semantic, syntactic and pragmatic features of english quotations in linguistics theses

Cognitive Verbs Example of Bloom‘s Taxonomy Bloom,1956 ...13 Table 4.1.Distribution of all quotations in 7 main groups of LTs ...29 Table 4.2.Distribution of pure, direct, indirect and m

THE UNIVERSITY OF DA NANG

UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE STUDIES

FOREIGN COUNTRIES

Da Nang, 2020

THE UNIVERSITY OF DA NANG

UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE STUDIES

MASTER THESIS IN LINGUISTICS AND CULTURAL STUDIES OF

FOREIGN COUNTRIES

SUPERVISOR: Assoc Prof Dr PHAN VĂN HÒA

Da Nang, 2020

STATEMENTOF AUTHORSHIP

Except where reference is made in the text of the thesis, this thesis contains

no material published elsewhere or extracted in whole or in part from a thesis bywhich I have qualified for or been awarded another degree or diploma

No other people’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in thethesis

This thesis has not been submitted for the award of any degree or diploma inany other tertiary institutions

Da Nang, 2019

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First of all, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor,Ph.D Phan Van Hoa.Without his guidance, encouragement and critical comments,

my work would have never been completed

I am also grateful to all lecturers and staffs at University of ForeignLanguageStudies -The University of Da Nang for their enthusiastic teaching andtremendous knowledge

Finally, I would like to dedicate my concluding words to my family and allfriends for their help, support and encouragement throughout my study

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Statementof Authorship i

Acknowledgements ii

Abstract iii

Table Of Contents iv

List Of Abbreviations vii

List Of Table viii

List Of Figures ix

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 RATIONALE 1

1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES 1

1.2.1 Aims 1

1.2.2 Objectives 2

1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 2

1.4 SCOPE OF THE STUDY 2

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 3

1.6 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY 4

Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEWAND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND6 2.1 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 6

2.1.1 Definition of terms and classifications 6

2.1.1.1 Definition of Quotation 6

2.1.1.2 Classifications of Quotation 7

2.1.2 An overview of Quotation Theory 8

2.1.3 Semantic Features of Quotation 10

2.1.3.1 Standard view of Quotation and Difficulties 10 2.1.3.2 Semantic of Quotation based on Levels of Linguistic Acts 11 2.1.4 Syntactic Features of Quotation 15

2.1.4.1 Syntactic Features of Pure quotation 15 2.1.4.2 Syntactic Features of Mixed quotation 18 2.1.5 Pragmatic Features of Quotation 18

2.2 LITERATURE REVIEW 23

2.3 CHAPTER SUMMARY 25

Chapter 3 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 26

3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN 26

3.2 RESEARCH METHODS 26

3.3 DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLES 26

3.4 DATA COLLECTION 27

3.5 DATA ANALYSIS 27

3.6 RESEARCH PROCEDURE 27

3.7 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY 28

3.8 CHAPTER SUMMARY 28

Chapter 4 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS 29

4.1 SEMANTIC FEATURES OF ENGLISH QUOTATIONS IN LINGUISTIC THESES 29

4.1.1 Semantic Features of Pure Quotation 31

4.1.2 Semantic Features of Direct Quotation 33

4.1.3 Semantic Features of Indirect Quotation 36

4.1.4 Semantic Features of Mixed Quotation 41

4.2 SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF ENGLISH QUOTATIONS IN LINGUISTIC THESES 46

4.2.1 Syntactic features of pure quotation in LTS 46

4.2.3 Syntactic features of indirect quotation in LTs 51

4.2.4 Syntactic features of mixed quotation in LTs 55

4.3 PRAGMATIC FEATURES OF ENGLISH QUOTATIONS IN LINGUISTIC THESES 60

4.3.1 Pragmatic categories 60

4.3.1.1 Narrative 60

4.3.1.2 Grammaticality 61

4.3.1.3 Emphasis 62

4.3.1.4 Idiolect 62

4.3.1.5 Collective Knowledge 63

4.3.1.6 Non-standardness 63

4.3.1.7 Non- literacy 64

4.3.2 Pragmatic categories frequency 64

4.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY 66

Chapter 5 CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS 68

5.1 CONCLUSIONS 68

5.2 IMPLICATIONS 70

5.2.1 To Learners 70

5.2.2 To Teachers 70

5.3 LIMITATIONS 71

5.4 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH 72

REFERENCES 73

SOURCES OF DATA 76 QUYẾT ĐỊNH GIAO ĐỀ TÀI (bản sao)

