their children; as children get older parents tend to correct their grammatical mistakes more often

According to Asher, TPR lesson plans should contain the detailed commands that the teacher intends to use He says, “It is wise to write out the exact utterances you will be using and especially the novel commands because the action is so fast-moving there is usually not time for you to create spontaneously Total physical response lessons typically use a wide variety of realia, posters, and props Teaching materials are not compulsory, and for the very first lessons they may not be used

As students progress in ability the teacher may begin to use objects found in the classroom such as furniture or books, and later may use word charts, pictures, and realia There are a number of specialized TPR teaching products available, including student kits developed by Asher and an interactive CD-ROM for students

to practice with privately

It is recognized that TPR is most useful for beginners, though it can be used

at higher levels where preparation becomes an issue for the teacher It does not give students the opportunity to express their own thoughts in a creative way

2.1.6 Communicative language teaching (CLT)

Until late 1960s, language was seen as a system of rules and the task that language learners had to fulfill was to internalize these rules by what ever means were at their disposal The learner’s emphasis was to “master the structures of the language, and in this process, considerations of meaning were seen almost as peripheral.” (Nunan, 1999, p.9) However, the 1970s saw a much richer conceptualization of language begin to emerge Language was viewed as a system for the expression of meaning, and linguists began to analyze language as a system for the expression of meanings, rather than as a system of abstract syntactic rules This view of language has laid foundation for Communicative Language Teaching, which has been an influential approach for over two decades now CLT is generally seen as the teaching that encourages learners to engage in meaningful communication in the target language – communication that has a function over and above that of language learning itself This innovative approach derives from a multidisciplinary perspectives such as linguistics, psychology, educational research, but its central concept is communicative competence, which was originally introduced in the early 1970s by the sociolinguist Hymes as a response to the perceived limitations in Chomsky’s competence/ performance model of language (Savignon et al, 2002; Nunan 1999) It was further developed in the early 1980s by Canale and Swain, who hold that communicative competence refers to “the underlying systems of knowledge and skills required for communication.” (1983, p.2) Their model can be summarized as follows:

- Grammatical competence: Using a structured comprehensible utterance (including grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation and spelling)

- Socio-cultural competence: using socially-determined cultural codes in meaningful ways, normally called “appropriacy.”

- Discourse competence: shaping language and communicating purposefully in different genres, using cohesion and coherence

- Strategic competence: enhancing the effectiveness of communication, and compensating for breakdowns in communication

This is a very useful socio- linguistic model telling us what natural communication involves Although this model does not show how to teach in a class- room setting, it can serve as guidelines for language instruction It should be noted that CLT is a broad approach to teaching rather than a teaching method with a clearly defined set of classroom practices “there is no single methodology or fixed set of techniques in CLT.” (Savignon et al, 2002, p.7) As such, it is usually defined

as a list of general principles of features, one of which is Nunan’s (1991) most recognized five features of CLT:

1 An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language

2 The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation

3 The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language but also

on the learning process itself

4 An enhancement of the learner’s own experiences as important contributing elements to classroom learning

5 An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activities outside classroom

These five features show that CLT practitioners attach great importance to the needs and desires of their learners as well as the connection between the language as it is taught in the class and as it is used in real life communication A

more successful realization of communicative principles is found in task-based programs

a product internalized by practicing language items, and that learners master the target language more powerfully when being exposed to meaningful task- based activities in a natural way It was in the 1980s that this viewpoint of language learning gave rise to the flourishment of various task-based approaches (Breen, 1987; Candlin & Murphy, 1987; Nunan, 1989; Prabhu, 1987) Moreover, during the 1990s, it developed into a comprehensive structure for the communicative classroom where learners did task-based activities via cycles of pre-task preparation, task performance, and post-task feedback via language focus (Skehan, 1996; Willis, 1996) Obviously, as Ellis (2003) states, task-based language teaching has been re- investigated recently from a variety of perspectives covering oral performance, writing performance, and performance assessment

