A study on using graphic organizers to improve reading comprehension skills for secondary school students

ABSTRACT The aim of carrying out this study were twofold: 1 using graphic organizers helps to increase students’ reading comprehension 2 the graphic organizers help to improve students’

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

MASTER’S THESIS IN EDUCATION

SUPERVISOR: Dr Nguyen Thi Kim Anh

Nghệ An

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This thesis could not have been completed without the help, encouragement and support of a number of people who all deserve my sincere gratitude and appreciation First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor

Dr Nguyen Thi Kim Anh for her invaluable guidance, helpful suggestions, encouragement in writing this paper

I would like to thank all the teachers in the English group of Ben Thuy secondary School, for their help in answering surveys, direct interviews, their suggestions to this research, and their willingness to share their relevant problems with me

I also wish to give my thanks to students at Ben Thuy secondary school who have actively participated in doing the surveys and responding to my interviews

I would like to send my thanks to my lecturers, my friends and my classmates for their sincere comments and criticism

In the end, I would like to show my big gratitude to my beloved people, my parents, who have constantly inspired and encouraged me to overcome difficulties

to complete this study

Finally, a special word of thanks goes to my readers for their interest and comments on this study

ABSTRACT

The aim of carrying out this study were twofold: (1) using graphic organizers helps to increase students’ reading comprehension (2) the graphic organizers help to improve students’ motivation to learn reading skills

This research was conducted at the seventh grade of Ben Thuy secondary school

in Vinh city The study involved 60 students in two classes of seventh grade The instrument used were tests (pretest and posttest) and questionnaires

Based on the findings, it is recommended that the teachers need to use graphic organizers to teach reading skills This study believes that using graphic organizers can help students to concentrate on specific information and answer the questions more detailed In addition, the teachers should use various graphic organizers to motivate students and encourage students to read More importantly, these strategies were extremely beneficial to classroom instruction The thesis also provides implications for English language teaching

Contents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i

ABSTRACT ii

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Rationale 1

1.2 Aims of the Study 3

1.3 Research questions 3

1.4 Scope of the study 4

1.5 Methods of the study 4

1.6 Organization of the study 4

CHAPTER 2.LITERATURE REVIEW 5

2.1 Reading and reading comprehension 5

2.1.1 Reading 5

2.1.1.1 Definition of reading 5

2.1.1.2 The role of reading in learning 7

2.1.1.3 The reading process 8

2.1.2 Definition of reading comprehension 9

2.1.2.1 Reading Comprehension Process 11

2.1.2.1.1 The schema theory 13

2.1.2.1.2 Bottom - up and Top - down processing 14

2.1.2.1.3 Interactive processing 13

2.1.2.2 Factors affecting the learning of reading comprehension 13

2.1.2.3 Reading purposes and motivation 22

2.1.2.4 Approaches to Teach Reading 16

2.1.2.4.1 Grammar - Translation approach 17

2.1.2.4.2 Communicative Language Teaching Approach 18

2.1.2.4.3 Content-Based 20

2.1.2.4.4 Task-based approach 19

2.1.2.5 Techniques to teach reading 21

2.1.2.5.1 In Pre-reading 22

2.1.2.5.2 In While-reading 23

2.1.2.5.3 In Post-reading 24

2.2 Graphic organizers 23

2.2.1 Definitions of graphic organizers 23

2.4.2 Roles of graphic organizers 24

2.2.3 Types of graphic organizers employed in the research 24

2.2.3.1 Mind maps .27

2.2.3.2 The KWL 25

2.2.3.3 Venn diagram 29

2.2.3.4 The "5 W's" 29

CHAPTER 3.METHODOLOGY 28

3.1 An overview of Ben Thuy secondary school 28

3.2 Learners and learning requirements 28

3.3 Teachers and teaching methods 28

3.4 Materials 28

3.5 Procedures 29

3.6 Tools for Data collection 30

3.6.1 The questionnaires 30

3.6.2 Tests 30

3.7 Data analysis 41

CHAPTER 4.FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 42

4.1 Findings 42

4.1.1 Students’ attitude towards the importance of learning reading comprehension at school 42

4.1.2 Student’s reading habits 43

4.1.3 Student’s difficulties when learning reading skill 43

4.1.4 Students’ opinions about teaching and learning reading 44

4.1.5 The frequency of using strategies designed by teachers 44

4.1.6 General English test results 45

4.1.7 Pre-test and post- test score Error! Bookmark not defined.46 4.1.7.1 Pre-test results 46

4.1.7.2 Post-test results 47

4.2 Summary and discussion of the main findings 48

CHAPTER 5.CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATION 52

5.1 Conclusion 52

5 2 Implications for more effective reading lessons 53

5.3 Limitations 54

5.4 Suggestions for further research 54

REFERENCES 55

APPENDIX A 57

APPENDIX B 59

APPENDIX C 61

APPENDIX D 67

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rationale

Nowadays, English has become an international communicative language It is widely used in many parts of the world Therefore, learning English has been considered a very important duty of many students One of the most important skills

in learning English as well as other language is reading skill Reading skill not only helps students get more information and widen their mind but also enables them develop language skills such as speaking, listening, writing

Reading comprehension is one of the most important skills for understanding the content that is actually being read Reading is something that you can do on your own and that greatly broadens your vocabulary, thus helping you in speaking (and in listening and writing) Reading is therefore a highly valuable skill and activity, and it

is recommended that English learners try to read as much as possible in English Having good reading comprehension skill is also necessary for passing academic achievement tests and for being able to read effectively for one's career

On the other hand, having poor reading comprehension skills can make it difficult for readers to understand the texts they read, identify themes in stories, associate what they read with prior knowledge and grasp the main idea of a text