AdjP Adjective Phrase

LIST OF TABLE

Table 1.1.Quantity of 7 main groups of Linguistics Studies 3

Table 2.1 Locutionary act types 11

Table.2.2 Cognitive Verbs Example of Bloom‘s Taxonomy (Bloom,1956) 13

Table 4.1.Distribution of all quotations in 7 main groups of LTs 29

Table 4.2.Distribution of pure, direct, indirect and mixed quotations in LTs 30

Table 4.3.Distribution of Locutionary act product in pure quotation in LTs 31

Table 4.4.Distribution of Locutionary product in direct quotation in LTs 33

Table 4.5 Distribution of Illocutionary product in direct quotation in LTs 33

Table 4.6 Distribution of Cognitive product in direct quotation in LTs 33

Table 4.7.Distribution of Locutionary product in indirect quotation in LTs 37

Table 4.8.Distribution of Illocutionary product in indirect quotation in LTs 38

Table 4.9.Distribution of Cognitive product in indirect quotation in LTs 39

Table 4.10 Distribution of Locutionary product in mixed quotation in LTs 42

Table 4.11.Distribution of Illocutionary product in mixed quotation in LTs 43

Table 4.12.Distribution of Cognitive product in mixed quotation in LTs 44

Table 4.13.Syntactic Functions of Rhetic act and Phatic act in pure quotation in LTs 47

Table 4.14.Distribution of LF structure of direct quotation in LTs 48

Table 4.15.Distribution of Syntactic Analysis of Indirect Quotation in LTs 51

Table 4.16.Distribution of Syntactic features of mixed quotations in LTs 56

Table 4.17.Distribution of pragmatic categories of pure, direct and indirect quotation in LTs 64

Table 4.18.Distribution of pragmatic categories of Mixed Quotation in LTs 65

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Illocutionary act types (Searle, 1969) 12Figure 2.2 Pyramid of Bloom‘s Taxonomy (Bloom, 1956) 13

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No Types of research Quantity of studies

6 Comparative and Historical Linguistics 4

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Quotations in scientific research are not a new issue; they are mentioned inmost of syllabuses, books in terms of content, methodology in many universities allover the world They are also familiar with whoever writes essays, dissertations, orscientific researches in small or big scopes From the view of the research beginners,however, the completed comprehension of quotation and citation is not simplebecause of misunderstanding or even getting mistakes when quoting The lack ofknowledge or unawareness of quotation leads to the failure of implementation ofregulations in subjective and objective reasons Many evidences have shown that theerrors in quoting can‘t be less harmful in scientists‘ career

Most critical opinions on dissertations are related to the results of citation, thusthe important role of the quotation in research should be clear Firstly, quotationallows scientist interpret the theoretical background, the frame theory from whichpropose new ideas, provide source of methodology used in study, the way to conductthe study and finally review, set up the research results in compare with other resultspublished earlier Secondly, quoting proves the writer up to date of knowledge inmajor and aware of scientific knowledge development at the time the study conducted.Therefore, the use of quotation in scientific thesis shows that the scientist regularlyupdated new knowledge in major and the research has accompanied with the flow of

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other studies in same major or not.

There are no quotations, the failure or carelessness in using quotation in thesiscan lead to plagiarism Plagiarism is considered as using of ideas, methods andsentences of others without specifying the source Plagiarism is a serious issue related

to science ethics that any researcher need to understand clearly in order to avoid

For all these reasons, this study is conducted with the hope to help allresearchers, teachers and learners not only of English but also of other areas havedeeper insight to use quotations scientifically, smartly Then the writing becomes moreconvincing, clear-based on scientific theory and especially reduces plagiarismmistake

1.6 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY

The thesis consists of five chapters as follows:

- Chapter 1: Introduction

This chapter states rationale, aims and objectives, research questions, scope of thestudy, significance of the study and organization of the study

-Chapter 2: Literature Review and Theoretical Background

This chapter presents the theoretical background of the study, including a brief review

of the quotation theories in terms of semantics, syntax and pragmatics

-Chapter 3: Research Methods

This chapter describes research methods, description of samples, data collection, dataanalysis, research procedures and reliability and validity

-Chapter 4: Findings and Discussions

This chapter analyses the results of finding the semantic features, syntacticcharacteristics and pragmatic features of EQs in Linguistic Theses, both quantitativelyand qualitatively

-Chapter 5: Conclusions

This chapter summarizes the results of the study and outlines some implications forteaching, learning and using quotation in academic writing Limitations and

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suggestions for further researches are also presented in this part.