Task-based approach in second language teaching was first performed by Prabhu, who published the Bangolore research report in 1982 and advanced the concept of task- based approach (Wei,2004) Researchers involved in task- based approach have internalized experience from language research, the research

of language learning and the research of foreign language acquisition and it is getting more and more mature together with them Its functions and value in constructing learner- centered classrooms and language learning contexts, giving learners the chance to communicate and interact and enhancing learners’ ability to

deploy the target language and sort out communicative problems were highly appreciated and recognized by researchers in the area of language teaching (Lin, 2009) Task- based approach has attracted more and more attention in the foreign language teaching field since the1980s Being a learner-centered approach, it views language as a communicative tool Task-based approach aims at presenting opportunities for learners to master language both in speaking and writing via learning activities designed to engage learners in the natural, practical and functional use of language for meaningful purpose (Lin, 2009)

In spite of the widespread employment of tasks in language pedagogy, some prominent challenges behind devising proper task-based syllabi and designing natural task-based materials, both of which have been regarded as key factors to detecting the powerfulness of TBLT in communicative classrooms, still remain unresolved Many SLA researchers, in response to these challenges, are presently shifting their focus from conceptualizing tasks to arranging and performing tasks relying on observation of the practical efficacy of TBLT methodology in classroom practice (Jeon and Hahn, 2005)

2.1.8 Characteristics of TBL

2.1.8.1 Definition of a task

The term “task” has been defined by many researchers Long (1985:89) defines task as “ a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, freely or for some reward” Breen (1987:23) comprehends task as “a range of work plans ” Nunan (1989:10) states that task is “ a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form” Willis(1996: 53) stresses that task is “ a goal- oriented activity in which learners use language to achieve areal outcome” Skehan (1998:95) lists features of “task” as:

(1) meaning is primary;

(2) there is some sort of relationship to comparable real- world activities;

(3) task completion has some priority;

(4) the assessment of tasks isin terms of outcome

Ellis (2003) gives the meaning of task as a “work plan” that requires learners’ cognitive processes via the inclusion of Skehan’s four criteria Despite being various by nature, these definitions of task have some common points A classroom task is an activity having a particular goal and it contains communicative language use in the process Because task has a certain relationship with the extra linguistic world, it goes beyond the common classroom exercise The type of discourse emerging from task is aimed to be similar to the one that emerge naturally

in the real world (Ellis, 2000)

2.1.8.2 Types of tasks in TBL approach

Listing may seem unimaginative, but in practice, listing tasks tend to get a lot to talk

as learners explain their ideas.The types involving brainstorming, in which learners draw on their own knowledge and experience either as a class or in pairs/ group ; act- findings , in which learners find things out by asking each other or other people

and referring to books You can list people, places, things, actions, reasons, every problem, things to do in various circumstances etc

ORDERING AND SORTING

Ordering and sorting tasks involve four main types: Sequencing items, actions or events in a logical or chronological order or chronological order; ranking items, according to personal values or specified criteria; categorizing items in given groups or grouping them under given headings; classifying items in different ways, where the categories themselves are not given This can be sequencing, ranking, or classifying

COMPARING

Broadly, comparing tasks involve comparing information of a similar nature but from different sources or versions in order to identify common points and/ or differences

The processes involved matching to identify specific points and relate to each other; finding similarities and things in common; finding differences Comparison task can

be based on two quite similar texts or pictures (a classic example is “Spot the Differences’’) or places or events etc., that learners have experience of Learners can also compare their own work with that learner or another pair or group You will by now have noticed that many of these tasks carry on the same theme as in previous tasks It is possible to build up “a set of tasks” on the same theme, each one arising out of the previous one This is an excellent way to build learner’s confidence once they are familiar with the basic vocabulary for the topic, they can then do a range of activities recycling the topic language and using it for different purposes in set of tasks

MATCHING

You can match captions/ texts/ recorded extracts to pictures; short notes or headlines to longer texts, e.g news items

Text- books often contain activities based oncommon problems- pollution, relationships, and noisy neighbors and so on But sometimes problem- solving tasks are over quickly- learners agree on the first solution that comes to mind using minimal language, e.g “ Noisy neighbors? Ok- so call police” The instructions for the town center traffic problem in the example below incorporate six or seven ways

of generating richer interaction Which of these ways might you use with your classes ?