Many teachers find that their teaching style does not match the learning style of some of their students The good step is that using graphic organizers to prepare and present lessons can have a powerful effect on the students While the lesson presentation follows the natural teaching style, students can create a graphic organizers that matches their learning style Instead of trying to fit a mould, they can take notes that feel natural, are easily remembered and suited to their individual style This makes the best teacher in the world

Many teachers and lecturers are already adapting graphic organizers to create powerful classroom presentations, innovative handouts, and an unforgettable experience for their students Others are using advanced graphic organizers to tackle larger classroom projects like innovative long range educational planning or weekly lesson management that really meets the needs of individual students

It is undeniable that the English language has gained more and more significance

in every aspect of society in general and in education in particular Realizing the importance of English in education, many policies and renovations have been promulgated in teaching and learning English during the recent years In an attempt to innovate Vietnamese education to meet the demand of the society in the process of integration and development, the Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training has reformed English textbooks concentrating on the four skills: speaking, listening, reading and writing for secondary school students since the school year 2006-2007, With this reform, both teachers and students have certain advantages and disadvantages in mastering the four skills in the process of teaching and learning English

Of the four skills, reading, in general, is considered the most difficult not only students but teachers to master In reading section in the textbook “English 7”, students are asked to perform tasks of various kinds such as make out the main ideas, understand the main topic, sentence, paragraph, etc However, it seems that some of the reading tasks in the new textbooks have not supported students’ language acquisition appropriately Besides, teachers also face certain difficulties in teaching reading skills

For many years, teaching reading comprehension was based on a concept of reading as the application of a set of isolated skills such as identifying words, finding main ideas, identifying cause and effect relationships, comparing and contrasting, and sequencing Teaching reading comprehension was viewed as a mastery of these skills

My students think that it is very difficult to learn reading skill I think one of the most powerful tools can be used to improve our reading comprehension is graphic organizers Using graphic organizers that show the relationships between concepts visually and using group reading and tutoring can also help students develop their reading comprehension skills

When I have graduated university, I applied for a job at Ben Thuy secondary school I teach English subject as a second language There are four skills each lesson but my favorite skill is teaching reading because from the text, students can be easy to use words, structures, sentence to communicate with many people There is some difficulty in the reading text, They do not understand how to answer the questions So

this is a problem that I should worry and find out the way to help them I think that whenever reading, they also understand all the information Some of them may not have had enough time to read, they read very quickly but little result I think it depends on the level of reading They have not used right skill It made them get little information

Being a teacher of English at secondary school for eleven years, there searcher has understood the reality of teaching reading in English The researcher realizes that the secondary school students in general and 7th form students in particular do not acquire reading skill efficiently They seem to follow these requirements of reading tasks in each lesson in order without achieving the objectives of the lesson through completing the main tasks with appropriate skills Because of the practicality in teaching English

reading, this study was carried out, entitling “A study on using graphic organizers to improve reading comprehension skills for secondary school students” The

purpose of the study is to find out if graphic organizers can help students read more effectively The study is intended to investigate types of activities teachers use in their reading classes and the efficiency of these activities as well In addition, it also seeks to find out to what certain extent these activities have influence on students’ study achievements Finally, through the study, some suggestions are offered so that teachers can use graphic organizers for doing tasks in the textbook appropriately to improve students” reading skill Hopefully that the results of this study would be shared with any colleagues who had the same problem or anyone who is interested in this study

1.2 Aims of the Study

The study aimed to help students develop reading comprehension We find out the value of the students” comprehension reading level in the Text There were some benefits of teaching comprehension by using graphic organizers Graphic organizers provide an effective study technique when applied to written materials the value of level reading comprehension of students with the text (If there is any) Improving the motivation how the reading sections in the textbook “English 7” have been taught at secondary schools with particular reference to use graphic organizers

1.3 Research questions

The study aimed to seek the answers to the following questions:

- Will the graphic organizers help to increase student’s reading comprehension?

- Will the graphic organizers help to improve students’ motivation to learn reading skill?

1.4 Scope of the study

This study was carried out at Ben Thuy secondary school in Vinh City The research focuses on how graphic organizers affect these students’ reading comprehension in reading lessons From the findings of the research suggested activities will be given to improve teaching English reading to 7th graders students

1.5 Methods of the study

The main methods are questionnaires, pre and post tests

1.6 Organization of the study

The thesis consists of five chapters:

Chapter 1: Introduction includes rationale of the study, the aims, scope, methods, and organization of the study

Chapter 2: Literature Review

In this chapter, all the theoretical issues related to the topic of the study are presented It is concerned with the issues relevant to the topic of the research: reading and reading comprehension, approaches and techniques to teach reading

Chapter 3: Methodology

This chapter presents the background information of the subjects of the study, the instrument used to collect the data, the procedure of data collection and the procedure

of data analysis

Chapter 4: Findings and Discussions

This chapter aimed at describing data analysis in detail and a thorough discussion

of the findings of the study Some explanations and interpretations of the findings are also presented in this chapter

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Reading and reading comprehension

2.1.1 Reading

2.1.1.1 Definition of reading

So far, the term reading has been defined quite differently according to its

various aspects such as criteria, features and functions For many learners, reading is

a very essential skill, particularly in English as a second language Concerning the

role of reading, Carrell (1988, p.1) states that “Without solid reading proficiency, second language learners can not perform at levels they must in order to succeed”

Reading plays such a significant part in the success of second language learning and

it is essential to understand what reading really is

Reading is the process of looking at a series of written symbols and getting meaning from them When we read, we use our eyes to receive written symbols (letters, punctuation marks and spaces) and we use our brain to convert them into words, sentences and paragraphs that communicate something to us

Reading is a means of language acquisition, of communication, and of sharing information and ideas Like all language, it is a complex interaction between the text and the reader which is shaped by the reader’s prior knowledge, experiences, attitude, and language community which is culturally and socially situated The reading process requires continuous practices, development, and retirement