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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEWAND THEORETICAL

BACKGROUND 2.1 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

2.1.1 Definition of terms and classifications

According to OALD-7th Edition (2005), a quotation is —a group of words or ashort piece of writing taken from a book, play, speech, etc and repeated because it isinteresting or useful”

These definitions comprise an attributable source (—from a book, speech”,etc.) and some replicated item (—a passage from”) The —source” implies aconnection between a quoted and a quoting passage, a concept of quotation that hasbeen take up in literacy intertextuality studies especially as reference

- Data-based broad concept of quotation

Working with empirical data made it necessary to broaden the concept ofquotation as suggested in OED and OALD The data reveal that quotation can belonger or shorter; they may stretch from a simply single word to lengthier expositions

On the other hand, it need not necessarily be a phrase that is reused, it could be a name,

a motif, or a mixture of words If it is a phrase, it can be reapplied using exact words ofthe original, with a mix of quoted words embedded in freely composed language orentirely by paraphrase Hence, a broad concept of quotation is required toaccommodate all the observable appearances of quotation

Quassdorf (2016) defined a quotation as —anything that establishes a link or asimilarity with or thus constitutes a trace of a source text” Quotation in this definition

incorporates intertextual phenomena such as —allusion, parody, adaptation, pastiche,cento, citation etc.” This abstract concept accommodates the various aspects ofquotation derived from the empirical work on the quoting data, as well as from theprevious scholarly work.

According to Galperin (1977), a quotation is —a repetition of a phrase orstatement from a book, speech and the like used by way of authority, illustration, proof

or as a basis for the further speculation on the matter in hand” By repeating a passage

in a new environment, we attach to the utterance an importance it might not have had

in the context whence it was taken Moreover, we give it the status, temporary thought

it maybe, of the stable language unit What is quoted must be worth quoting, since aquotation will inevitably acquire some degree of generalization They are mostly usedaccompanied by a reference to the author of the quotation, unless he is well-known toreader or audience The reference is made either in the text or in a foot-note andassumes various forms, as, for instance:

—as (so and so) has it”

—(so and so) once said that ”

In this book, he also asserted —a quotation is the exact reproduction of anactual utterance made by a certain author” and the work containing the utterancequoted must have been published or at least spoken in public

In this study, a quotation is regarded as a text with above definition

2.1.1.2 Classifications of Quotation

Davidson (1979) distinguished mixed quotation, as in (2.4) and (2.5), from pure,direct,and indirect quotation, as in (2.1)-(2.3)

(2.1) —Bachelor” has eight letters.(Pure quotation)

(2.2) Quine says —quotation has a certain anomalous feature”.(Direct quotation) (2.3) Quine says quotation has a certain anomalous feature.(Indirect quotation)

(2.4) Quine says quotation —has a certain anomalous feature”.(Mixed quotation)

proud of his “eckullectic” reading list.(Mixed quotation) [10]

(2.2) quotes Quine by mentioning the words he uttered or wrote This is directquotation (2.3) quotes him, but could be true even if Quine never uttered or wrote anywords in (2.3) This is indirect quotation (2.4) quotes Quine by reporting what he said,but attributes to her only an utterance of —has a certain anomalous feature” Call thismixed quotation If Quine utters (2.1), he uses quotation not to report what anothersays, but simply to talk about linguistic expression Call this pure quotation.