More complex tasks like comparing and problem solving sometimes involve processes found in simpler tasks, like listing- see previous examples The task above-problem-solving-involves listing and quite a lot of comparing and evaluating SHARING PERSONAL EXPERIENCE

Tasks of sharing personal experiences encourage learners to talk more freely about themselves and share their experiences with others For example, after reading a selected material about one’s childhood, learners can be encouraged to tell their own childhood The resulting interaction is closer to casual social conversation

in that it is not as directly goal- oriented as in other tasks For that very reason, however, these open tasks may be more difficult to get going in the classroom Teresa (1986)

Activities where learners are asked to recount their personal experiences and tell stories are valuable because they give learners a chance to speak for longer and

a more sustained way And it is something weoften do in real- life However, as we saw from the ’Grandparents’ activity in Criteria for identifying tasks for TBL, the instructions for activities where learners are encouraged to relate things from their personal lives are often rather vague and open- ended In order to encourage richer interaction, we usually need to add a clear goal, make instructions more precise, and give clear completion points

CREATIVE TASKS

These are often called projects and involved pairs or groups of learners in some kind of freer creative work They also tend to have more stages than other tasks and can involve combination of tasks types above Out- of- class is sometimes needed Organizational skills and teamwork are important in getting the task done The outcome can often be appreciated by a wider audience than the students who produced it

OPINION- GAP

Activity requires that students give their personal preferences, feelings, or attitudes in order to complete a task For instance, students might be given a social problem, such as high unemployment and be asked to come up with a series of possible solutions Another task might be composed a letter of advice to a friend who has sought their counsel about a dilemma

A reasoning- gap activity requires students to derive some new information

by inferring it from information they have been given For example, students might

be given a railroad timetable and asked to work out the best route to get from one particular city to another or they might be asked to solve a riddle Prabhu (1987) feels that reasoning- gap tasks work best since information- gap tasks often require

a single step transfer of information, rather than sustained negotiations and opinion- gap tasks tend to be rather open- ended Reasoning- gap tasks, on the other hand, encourage a more sustained engagement with meaning, thought they are still characterized by a somewhat predictable use of language Jeremy (2001)

2.1.8.3 Task Components

Tasks contain some form of input that may be verbal or nonverbal, followed

by an activity which is derived from the input This activity requires learners to engage in activities in relation to the input Tasks have goals and roles for both teachers and learners Nunan (2004) points out those course designers should take the following elements into consideration when designing a task: goals, input, procedures, teacher role, learner role and settings (figure 2.1)

Goals

Procedures

Figure 2 1: Task Components (Nunan, 2004)

Task based Activities

teacher

settings Learner

input

- A model of organising lessons: Components of TBL

Figure 2 2: Components of TBL

Goals refer to the general intentions behind any learning task Nunan provides

a link between task and curriculum Goals relate to general outcomes or may directly describe the teacher or learners’ behavior Clark (1987, cited in Nunan, 2004) notes that communicative goals in a curriculum suggest that language is used for establishing and maintaining interpersonal relationships and for the exchange of information, ideas, opinions, attitudes and feelings to get things done This includes listening to, reading and responding to imaginative use of target language such as stories, poems, songs, dramas or learners’ own creations

Input refers to the spoken, written and visual data that learners work with in the course of completing a task Data can be provided by a teacher, a textbook or some other source Alternatively, it can be generated by the learners themselves Input can come from a wide range of sources, including letters, menus, postcards, bus timetables, picture stories or hotel entertainment programs (Hover, 1986)

Procedures specify what learners actually do with the input Regarding criteria for the task, teachers consider the authority of the learning procedures and

Language focus

Teacher’s

Practice Planning

Analysiss

s

Report

input Another point of criteria for task selection involves activation rather than a rehearsal rationale In addition, analyzing procedures should be based on the focus

or skills required to achieve the goal Learners integrate phonological, lexical and grammatical forms through memorization and manipulation Eventually, they apply these skills in communicative interaction