Reading is an interactive process that goes on between the reader and the text, resulting in comprehension The text presents letters, words, sentences, paragraphs that encode meaning The reader uses knowledge, skills, and strategies to determine what that meaning is

As a skill, reading is clearly one of the most important instances around the world,

we may argue that reading is the most important foreign language skill, particularly in cases where students have to read English material for their own specialist subject but may never actually have to speak the language; Such cases are

often referred to as ‘English as a library language’ Even though we are looking at each language skill independently in these chapters, there is clearly an overlap between reading and writing, in that a ‘text’ has to be written down before we can

read it In many societies, literature is still seen as the prime example of writing and therefore one of the first things a student is asked to do is to read In classroom terms, one of the reasons for this is partly practical: it is often thought to be easier to

supply a written text to be read than a spoken one to be understood Much of the current thinking on reading tends to focus primarily on the purpose of the activity; even if reading is done for pleasure it is still purposeful

Goodman (1988, p.135) declared that “reading is a psycholinguistics process by which the reader, language user reconstructs, as best as he can, a message which has been encoded by a writer as a graphic display” From his point of view, readers not only get more knowledge or skill but also understand the content of the text According to William, (1990, p.2) “reading is a process whereby one looks at and understands what has been written” In his opinion, in the reading process, there are two activities taking place at the same time: looking and understanding Therefore, readers have to “encode” meanings of a word decided by the context in which it is shown

Also, Harmer (1989, p.153) shares his ideas “reading is an exercise dominated by the eyes and the brain The eyes receive messages and the brain then has to work out the significance of these messages” Readers encounter a lot of difficulties in dealing with proverbs and idioms, synonyms metaphor, metonymy and other types of transference of meaning also cause great difficulty for readers Reading is an active skill, involving guessing and predicting It is common that there are new words, new structures and ideas in a reading text for every language learner If he/she does not have a good guessing ability and cannot make full use of grammatical, logical and cultural clues, he/she will read the text with less understanding than he/she might expect, and he/she will feel frustrated at the text, and will not want to keep on reading However, teaching reading comprehension is the problem that teachers should interested because the students at high school learn English as the second language and they are poor in knowledge, poor environment and they team English sometimes without materials

Reading is a receptive skill with many sub skills just as those involved in listening Reading is also very important in real life People always read for pleasure or for work Language learners can learn to use different reading styles Some read and

understand a text very quickly while others read slowly and fail to understand what they read

Hence, clearly, ideas of reading have been diverse in exploiting words and expressions but they all focus on two actions: studying with eyes and comprehending with brains of which the latter is more significant The most obvious thing in the latter is that the readers not only look at and understand the meaning of what is written but also read authors’ thinking

2.1.1.2 The role of reading in learning

Reading plays an inevitably important role in comprehending a text and using

the foreign language appropriately and fluently “A person’s future opportunities for success and prosperity will be even more entwined with skill reading abilities It is therefore an important societal responsibility to offer every person the opportunity to become a skilled reader, and in many cases, this means becoming a skilled L2 reader” (Grabe, 2009, p 6)

It is possible for us to claim that reading has a very important role to play in language learning as it can bring benefits to learners William (1984, p 13) suggests three advantages of reading to learners: First, learners can have further practice in the language that they have learnt This means that learners will have many opportunities

to gain further knowledge of the target language Second, learners can practice language in order to reuse it in other skills such as speaking and writing Learners cannot understand anything if they cannot read Third, learners can learn how to get benefit from the texts to extract the information they need The more comprehension learners conceive, the more major intelligence they receive

Reading has a large number of major benefits that help learners study language faster and more successfully Reading is one of the most essential skills for language learners When learners’ reading skill improve, their listening, speaking, and writing also advance There are some specific reasons why learners are encouraged to practice reading In the first place, the constant repetition of words and patterns in reading helps you learn and remember vocabulary and grammar structures Reading plays an important part in providing vocabulary and structure types Learners can understand the usage of structures better when they catch the meaning of sentences Secondly, reading is something readers can do their own Learners can spend as much

time as they wish on reading by themselves Language learners are able to practice reading skill whenever they want The skill does not extremely depend on others

2.1.1.3 The reading process

Reading is a complex cognitive process of decoding symbols in order to construct or derive meaning (reading comprehension) It is a means of language acquisition, of communication, and of sharing information and ideas Like all language, it is a complex interaction between the text and the reader which is shaped

by the reader’s prior knowledge, experiences, attitude, and language community which is culturally and socially situated The reading process requires continuous practice and development

Readers use a variety of reading strategies to assist with decoding (to translate symbols into sounds or visual representations of speech) and comprehension Readers may use morpheme, semantics, and syntax context clues to identify the meaning of unknown words Readers integrate the words they have read into their existing framework of knowledge or schema (schemata theory) Other types of reading are not speech based writing systems, such as music notation or pictograms Currently most reading is either of the printed word from ink or toner on paper, such as in a book, magazine, newspaper, leaflet, or notebook, or of electronic displays, such as computer displays, television, mobile phones or e-readers