2.1.2 An overview of Quotation Theory

According to Cappelen & Lepore (2003), the main existing theories of quotation

seem to be these: the identity theory of Frege (1892) and Washington (1992), the name theory of Tarski (1956) and Quine (1940), the description theory of Geach (1950), the demonstrative theory of Davidson (1979) and Cappelen & Lepore (1997), the disambiguation theory of Saka (1998), and the demonstration theory of Clark &

Gerrig (1990) and Recanati (2001)

According to the identity theory, quotation marks signal a shift in reference

whereby expressions denote themselves, rather than their customary denotation Thenaturalness of this theory can be seen in examples like (2.6):

(2.6) a —Cicero” has 6 letters

b —Incipient” is an adjective

c —Comment-allez vous?” is a question in French

In each case the predicative elements of these sentences apply to linguisticobjects, and so it is only natural that the quotation, or the quoted material, should betaken to refer to such an object Having this material refer to itself in addition has theadvantage of making these intuitively true sentences true The name and descriptiontheories could be taken to agree, in essence, with the identity theory Both hold that theexpressions in quotation marks in (2.6) are referred to They differ only in how thatreference takes place - what the vehicle is (a name or a definite description)

On the demonstrative approach, the quotation marks in the examples in (2.6)

act as demonstrative pronouns, like this, that, these, or those The material inside the

quotation marks is as if it were not in the sentence at all, but instead a separate itemthat is present in the discourse context to be referred to, like a lamp or an addressee.

According to the disambiguation theory, any utterance makes manifest

linguistic expressions in all their glory - i.e their phonological or orthographic,syntactic, and semantic properties Quotation marks indicate that something other thanthe usual denotation is being referred to, with the context establishing which of themanifested characteristics that something is

Finally, according to the demonstration theory, in actual utterances of the

sentences in (2.6), the material within quotation marks would be a piece ofdemonstration, just as a ballet teacher might demonstrate the 5 basic foot positions.This accords well with the idea that a variety of gestures or noises can be so cited, as in(2.7) (from Clark & Gerrig 1990: ex 28):

(2.7) a The car engine went [brmbrm], and we were off [1]

b The boy who had scratched her Rolls Royce went [rude gesture with hand] and ran

2.1.3 Semantic Features of Quotation

2.1.3.1. Standard view of Quotation and Difficulties

Moltmann (2015) claim that the standard view is that pure quotations areexpression-referring terms, managing, in some way, to refer to the relevant expressiontype, by acting as a description (Geach 1970), as a name (Reichenbach 1947), orinvolving a demonstrative (quotation marks) pointing to a displayed token (Davidson

1967, 1979, Cappelen/Lepore 2007, Clark/Gerrig 1990, de Vries 2008), or else by

‘presenting’ it (Washington 1992, Saka 1998) Direct quotations on the standard view

require a different treatment since they contribute both a content (a proposition) and aform and thus cannot just act as expression-referring terms Also mixed quotationscontribute a content and a form, though the latter may either characterize the reportedspeech act or some contextually given speech act The standard view tends to considerboth direct and mixed quotation pragmatic phenomena quite distinct from purequotation The standard view generally admits that quotation of various sorts cannot betreated compositionally and be based on the interpretation of a formal syntacticstructure.

Standard formal semantics has difficulties with quotation because of one of itsfundamental assumptions, namely that the meanings of sentences are abstractpropositions, a view has recently been challenged by philosophers such as Jubien(2001), Moltmann (2003, 2013), Soames (2010) and Hanks (2015), who argue in favor

of an act-based notion of sentence meaning Moltmann (2003, 2013) shows thatquotation provides an important application of an act-related conception of sentencemeaning according to which sentences function as predicates of various sorts ofobjects, including products of illocutionary, locutionary or cognitive acts For thetreatment of quotation (and of verbs of saying) this has the crucial advantage thatsentences may express both content-related and form-related properties, to bepredicated of products of locutionary and illocutionary acts

2.1.3.2 Semantic of Quotation based on Levels of Linguistic Acts

According to Moltmann (2017)‘s semantic theory of pure, direct and mixedquotation based on Austin‘s distinction among levels of linguistic acts that can besummarized as follows:

- Pure quotations convey meanings based on lower-level linguistic acts (in Austin‘s

1962 sense), such as phatic acts (phonetic acts, phonological acts), morphological

acts), concept-conveying acts, referential acts

- Pure quotations have as their meaning lower-level product types and as such caneasily have a predicative function in the sentence

- Extension to direct and mixed quotation straightforward: they express both properties

of lower-level linguistic products and locutionary, illocutionary, or cognitive products

• Locutionary act & Illocutionary act:

In How to Do Things with Words, Austin (1962) introduced not only the notion

of an illocutionary act, such as an act of asserting, requesting, promising, or asking a

question, but also the notion of a locutionary act, which consists in various acts ‘below’

the level of an illocutionary act A locutionary act includes what Austin calls a ‘rheticact’, an act characterized, roughly, as the act of uttering the words in the sentence with

a specific meaning and reference A locutionary act also includes a ‘phatic act’, an act

of uttering words, and a phonetic act, an act of producing sounds

Table 2.1 Locutionary act types

Phonetic act an act of producing sounds Eg:He said “shh”.Rhetic act the act of uttering the words in the

sentence with a specific meaning and reference

Eg: He said the cat is

on the floor

Phatic act an act of uttering words or vocables as

belonging to a certain vocabulary and

as conforming to a particular grammar

Eg: He said —The cat is on the floor”

(Austin,1962)

Searle (1969) developed Austin‘s Illocutionary theory and classified them into the following types:

Representatives Directives Expressive Comissives DeclarativesThe speaker is

committed to

the truth of

proposition

The speaker attempts to get the hearer to do something

The speakerexpresses anattitude about a state

of affairs

The speaker is committed to a (future) course

of action

The speaker alters the outward status or condition of

an object or situation, solely by making the utteranceAssertions

Claims

Reports

SuggestionsRequestsCommands

ApologiesComplaintThanks

PromisesThreatsOffers

DecreesDeclarations

Apology, deplore, thank, congratulate, regret, welcome

Swear, vow, guarantee, pledge, promise

Baptize, sentence, resign

Figure 2.1 Illocutionary act types (Searle, 1969)

• Cognitive act:

The cognitive domain, which is defined by Bloom (1956), includes thoseobjectives whichdeal with the recall or recognition of knowledge and thedevelopmentof intellectual abilities and skills

Bloom (1956) identified six levels within the cognitive domain, from the simple recall or recognition of facts, as the lowest level, through increasingly more complex and abstract mental levels, to the highest order which is classified as

evaluation

The figure below shows the pyramid of Bloom‘s taxonomy:

Verb examples that represent intellectual activity on each level are listed below:

Table.2.2 Cognitive Verbs Example of Bloom‘s Taxonomy (Bloom,1956)

Reproduce, Define, Retell,Duplicate, Recite, Recognize,Read,Memorize, Knowledge,Tell, Arrange, Describe,Identify, Know, Label, List,Match, Name, Outline,Recall, Reproduce, Select,State

Evaluation

Synthesis

Analysis Application

Comprehension Knowledge

Figure2.2 Pyramid of Bloom’s Taxonomy (Bloom, 1956)

Comprehension Understand the meaning,

translation, interpolation, andinterpretation of instructionsand problems State a

Ask, Infer, Cite, Summarize,Classify, Purpose, Compare,Show,Contrast, Demonstrate,Discuss, Express, Rephrase,

Category Activity Key Words ( Verbs)

problem in one‘s own words Give examples, Comprehend,

Convert,Defend, Distinguish,Estimate, Explain, Extend,Generalize, Infer, Interpret,Paraphrase, Predict, Rewrite,Translate

Application Use the concept in a new

situation or unprompted use

of an abstraction

Act, Develop, Administer,Solve, Apply, Teach, Build,Plan, Choose, Employ,Connect, Demonstrate,Construct, Show, Apply,Change, Computer,Demonstrate, Discover,Manipulate, Modify, Operate,Predict, Prepare, Produce,Relate, Solve, Use

concepts into componentparts so that itsorganizational structure may

be understood Distinguishesbetween facts and inferences

Analyze, Inspect, Arrange,Research, Breakdown,Compare, Categorize,Highlight, Differences, Find,Dissect, Question, Examine,Cause and Effect, Contrast,Diagram, Deconstruct,Differentiate, Discriminate,Distinguish, Identify,Illustrate, Infer, Outline,Relate, Select, Separate

Synthesis Build a structure or pattern Adapt, Plan, Build, Produce,

Category Activity Key Words ( Verbs)

from diverse elements Putparts together to form awhole, with emphasis oncreating a new meaning orstructure

Construct, Solve , Compose,Think, Create, Theorize,Develop, Modify, Formulate,Improve, Categorize,Combine, Compile, Create,Devise, Design, Explain,Generate, Organize,Rearrange, Reconstruct,Relate, Reorganize, Revise,Rewrite, Summarize, Tell,Write