The teacher’s role refers to the part that teachers are expected to play in carrying out learning tasks as well as the social and interpersonal relationships between participants According to Breen and Candlin (1987), the teacher has three main roles in the communicative process: facilitator participant, observer and learner

Learner role refers to the part that learners are expected to play in carrying out learning tasks as well as the social and interpersonal relationships between participants Therefore, the learner interacts with outside stimuli as an integrator and negotiator who listens and performs for personal growth The interpersonal roles of learners cannot be divorced from the psychological learning process Learners take responsibility for their own learning to develop autonomy and skills in learning how-to- learn

Setting refers to the classroom arrangement specified or implied in the task

It requires consideration of whether a task is to be carried out wholly or partly outside of the classroom It is useful to distinguish between mode and environment when setting tasks Mode refers to whether the learner is operating on an individual, pair or group basis Environment refers to where the learning actually takes place It might be in a conventional classroom in a school, a language center, a community class, a workplace setting, a self- access center or a multi- media language center

In conclusion, the core task elements have six components: goals, inputs and procedures along with the supporting elements of teacher and learner roles plus setting These elements play important constructs within task-based learning,

including the relationship between real-world and pedagogic tasks, text and task authenticity and the place of learning strategies within the task- based classroom

2.1.8.4 TBL design

Objectives:

Objectives in TBL are ideally to be determined by the specific needs of particular learners The selection of tasks, according to Long and Crookes (1993), should be based on a careful analysis of the real world needs of the learners

The syllabus:

Task-based syllabuses represent a particular realization of communicative Language teaching (Nunan 1989) The designer conducts a needs analysis, which yields a list of the communicative tasks that the learners will need to carry out TBL

is more concerned with the process dimensions of learning than with the specific content and skills that might be acquired through of these processes Nunan (1989) suggests a syllabus with two types of tasks: Real world tasks and Pedagogical tasks Real world tasks designed to practice or rehearse those tasks that are found to be important and useful in the real world For example, booking a flight Pedagogical tasks have a psycholinguistic basis in SLA theory and research but do not necessarily reflect real world tasks (Example: information gap task) The order of tasks has also to be determined “Task difficulty” has been proposed as a basic for the sequencing of tasks, but the concept itself is difficult to determine

Honey field (1993) offers these considerations:

1) Procedures (what learners have to do to derive output from input)

2) Input text

3) Output required (including language, skills, discourse knowledge and world knowledge )

4) Amount and type of help

5) Role of teachers and learners

6) Time

7) Motivation

8) Confidence

9) Learning styles

2.1.8.5 The framework for TBL

The main framework for TBL include: Pre-task, Task cycle, and Post-task: The structural framework of TBL Just in order to see the TBL cycle, we are enclosing the following framework: Pre-task raises consciousness introduction to subject and task Through introduction to topic by teacher use of pictures, posters and demonstrations Then, task cycle working with and using the target language: Activities like pair work, group work Exercises like information gap activities Gradual increase in the importance of Planning, Report, Presentation Finally, post-task selecting, identifying and classifying common words and phrases, practice of language and phrases in classroom and building personal dictionaries

The different phases of tasks can be elaborated as follows: The pre-task phase introduces the class to the topic and the task, activating topic- related words and phrases The task cycle offers learners the chance to use whatever language they already know in order to carry out the task, and then to improve the language, under teacher guidance, while planning their reports of the task In the task stage the students complete the task in pairs and the teacher listens to the dialogues Then the teacher helps to correct the completed tasks in oral or written form One of the pairs performs their dialogue in front of the class and once the task has been completed the students will hear the native speaking teachers repeat the same dialogue so they can compare it with their own The last phase in the framework, language focus,

allows a closer study of some of the specific features occurring in the language used during the task cycle The teaching techniques required for task-based learning are not very different from those of ordinary language teaching The differences lie in the ordering and weighting of activities and in the fact that there is a greater amount

of student activity, and less direct, up- from teaching

2.1.8.6 Participants roles

Learner roles: Primary roles that are implied by task work are:

- Group participant: many tasks will be done in pairs or in small groups

- Monitor: in TBL, tasks are not employed for their own sake but as a means of facilitating learning Class activities have to be designed so that students have the opportunity to notice how language is used in communication