The process of recording information to be read later is writing In the case of computer and microfiche storage there is the separate step of displaying the written text For humans, reading is usually faster and easier than writing Reading is typically an individual activity, although on occasion a person will read out loud for the benefit of other listeners Reading aloud for one's own use, for better comprehension, is a form of intrapersonal communication Other methods of teaching and learning to read have developed, and become somewhat controversial Reading is

an intensive process in which the eye quickly moves to assimilate text Very little is actually seen accurately It is necessary to understand visual perception and eyes movement in order to understand the reading process There are several types and methods of reading, with differing rates that can be attained for each, for different kinds of material and purposes: Rates of reading include reading for memorization (fewer than 100 words per minute [wpm]); reading for learning (100 -200wpm);

reading for comprehension (200 - 400 wpm); and skimming (4007700 wpm) Reading for comprehension is the essence of the daily reading of most people Skimming is for superficially processing large quantities of text at a low level of comprehension (below 50%) Advice for choosing the appropriate reading-rate includes reading flexibly, slowing when concepts are closely presented and when the material is new, and increasing when the material is familiar and of thin concept Speed reading courses and books often encourage the reader to continually accelerate; comprehension tests lead the reader to believe his or her comprehension is continually improving; yet, competence-in-reading requires knowing that skimming

is dangerous, as a default habit Reading speed requires a long time to reach adult levels

2.1.2 Definition of reading comprehension

Reading comprehension is the act of understanding what you are reading Reading comprehension is an intentional, active, interactive process that occurs before, during and after a person reads a particular piece of writing

Reading Comprehension is the ability to understand what we read- where words have contexts have meaning, Reading comprehension skills allow us to read proficiently, learn effectively, problem, solve, strategize, conceptualize, and succeed

in life Without reading comprehension skills, many students are left behind Reading comprehension is the heart and gold of reading, since the purpose of all reading is to gather meaning from the printed page If a student says words in a passage without gathering their meaning, one would hesitate to call that reading

In order to comprehend written texts, the reader needs to have some basic knowledge, strategies and awareness These include: the ability to decode print accurately and fluently, knowledge about language, including vocabulary and syntax, and strategies for applying that knowledge, knowledge and experiences of the world, including life experiences, content knowledge, background knowledge and knowledge about texts, an awareness of their own processes and strategies as they approach reading

Relevant processes and strategies include motivation and engagement, comprehension strategies, monitoring strategies and “fix-up” strategies

In addition, Silberstein (1994, p.10) elaborated that comprehension is an active process and the reader must interact and be engaged with the text for it to work well

It is also a strategic process which can be taught As comprehension takes place, words are decoded and associated with their meaning in the reader’s memory and phrases and sentences are processed rapidly or fluently enough so that the meanings derived from one world, phrase, or sentence are not lost before the next is processed Yet, reading comprehension can be described as understanding a text that is read, or the process of constructing meaning from a text

Grellet (1981, p.3) has considered reading comprehension or “understanding a written text means extracting the required information from it as efficiently as possible” Reading comprehension is explained as the ability to understand what has been read Comprehending involves strategies that students learn to use when reading independently Teachers focus on several key comprehension skills These are inferring, predicting, comparing and contrasting, sequencing and summarizing Students usually learn how to use these strategies in a small group guided by the teacher who demonstrates their use Students then practice comprehension techniques with a partner by discussing what they read, making connections with prior knowledge and identifying the main ideas in the story

Reading comprehension is very important because it may be tested by a passage which is to be translated into good English, or by question based on the content of a passage In this case, the passage is not translated, the questions being asked in the foreign language and the student answering in English

At this level, the reader is able to go beyond the words on the page and infer other details for example, to realize that the main character is angry from what he says and what he does Being able to operate at the inferential level means that the reader is using information effectively to deduce cause and effect, and to anticipate what may come next At a more demanding level (critical reading), the reader is able to appraise what he or she is reading for example, detecting good writing style from the author, recognizing when some statements in the text are biased or incorrect, appreciating the writer’s viewpoint, comparing and contrasting information with other facts they have read elsewhere, and reflecting upon the importance or otherwise of the opinions presented Weak readers who are still struggling with word recognition have

enormous difficulty progressing beyond a literal level of comprehension because most of their cognitive effort is taken up in unlocking the print

In brief, reading becomes meaningless without comprehension since only reading

comprehension can appreciate how much readers get the text

2.1.2.1 Reading Comprehension Process

The nature of reading comprehension process – how people learn to process textual information – has been researched by cognitive and behavioral scientists for many decades So far reading has sometimes been characterized as “passive” or

“receptive”

2.1.2.1.1 The Schema Theory

An important source of understanding about the nature of the knowledge that informs comprehension is schema theory Schema theory is concerned with how knowledge is represented and organized in long-term memory (as sets of information,

or schemas) and then brought to mind as new information comes in The theory suggests that individuals relate all new information to what they already know or have experienced In the context of reading, schema theory emphasizes the critical

role of the reader’s prior knowledge in comprehension

A schema is a cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret

information Schemas can be useful because they allow us to take shortcuts in interpreting the vast amount of information that is available in our environment However, these mental frameworks also cause us to exclude pertinent information to focus instead only on things that confirm our pre-existing beliefs and ideas Schemas can contribute to stereotypes and make it difficult to retain new information that does not conform to our established ideas about the world

Researchers have identified different kinds of schema that are particularly

significant for reading Content schemas concern knowledge about the world, ranging

from the very personal and every day to broad and specialized

knowledge Textual schemas concern knowledge that readers (and writers) have about

the forms and organization of written texts, from word-level information to complex information about structure and register

Schemas are activated when a reader sees and starts to read a text The textual schema will enable the reader to recall and interpret the text in the light of what they

already know about texts, for example, about text types or genres, vocabulary, different kinds of sentences, tone and register These schemas may also enable the reader to make predictions about the kind of text will be by referring to their stored knowledge of text types Content schemas will be activated as the reader engages with the words and any pictures in the text, from the title onwards For example, as a reader starts an article about rugby, they will bring to mind everything they already know about rugby If the reader knows very little about rugby, the article may be difficult to comprehend The more relevant prior knowledge the reader has, the more they will comprehend when they read a text that connects with their existing content schema