Evaluation Make judgments about the

value of ideas or materials

Argue, Measure, Assess,Opinion, Compare, Prove,Conclude, Support, Debate,Test, Decide, Validate,Evaluate, Interpret, Appraise,Contrast, Criticize, Critique,Defend, Describe,Discriminate, Evaluate,Explain, Justify, Relate,Summarize

2.1.4 Syntactic Features of Quotation

2.1.4.1 Syntactic Features of Pure quotation

The standard view predicts the possibility of replacing a pure quotation by an explicit expression-referring term However, there are several important contexts in which pure quotations cannot be replaced by expression-referring terms:

- Binominal NPs / close appositions:(Moltmann, 2015)

(2.8) a the name Obama

b the name the name of the current president of the US [17] -Predicates

in small-clause complements of denominational verbs

(Matushansky, 2006):

(2.9) a John called Mary ‘Marie’

b John called Mary the name Marie [17] In these contexts, pure quotationscertainly do not have the syntactic status or the semantic role of referential NPs What

is special about both syntactic contexts is that they allow for expressions of whateverlinguistic categories in whatever language and even ‘mere sounds’ (belonging to noparticular language):

(2.9) c the morpheme ‘mer ‘

d the phoneme /f/

e the German word ‘Liebe’

(2.10) a She woke [him up] (preposition)

b She considers [him happy] (adjective)

c She called [him an idiot]

More generally, it appears that pure quotations can occur in just those fewsyntactic contexts that impose no linguistic categorical requirements on the expressionsthat can occur in them Those contexts also include the subject position of sentences (=SPEC(IP)) (2.11a-d) as well as the left branch of a compound (2.12a, b):

(2.11) a ‘Ka’ is an English morpheme

b ‘Pff’ is not a nice sound

c ‘Mary’ consists in four letters

(2.12) a the ‘do not enter’-sign

b the I-language

The syntactic structure of the overall sentence will then include a part that

[17]

involves a phonetic, phonological or morphological categorical specification, ratherthan a syntactic one The act-based conception of sentence meaning has the significantadvantage in that it allows for interpretations of such parts as well, namely as lower-level linguistic act types: phonetic units will be interpreted as phonetic act types,phonological units and morphological units as phatic act types (phonological act typesand morphological act types), and lexical items as rhetic act types Only independentsentences with their syntactic structure at ‘Logical Form’ will be interpreted aslocutionary or perhaps illocutionary act types (which are composed of referential andpredicational act types).

The semantic contribution of pure quotations to the meaning of a sentence isthus lower level linguistic act types These act types become part of the semanticcomposition of the sentence meaning by composing with other act types This isparticularly clear with the predicational complements of verbs of calling as in (2.9a)

‘Marie’ here will be interpreted as a phatic act type, which will compose with the

denominational act that is the event argument of called.

In expression-referring binominal NPs (2.9a, c, d, e), the head noun has thefunction of mapping a phonetic or phatic act type contributed by the material followingthe head noun onto the relevant expression type In concept-referring binominal NPs

(the concept horse), it will map a rhetic act type onto a reified concept The same

functions apply in the case of pure quotations in subject position (2.11), on the basis of

an overt or implicit sortal in the predicate

Quoted sentences as in (2.9f) obviously will be interpreted as phatic act- types,not as locutionary or illocutionary act types This is because quoted material will never

be assigned a syntactic structure at ‘Logical Form’, the level at which semanticallyrelevant functions and relations are assigned such as ‘referential NP’ or ‘predicate’.This correctly predicts that (pure) quotation of meaning is possible only with lexical

items (the concept horse), not with sentences (* the proposition 'ích liebe dich’, * ‘Ich liebe dich’ is a proposition that can beexpressed in languages') and not with referential NPs (* the referent ‘John’} or definite descriptions (* the person/referent the president

of the US).