- Risk- taker and innovator: many tasks will require learners to create and interpret messages for which they lack full linguistic resources and prior experience The skills of guessing from linguistic and contextual clues, asking for clarification and consulting with other learners may also need to be developed

Teacher roles

- Selector and sequencer of tasks: a central role of the teacher is in selecting, adapting and/ or creating the tasks themselves and then forming these into a instructional sequence in keeping with learner needs, interest and language skill level

- Preparing learners for tasks: activities might include topic introduction, clarifying task instructions, helping students learn or recall useful words and phrases to facilitate task accomplishment and providing partial demonstration of task processes

What a teacher needs to have

- Ability to communicate their love of knowledge and learning

- Kind hearted and compassion

- Great enthusiasm combined with a good imagination

- Considerable fluency with the power of speech combined with the powers of illusion

- Strong belief in the importance of instruction for the betterment of all

Great powers of observation

- Willingness to reflect and modify instruction

- His/ her goal should not be perfection, but improvement

- A good rapport with the students

Instructional materials roles

Materials that can be exploited for instruction in TBLT are limited only by the imagination of the task- designer

- Realia: the use of authentic tasks supported by authentic materials wherever possible The following are some of the task types that can be built around such media products: newspapers, television, Internet

- Internet

E.g Students initiate a “chat” in a chart room, indicating a current interest in their life and developing an answer to the first three people to respond

2.1.8.7 Advantages of task-based learning

Many activities are used in communicative language teaching Researchers and educators recommend that task based activities are highly effective methods to improve learners’ proficiency and accuracy in communicative learning Pica et al (1993) value task-based learning because it directs language teaching by giving opportunities to learners to interact between themselves and their teacher This sharing of information and opinions supports them to reach their goals Doing task based activities actually helps learners acquire target language As Taylor (1983) suggests, task based activities give learners the opportunity to interact with target language directly and use it genuinely Learners gain authentic experiences, learn the language and experience the communicative process

Brumfit (1984) states that task based activities help learners solve problems

in real conditions by focusing on target language Learners develop their competence in genuine situations In addition, Ellis (1984) believes that task based activities underline communicative strategies such as paraphrasing, circumlocution and miming Learners employ these strategies when they do not comprehend the target language or when they are required to use language beyond their competence With experience and language skill, they are able to select and use language naturally

2.2 Previous research on task-based learning

Teaching English as a foreign language using task-based learning has been proven effective by researchers at various levels of education Many research projects over the past twenty years have investigated task- based learning A few important cases are described below

Jeon & Hahn (2006) discuss EFL teachers' perceptions of task-based language teaching (TBL) in the context of a Korean secondary school The data for this study was collected through questionnaires from 228 teachers at 38 different middle and high schools in Korea The data were analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively The overall findings of the survey show that the majority of respondents have a high degree of understanding of task-based learning concepts, regardless of teaching level Nevertheless, some negative views on implementing task-based learning in the classroom persisted The research suggests further implications to help teachers construct and implement task-based learning more effectively

In addition to calling attention to the characteristics of task- based learning, numerous researchers compare it with other approaches to develop learners’ language competence For example, Tanasarnsanee (2002), compares teaching Japanese language using the 3Ps and task-based learning approaches The result shows that learners who learned Japanese language through task-based learning demonstrated a higher competence in Japanese language for communication than those who studied using the 3Ps approach This is consistent with Willis’s (1998) findings that task-based learning supports learners in using language for communication more effectively than the 3Ps approach