Readers from diverse cultural and language backgrounds will have diverse schemas, but for all learners, the more knowledge that is stored, the more that can be interpreted, understood and added to the store The implication is that accessing the learner’s textual schema and building new language knowledge is the key to increasing expertise in English Likewise, accessing the learner’s content knowledge and helping them to relate it to new contexts will help them comprehend texts in English

2.1.2.1.2 Bottom – up and Top-down processing

There are two approaches to understanding the process of perception These are

the top-down processing and the bottom up processing Top-down and

bottom-up are both strategies of information processing and knowledge ordering, used in a

variety of fields including software, humanistic and scientific theories , and management and organization In practice, they can be seen as a style of thinking, teaching, or leadership

Top-down processing is defined as the development of pattern recognition through the use of contextual information For instance, you are presented with a paragraph written with difficult handwriting It is easier to understand what the writer wants to convey if you read the whole paragraph rather than reading the words in separate terms The brain may be able to perceive and understand the gist of the paragraph due

to the context supplied by the surrounding words

In the bottom-up processing approach, perception starts at the sensory input, the stimulus Thus, perception can be described as data-driven For example, there is a

flower at the center of a person's field The sight of the flower and all the information about the stimulus are carried from the retina to the visual cortex in the brain The signal travels in one direction

In short, there are two ways that readers can use to deal with a text: using the bottom – up processing to get detailed understanding of the text and using the top-down to understand main ideas about the text Readers may use one of the two ways

to comprehend texts, however, readers usually need both of them to deal with difficult texts As a result, this leads to interactive processing

2.1.2.1.3 Interactive processing

A successful reader should combine top – down and bottom – up processing, which is called interactive reading:

“In practice, a reader continually shifts from one focus to another, now adopting

a top– down approach to predict probable meaning, then moving to the bottom – up approach to check whether that is really what the writer says” (Nuttal, 1996, p 17) According to Hayes (1996, p.7), “in interactive models, different processes are thought to be responsible for providing information that is shared with other processes The information obtained from each type of processing is combined to determine the most appropriate interpretation of the printed pages”

In short, the popularity of interactive processes shows that interactive processing can maximize the strengths and minimizes the weaknesses of the bottom – up and top – down processing

2.1.2.2 Factors affecting the learning of reading comprehension

The comprehension goals of the intermediate grades address these abilities

as well as those required for independent study: skimming, using reference materials, outlining, summarizing, altering reading rate and focus as the purpose

of reading changes, use of headings, note taking, and so on For many spreading comprehension is a major problem There are mainly three causes for poor reading comprehension

Firstly, the person has a language problem Language plays a vital role in reading One cannot read a book in a language unless one knows that particular language If a child’s knowledge of English is poor, then his reading will also be poor, and naturally also his reading comprehension

Secondly, if the foundational skills of reading have not been atomized If the skill on the primary task is automatized, it will not be disrupted by concurrent processing on the secondary task because automatic processing does not take up antinational resources If, on the contrary, the skill is not automatized, it will be disrupted by concurrent processing of a second skill because two skills are then competing for limited intentional resources This also applies to the act of reading The person, in whom the foundational skills of reading have not yet become automatic, will read haltingly and with great difficulty The poor reader is forced to apply all his concentration to word recognition, and therefore has no concentration left’ to decode the written word, and as a result he will not be able to read with comprehension

Lastly, threaded is unable to decode the written word The decoding of the written word is a very important aspect of the reading act Without being able to decode the written word, reading comprehension is impossible This explains why some children can read without understanding what they are reading Many students

do not realize how important it is to be able to fully comprehend what you read Being able to completely and accurately comprehend what you read is essential to your ability to learn, perform well on tests and ultimately succeed in school and in a career Anyone who desires to acquire effective study techniques would do well to improve his reading comprehension skills Developing reading comprehension techniques is one of the two basic ways of improving reading skill, the other being developing reading speed However, rapid reading is valueless unless what is read is understood

Experiences are another factor that greatly impact reading comprehension If you have many life experiences that you can draw upon from your memory bank, you may be more apt to follow along with a given reading selection, A story that does not make sense to you because you have not lived that sort of experience before will not

be able to hold your interest Comprehending reading requires that you delve deep into the characters and plot, and allow your imagination to soar, transcending time and boundaries, the creative aspect of your brain needs to be engaged in order to fully understand different concepts and abstract reasoning A mastery of vocabulary is an essential factor that affects reading comprehension If you possess an expansive

vocabulary, you are more likely to understand textual writing, and you will be less likely to become frustrated Knowledge of words is imperative to reading comprehension, and this can make a written piece come alive for some people If the writing is too difficult to understand, a person is more likely to put it down or lose interest Soon, you have lost all understanding of the piece, and therefore your reading comprehension has been compromised Making connections is an essential factor that affects reading comprehension While you read, you should be able to make connections to yourself, your surroundings, or your environment The more that you are able to connect a written work to something personal, the more apt you are to fully understand Making connections can truly allow you to establish and grasp a compelling hold on the written work, and the more you understand, the more insatiable your thirst for reading will become

2.1.2.3 Reading purposes and motivation

The problem addressed in this study is that many high school teachers are unaware

of, or mistaken about, specific strategies and practices that actually motivate their students to read, and that What motivates one group of students may not motivate another Content-area teachers are often unaware that although they may not have been trained in teaching reading strategy and may feel as though teaching reading is not their job, it is an expectation that could largely be met by the implementation of motivational strategies When teachers do not employ motivational strategies, they miss an opportunity to engage students in reading, ultimately contributing to the decreasing rates of literacy in schools The outcome, which is student performance or perception in a classroom setting, can be affected by the valence and consequence, both of which the teacher has the power to highlight or alter depending on the preferences of his or her group of students The study is significant because although research has been conducted to determine what motivates students to read, the vast majority of the literature focuses on elementary- and middle- grade students In addition, a disparity in teacher and student perceptions demonstrates a real problem that must be addressed in order to inform instructors in their delivery and practice regarding motivational strategies to read