2.1.4.2 Syntactic Features of Mixed quotation

The approach also allows for a straightforward account of mixed quotation:

(2.13) John said that Mary is ‘an extraordinary woman’ [17]

Here ‘an extraordinary woman’ is a predicate at LF and thus is interpreted as a

predicational act type At the same time, it retains, in the syntactic structure of theentire sentence, its morpho-syntactic categorical specification This allows it to beinterpreted as a phatic act type that does not just serve to perform the predicational act

type, but will contribute a separate component to the meaning of theclause If clauses denote structured propositions, then the contribution of ‘an extraordinary woman’ in (2.13) will be a complex consisting of both the predicational act-type and

that-the phatic act type With some furthat-ther assumptions, that-the approach also allows for anaccount of direct quotation:

In direct quotation, the complement can be shown to be a CP-complement,allowing for an ordinary interpretation at LF At the same time, though, it providesphatic act types which will also be part of the structured proposition denoted by theCP-complement

2.1.5 Pragmatic Features of Quotation

As seen, there is limited research on quotation marks used specifically as aEQL, but there are some researches on quotations used pragmatically in general In

their article, Varieties of Quotation Revisited, (Cappelen H a., 2003)briefly discuss

scare quotes and say the following, —Scare quotes are a central and pervasive devicefor effecting distance It enables speakers to indicate that they distance themselves, forwhatever reason or in whatever way, from certain aspects of certain linguisticpractices” (2003, p 56) It is useful to know that scare quotes function to promotedistance between an author and the quoted language; however, Cappelen and Lepore’sdescription is not precise or specific Unfortunately, they really do not expand on itmore in their article They are vague about what the author of scare quotes wants to

distance her or himself from or how using quotations effectively accomplishes this.

Cappelen do go on to say that scare quotes are a —speech-act heuristic,”meaning they are a non-semantic feature of an utterance that adds content (2003, p.55) They discuss the distancing effect of scare quotes saying, —distancing is acomponent of the speech-act content of the utterance, but not its semantic content”(Cappelen & Lepore, 2003, p 56) These authors argue that scare quotes are morerelevant to the field of pragmatics than to the field of semantics It is true that thepresence of quotation marks can signal the presence of hidden meaning, adding tone oremotion to the actual language in the quotes This supports the idea that quotations areused to communicate pragmatic information But the authors do not go into detail aboutwhat other pragmatic functions quotations serve (Cappelen & Lepore, 2003)

Another author, Predelli (2003) has written two interesting articles that

reference quotation marks and their use In his article, ‘Subliminable’ Messages, Scare Quotes, and the Use Hypothesis, Predelli gives an example of a quotation but only

discusses its intended purpose in vague terms The example quotation is as follows: —life is ‘the farce which everybody has to perform’” (Predelli, 2003, p 153) To explainwhy there would be quotations around the select phrase, Predelli says, —Furthermore,the use of quotation marks flagging ‘the farce which everybody has to perform’ aims atcalling the audience’s attention to that expression, presumably in order to highlightsome relevant feature of it” (2003, p 153) Calling the audience’s attention to quotedlanguage may well be a function of quotation marks; however, what is the author’sintent in calling attention to the quoted language? What does the author want tocommunicate? Predelli goes on to admit that —The identification of the feature inquestion appears to be a contextually determined matter” (2003, p 153) This is whystudying EQs, specifically quotation marks, in-depth and in context is so crucial tounderstanding them and their pragmatic patterns Once these patterns can be identified,they can then possibly be linked to author sentiment in a meaningful way

In another one of his articles, Scare Quotes and their Relation to Other Semantic Issues, Predelli (2003) gives more examples of quotations and expands on

their purpose and the intent of the author who used them In this article, he offersinteresting insight into some possible pragmatic functions of quotations The differentexamples he gives were very helpful to the researcher of this study when trying tocategorize quotations by pragmatic function, as seen later in this paper.

The first quotation example Predelli gives comes from the Chicago Manual of Style: —in offset printing ‘proofs’ of illustrations come from the darkroom, not the

proof press” (2003, p.2) In this case, —proofs” is not the correct technical term The

author knows this and puts —proofs” in quotations to highlight this The Chicago Manual of Style advises that this is a proper way to use scare quotes It states that it is

better —to apply a standard technical term in a nonstandard way than to invent a newterm” (Predelli, 2003, p 2) The style guide also acknowledges that when this is done,many times quotation marks are around the technical term (Predelli, 2003) So this isone use of quotations that is not simply conventional Writers know when they areinexperienced in a subject and sometimes have to come up with an approximate way todescribe something They signal their awareness of this to the reader throughquotations

Predelli uses the following quote for his next example: —had it not been forBryce, the ‘copper’s nark’, Collins would have made his escape” (2003, p 2) This

example also comes from the Chicago Manual of Style In this case, Predelli explains,