Lochana and Deb (2006) further support the findings of Tanasarnsanee (2002) and Willis (1998) Task-based learning has an edge over traditional methods

of teaching as shown in their research project undertaken with a group of second language learners at a school in Bangalore, India The project was based on the assumptions of constructivism Even with existing constraints, classroom teaching can be given a communicative orientation, providing sufficient opportunities for learners to use language creatively Teaching can be made learner centered with greater emphasis on the learning process Any given text may be re-created into

various tasks and activities Task-based learning enhances the language proficiency

of the learners

Numerous language curricula and experiments emphasize task-based learning Rattanawong (2004) identifies the effects of teaching English language communicative ability with the task- based learning approach with Prathom Suksa 6 learners The samples of this study were 98 Prathom Suksa 6 learners at Anubarn Pra Nakorn Sri Ayutthaya School The learners were divided into an experimental group and a control group with 49 learners in each group The experimental group was taught using the task- based learning approach, whereas the control group was taught using conventional methods Both groups were taught for 10 weeks for 3 periods per week Three instruments of evaluation were employed The first item was an English language communicative ability test The second item was the student’s self report The third instrument was a questionnaire concerning their opinions towards the task- based learning method The results show that the difference in the mean score in the four language skills of the experimental group was higher than those of the control group at the 05 level of significance

Wichitpisan (2005) also investigated learners’ English speaking ability through task-based learning The subjects were 11 Mattayom Suksa 3 learners The instruments used in this study included five lesson plans, a pre-post speaking test, observation form, student’s self report and foreign traveler’s inquiring about their opinions The study reveals that learners’ English speaking ability before and after the task-based learning experiment was significantly higher at the level of 01 Moreover, learners’ attitudes towards studying English speaking ability before and after the task-based learning course was significantly higher at the level of 01

In another study, Yooyong (2008) evaluated the development of English speaking ability of Mattayom Suksa 2 learners at Banmarkkaeng School in Udon Thani Province The instruments used for collecting data included three lesson plans

and a self assessment form The results indicate that the English speaking ability of the learners after the experiment was significantly higher at the 01 level

In Vietnam, there are numerous English M.A theses concerning Vietnamese learning and teaching with TBL Duong Thi Le Thuy (2004) made an investigation into task- based approach, which is used in the field of ESP, for the current English coursebook for construction engineering Additionally, Vo Phuc Anh Vu (2009) presented the application of task- based language teaching and learning to teaching English speaking skills in upper secondary schools in order to find out how TBL can fit into traditional English speaking classes to promote the students’ communicative competence At Ho Chi Minh University of Industry, Nghe An Branch, the traditional structural method has no longer been the teachers’ favours The teacher-centred method is giving way to a more learner- centred approach This thesis, therefore, focuses on studying the application of TBL in teaching English grammar to probe its feasibility and validity in the setting of HUI, Nghe An Branch According to the research studies above, task-based learning represents an important approach in teaching English for communication It supports learners to learn and develop their English language competence effectively The present study also highlights the use of task-based learning to develop the English speaking ability of Mattayom Suksa 4 learners The reason why the researcher chose Mattayom Suksa 4 learners is that the nature of learners at each level is different Mattayom Suksa 4 is the first grade in upper secondary school in Thailand Therefore, the findings of this study relate to important issues in the field of task-based learning

2.3 Speaking skill

Speaking is an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves producing, receiving and processing information Its form and meaning depend on the context in which it occurs, including the participants themselves, their

experiences, the physical environment, and the purposes for speaking It is often spontaneous, open-ended, and evolving However, speech is not always unpredictable Speaking requires that learners not only know how to produce specific points of language such as grammar, pronunciation, or vocabulary ("linguistic competence"), but also that they understand when, why, and in what ways to produce language ("sociolinguistic competence") (Nunan, 1999: 216)

According to Richards (2008:21), in order to achieve a communicative goal through speaking, there are three functions of speaking to be considered – talk as interaction, talk as transaction, and talk as performance Each of these speech activities is quite distinct in terms of form and function and requires different teaching approaches

- Talk as interaction refers to what we normally mean by “conversation” and describes interaction that serves a primarily social function

- Talk as transaction refers to situations where the focus is on what is said or done The message and making oneself understood clearly and accurately is the central focus, rather than the participants and how they interact socially with each other

- Talk as performance refers to public talk, that is, talk that transmits information before an audience, such as class room presentations, public announcement, and speeches

These three core issues need to be addressed in planning speaking activities for an English class, and PBL was really an opportunity for students to acquire all kinds of talk It should be further noted that when organizing TBL speaking activities, the tasks and topics should ressemble what people experience in the real world as much

as possible With this view in mind, I often design my speaking lessons with authentic tasks