2.1.2.4 Approaches to Teach Reading

“mental discipline was essential for strengthening the powers of the mind” The way

to do this was through learning classical literature of the Greeks and Romans

The main principles on which the Grammar Translation Approach are based are the following:

Firstly, translation interprets the words and phrases of the foreign languages in the best possible manner

Secondly, the phraseology and the idiom of the target language can best be assimilated in the process of interpretation

Thirdly, the structures of the foreign languages are best learned when compared and contrast with those of mother tongue

Grammar-translation approach has some advantages Firstly, translation is the easiest and shortest way of explaining meaning of words and phrases Secondly, learners have no difficulties to understand the lesson as it is carried out in the mother tongue Thirdly, it is a labor-saving method as the teacher carries out everything in the mother tongue

However, there are some drawbacks Firstly, what the method is good at is

“teaching about the language”, not “teaching the language” Secondly, speaking or any kind of spontaneous creative output was missing from the curriculum Thirdly, students lacked an active role in the classroom Fourthly, very little attention is paid

to communication and content Finally, translation is sometimes misleading

2.1.2.4.2 Communicative Language Teaching Approach

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) which is an approach to the teaching

of second and foreign languages, emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language

Most present-day practitioners would probably like to think that their classes are

"communicative" in the widest sense of the word Their lessons probably contain

activities where learners communicate and where tasks are completed by means of interaction with other learners To this end there will probably be considerable if not extensive use of pair, group and mingling activities, with the emphasis on completing the task successfully through communication with others rather than on the accurate use of form During these activities the teacher’s role will be to facilitate and then to monitor, usually without interruption, and then to provide feedback on the success or otherwise of the communication and, possibly, on the linguistic performance of the learners in the form of post-activity error correction In terms of the organization of the lesson, the classic present, practice and perform model, where careful input of a particular structure is typically followed by controlled, less controlled and freer practice is likely to have been replaced by a more task-based approach, possibly on the lines of test, teach, test, where the learners are given a communicative task which

is monitored by the teacher and then their language use while performing the task is fine-tuned by the teacher in a lesson stage which focuses on error correction or a particular form that is causing difficulties This is typically followed by a further task-based stage, where the initial task is repeated or a similar task is performed, ideally with a greater degree of linguistic accuracy than during the first attempt

There are some advantages of communication Language Teaching

Firstly, the interaction between students and teachers Communicative teaching

is becoming increasingly clear feature is the change in the way as the internship, students develop the subject, initiative and become increasingly important Teacher- students relationship is an interactive, harmonious relationship, rather than the traditional education, the kind of master- servant relationship

Secondly, Communicative teaching is good way to impart the basic knowledge and ability to skillfully combine the development The communicative teaching emphasizes the learner’s cognitive ability and operational capabilities, which allow the students themselves to think about and express their views, thus trained in real life the ability to use language to communicate

Thirdly, Communicative teaching students to participate in, sometimes accompanied by scenes or simulated scenarios, so that students more close to life, the students became the main character, naturally they were interested in the English language, to learn English as a pleasure

Communicative Approach is a new teaching methods to meet the demands of the times, its emphasis on interpersonal skills, better than the traditional method to stimulate students interest in learning, stimulate students to communicate their enthusiasm, it is than trying to teach the entire language is more formal system of traditional law quick, but also save time and effort, but it also has its downside First of all, using communicative approach to grammar teaching, grammar, learning systematic and progressive to a certain extent, be affected Psycholinguistic experiments show that, regardless of language acquisition of children, or adults in second language acquisition, their awareness of grammar acquisition and understanding of the project is carried out according to a certain order Communicative grammar teaching practice is often used features an outline of ideas

to focus on teaching how to make the students in a specific context, in order to achieve specific communicative functions, such as: inquiry, instruction, order, refused the request and so on, the correct who graciously to use these linguistic forms In this system, the syntax of the systematic and progressive to a certain degree of neglect, and sometimes give people with disorderly feeling Secondly, the communicative approach to grammar teaching, grammar items account for a large proportion of the output, that is a lot of time for students to communicate in conversation to understand the consolidation

2.1.2.4.3 Content-Based

Content-based approach has some advantages Firstly, it can make learning a language more interesting and motivating Students can use the language to fulfill a real purpose, which can make students both more independent and confident In addition, Students can also develop a much wider knowledge of the world through content- based which can feed back into improving and supporting their general educational needs

Content based is very popular among EAP (English for Academic Purposes) teachers as it helps students to develop valuable study skills such as note taking, summarizing and extracting key information from texts

Taking information from different sources, re-evaluating and restructuring that information can help students to develop very valuable thinking skills that can then

be transferred to other subjects

The inclusion of a group work element within the framework given above can also help students to develop their collaborative skills, which can have great social value

However, there are some disadvantages of content-based approach is not explicitly focused on language learning, some students may feel confused or may even feel that they are not improving their language skills They deal with this by including some form of language focused follow-up exercises to help draw attention to linguistic features within the materials and consolidate any difficult vocabulary or grammar points

Particularly in monolingual classes, the overuse of the students' native language during parts of the lesson can be a problem Because the lesson isn't explicitly focused on language practice students find it much easier and quicker to use their mother tongue Try sharing your rationale with students and explain the benefits of using the target language rather than their mother tongue

It can be hard to find information sources and texts that lower levels can understand Also the sharing of information in the target language may cause great difficulties A possible way around this at lower levels is either to use texts in the students' native language and then get them to use the target language for the sharing

of information and end product, or to have texts in the target language, but allow the students to present the end product in their native language These options should reduce the level of challenge

Some students may copy directly from the source texts they use to get their information Avoid this by designing tasks that demand students evaluate the information in some way, to draw conclusions or actually to put it to some practical use Having information sources that have conflicting information can also be helpful

as students have to decide which information they agree with or most believe

2.1.2.4.4 Task-based approach

Task-based learning offers the student an opportunity to do exactly this The primary focus of classroom activity is the task and language is the instrument which the students use to complete it The task is an activity in which students use language

to achieve a specific outcome The activity reflects real life and learners focus on meaning, they are free to use any language they want Playing a game, solving a

problem or sharing information or experiences, can all be considered as relevant and authentic tasks In task-based learning an activity in which students are given a list of words to use cannot be considered as a genuine task Nor can a normal role play if it does not contain a problem-solving element or where students are not given a goal to reach In many role plays students simply act out their restricted role For instance, a role play where students have to act out roles as company directors but must come to

an agreement or find the right solution within the given time limit can be considered a genuine task in task –based learning

In the task-based lessons included below our aim is to create a need to learn and use language The tasks will generate their own language and create an opportunity for language acquisition If we can take the focus away from form and structures we can develop our students’ ability to do things in English That is not to say that there will be no attention paid to accuracy, work on language is included in each task and feedback and language focus have their places in the lesson plans We feel that teachers have a responsibility to enrich their students’ language when they see it is necessary but students should be given the opportunity to use English in the classroom as they use their own languages in everyday life

According to Brown (2001, p.50), task-based learning “puts task at the center

of one’s methodological focus” It views the learning process as a set of communicative tasks that are directly linked to the curricular goals they serve.”

In reading comprehension, tasks are especially important since they will guide the readers in a correct reading procedure and help them have thorough understanding of reading texts

There are some advantages of task-based Firstly, task-based learning is more student-centered, allows for more meaningful communication, and often provides for practical extra-linguistic skill building Secondly, task-based is likely to be familiar to students who are more likely to be engaged, which may further motivate them in their language learning Thirdly,

However, there are some drawbacks of task-based There have been criticisms that task-based learning is not appropriate as the foundation of a class for beginning

students Others claim that students are only exposed to certain forms of language and are being neglected of others such as discussion or debate

2.1.2.5 Techniques to teach reading

2.1.2.5.1 In Pre-reading

This stage plays a decisive role in the whole process of teaching reading comprehension so most experienced readers employ pre-reading and other strategies

to make reading easier Pre-reading aims at introducing the text to the students and

helps them make careful preparation before reading the text At this important stage, teachers should make sure that students have the relevant schema for understanding the text This is achieved by having students think, write, and discuss everything they know about the topic, employing the most common techniques such as prediction,

semantic mapping and reconciled reading

Prediction is defined as “the prior elimination of unlikely alternatives” Nunan

(1999, p 19) According to him, predictions are questions readers ask the world and comprehension is receiving the answers

Previewing occurs when students look at titles, headings, and pictures, and read

the first few paragraphs and the last paragraph; these activities can then help students understand what texts are about by activating their formal and content schemata and making them be familiar with the topic before they begin reading

Semantic mapping is another pre-reading technique that describe as a useful way

to pre-teach vocabulary and to “provide the teacher with an assessment of the students’ prior knowledge or schema availability on the topic” This activity asks students to brainstorm about the reading topic as the information is displayed on a graphic “map”

Reconciled reading lesson reverses the sequence presented by many textbooks

where the text is followed by questions Instead, the teacher develops pre-reading questions from the questions that appear at the end of the reading

2.1.2.5.2 In While-reading

While reading stage is carried out when all students actually set their eyes on the text and this stage is the main part of a reading comprehension lesson The aims of this stage focus on making the students anticipate in the process of understanding the whole text, and interpreting exactly what the author wrote In addition, it helps the

students break up the organization of the text, understand the text structures, classify the text content and recognize the writer’s purpose and attitude This stage also trains the students to think about other ideas rising from the text Moreover, it helps the students improve their reading speed and techniques This stages offers an opportunities to apply effectively what they have learnt from the text to their purpose

of study and communication

This stage requires teachers to guide and monitor the interaction between readers and texts One important skill teachers can impart at this stage is note-taking, which allows students to compile new vocabulary and important information and details, and to summarize information and record their reactions and opinion

Furthermore, during reading, readers’ minds repeatedly engage in a variety of processes, seemingly all at one Using top-down and bottom-up approaches, readers use pre-reading information to make some predictions about the text Using bottom-

up approach, readers start by processing information at the sentence level

2.1.2.5 3 In Post-reading

Post-reading is the implementation of various activities carried out after the students have read the text Some post-reading activities are extension of the work done at the pre-reading and while –reading stages

According to Bromley (2007, p.15), “ one reason for post-reading discussion in class is to offer pupils the chance to see in what way their reading did or did not succeed, and why” In fact, there are more than one purpose for post-reading stage which are of wide relevance and applied to all students, and which teachers who teach groups with mixed level should consider

One of the purposes of post-reading work is to check whether the students have understood the text or not The teacher can ask students some questions about the texts which are not given in the book or require them to discuss in group and in pair

or so on Another purpose is to consolidate or reflect upon what the students have read To achieve this, the teacher should help the students focus on the important points as writer’s opinion, the main idea of the text, the specific paragraph or phrase

in the reading text

This stage offers the chance to evaluate students’ adequacy of interpretation, while bearing in mind that accuracy is relative that “readership” must be respected as long as the writer’s intentions are addressed

Post-reading aims at extending the understanding obtained from the pre-reading and while-reading stages into writing tasks, such as summarizing, evaluating, synthesizing, commenting and reflecting

By engaging students in pre-, while-, post-reading activities, teachers not only support students’ understanding of content but also provide them with opportunities

to hone their comprehension, vocabulary, and study skills without interrupting content learning

2.2 Graphic organizers

2.2.1 Definitions of graphic organizers

A graphic organizer is a visual display that demonstrates relationships between facts, concepts or ideas A graphic organizer guides the learner’s thinking as they fill

in and build upon a visual map or diagram They are also informally used as a term to describe all visual learning strategies such as concept mapping, webbing, mind

mapping, and more

A graphic organizer is a tool or framework that allows you to collect, relate, and/or present information visually Graphic organizers take many forms, and include favorites such as the Venn diagram, story webs, and concept maps Information presented in an easy-to-read format can enhance thinking, spark new ideas, and maintain focus on the topic or task at hand A graphic organizer is intended to provide structure to ideas or concepts, making it easy to collect or add information Once the graphic organizer is complete, it serves as a presentation or study model

Graphic organizers are some of the most effective visual learning strategies for students and are applied across the curriculum to enhance learning and understanding

of subject matter content In a variety of formats dependent upon the task, graphic organizers facilitate students’ learning by helping them identify areas of focus within

a broad topic, such as a novel or article Because they help the learner make connections and structure thinking, students often turn to graphic organizers for writing projects They help readers organize information so that it becomes more understandable and more memorable

2.2.2 Roles of graphic organizers

Graphic organizers include various kinds of graphs and diagrams that organize ideas visually They help readers to classify ideas and communicate effectively They are of great help for teaching and learning for their feature of visualization Use graphic organizer to empower your students, arouse their curiosity and have fun in study

Graphic organizers are tools that can be used to visualize and organize information Because graphic organizers are often used as prompts for students to fill

in the blanks, graphic organizers provide many benefits to students who use them including: helping students structure writing project, encouraging students to make decisions, making it easy for students to classify ideas and communicate, allowing students to examine relationships, guiding students in demonstrating their thinking process, helping students increase reading comprehension, making it easy to brainstorm, encouraging students to organize essential concepts and ideas, making it clear how to break apart a story into the main elements (intro, rising action, climax, etc.)

Numerous studies confirm the benefits of using graphic organizers in the classroom in terms of helping students develop and process information Graphic organizers are structures or templates that help students to understand the relationships between concepts and vocabulary They are a quick and effortless way

to deliver effective instruction if used appropriately and responsibly in the classroom

2.2.3 Types of graphic organizers employed in the research

Graphic organizers come in many different forms, each one best suited to organizing a particular type of information With vivid shapes, symbols and connectors, graphic organizers visualize the relationship between different parts For example, Venn diagrams help students see and understand the common points and differences of things Cause-and-effect diagrams help student find out the causes and results of an event Mind map can boost students' creative thinking when they understand how different subtopics relate to the main topic Flow charts presents the sequence relation clearly step by step In this part, four types of graphic organizers were presented

2.2.3.1 Mind maps

A mind map is an easy way to brainstorm thoughts organically without worrying about order and structure It allows you to visually structure your ideas to help with analysis and recall

A mind map is a diagram for representing tasks, words, concepts, or items linked to and arranged around a central concept or subject using a non-linear graphical layout that allows the user to build an intuitive framework around a central concept A mind map can turn a long list of monotonous information into a colorful, memorable and highly organized diagram that works in line with your brain's natural way of doing things

A mind map is a diagram, a graphic organizer that helps students visualize what they are reading and detect connections between individual pieces of information In

a classic mind map, students will always find the subject prominently placed in the center of the map canvas, with all notes, ideas and keywords arranged around the center in a radiant structure The use of mind maps in class is useful to help students recognize relationships they may miss in a more linear type of activity The act of mapping something out encourages the individual to create an internal retelling of the

story

2.2.3.2 The KWL

KWL is intended to be an exercise for a study group or class that can guide you in reading and understanding a text You can adapt it to working alone, but discussions definitely help

K stands for Know

This first stage may surprise students: Think first about, then list, what you know about the topic before reading! This advanced organizer provides you with a background to the new material, building a scaffold to support it Think of it as a pre-reading inventory

Brainstorm! Before looking at the text, think of keywords, terms, or phrases about the topic, either in your class or a study group

Record these in the K column of your chart until you cannot think of more Engage your group in a discussion about what you wrote in the K column

Organize the entries into general categories

W stands for Will or Want

The second stage is to list a series of questions of what you want to know more

of the subject, based upon what you listed in K

Preview the text’s table of contents, headings, pictures, charts etc Discuss what you want to learn

List some thoughts on what you want, or expect to learn, generally or specifically

Think in terms of what you will learn, or what do you want to learn about this Turn all sentences into questions before writing them down They will help you focus your attention during reading

List the questions by importance

L stands for Learned

The final stage is to answer your questions, as well as to list what new information you have learned Either while reading or after you have finished

List out what you learn as you read either by section, or after the whole work, whichever is comfortable for you

Check it against the W column, what you wanted to learn

Create symbols to indicate main ideas, surprising ideas, questionable ideas, and those you do not understand!

2.2.3.3 Venn diagram

A Venn diagram is an illustration of the relationships between and among sets, groups of objects that share something in common Usually, Venn diagrams are used

to depict set intersections (denoted by an upside-down letter U) This type of diagram

is used in scientific and engineering presentations, in theoretical mathematics, in computer applications, and in statistics

2.2.3.4 The “5 W’s”

Five W's diagrams are a type of graphic organizer that let the student think about and list the "Who, When, Where, What, and Why" of a story or event in a simple visual way This activity will help students understand of what they have read, and they can see the relationship between all the information

This chapter has presented the issues relating to teaching reading in terms of the role of reading in foreign language learning with both positive and negative points

Some approaches to teach reading have been presented In addition, the chapter reviews some theoretical issues of graphic organizers that were employed to improve students’ reading comprehension ability The next chapter presents the research methodology employed in the study