—Expressions of slang or jargon, not unlike nonstandardly applied technical terms, arealso suited to an apologetic use of quotation marks” (2003, p 2) Here the author usesquotations because the phrase he or she is —unfitting for the purpose of formal,respectable writing” (Predelli, 2003, p 2) The writer wants to openly acknowledgethat the expression is —inappropriate for the setting,” and so he or she uses quotationmarks to accomplish this (Predelli, 2003) Predelli’s depiction of this type of quote as

—apologetic” is interesting Signaling a deficiency in one’s writing and openlyacknowledging it does seem apologetic In this situation, the writer is communicatingthis awareness with quotation marks

Predelli gives a third quotation example that serves —the purpose of indicating

that the expression they enclose is ‘foreign to the normal vocabulary of the speaker’(Chicago, 173), and is borrowed from some other source’s idiolect” (2003, p 2) Hecites the following example for this use of quotation marks: —national greed hasdisguised itself in mandates to govern ‘inferior’ races” (Predelli, 2003, p 3) In thiscase, the author would not normally use this term to describe other races, so they putthe term in quotes to indicate it is not a part of their own idiolect This type of quotationuse is similar to the one creating distance in that the author does not want to beassociated with the quoted language In this case, association with the quoted languageimplies that the author thinks certain races are less valuable or in some way unequal toothers (Predelli, 2003).

In his fourth and fifth examples, Predelli mentions that quotes can be used toindicate sarcasm The fourth example states, —the ‘debate’ resulted in three crackedheads and two broken noses” (Predelli, 2003, p 3) Here the author uses the term —debate” to characterize a violent interaction that seems closer to a fist fight than to anexchange of words between two parties The author is using the term sarcastically(Predelli, 2003) The fifth example Predelli gives also demonstrates sarcasm, —thisremarkable piece of ‘art’ consists of a large canvas covered with mud and old bustransfers” (2003, p 3) Here the author does not really consider what they are viewing

as worthy of the term —art.” The author is using the quotation marks to express asarcastic attitude (Predelli, 2003)

In his last three examples, Predelli claims that authors use quotations when theirquoted expressions refer to —a general background that will be recognized by thereader” (2003, p 3) He also says that quotation marks can be used when necessaryrelevant background information is specific rather than general (Predelli, 2003) Hissixth example states, —myths of ‘paradise lost’ are common in folklore”

(Predelli, 2003, p 3) In this case, the author —merely intends to ‘single out a word orphrase, not quoting it from a specific document but referring it to a generalbackground that will be recognized by the reader’” (Predelli, 2003, p 3) So here theauthor is not trying to quote something specific, rather they want to point out their

general reference using quotation marks In this case, the author is assuming the readershares a common literary knowledge or background and signals this by quoting the title

of Milton’s famous work

Predelli’s seventh and eighth examples demonstrate the use of quotation marks

in the most conventional way His seventh example states, —life is ‘the farce whicheverybody has to perform’” (Predelli, 2003, p 3) His eighth example reads, —life is

‘what happens while you are making other plans’” (Predelli, 2003, p 3) In these cases,

—the author appeals to specific sources, respectively the French poet Arthur Rimbaudand the pop icon John Lennon, which she thinks her audience may (though need not)

be able to identify” (Predelli, 2003, p 4) In the last two examples, the author isquoting what another has said or written This is the way quotation marks arecommonly used However, the author seems to not only be using quotes because theyare reporting another’s speech or writing They have an additional purpose in usingquotes This purpose is similar to the example in the preceding paragraph where theauthor thinks the reader has a common understanding and will recognize these famouslines Even conventional quotations, in the right context, may be used to communicatepragmatically

These examples of quotation marks and the attached explanations for theirpurpose are valuable to research on pragmatic quotation use Predelli’s examples andanalysis are a great foundation However, his examples and explanations are limited,

and they are mostly from one source, the Chicago Manual of Style To explore what

other uses for quotations exist, a more robust study with numerous samples isnecessary Once numerous samples of quotation use have been analyzed, it will bepossible to see whether the uses described by Predelli are common and whether thereare additional uses he did not describe Furthermore, these patterns of quotation use can

be compared to author sentiment to see what influence, if any, quotation use has onpredicting an author‘s attitude, be it positive or negative

From previous research, it is possible to say that quotation use in thesis writingincluded important pragmatic messages The pragmatic uses for quotations have been

identified as well: using quotes to draw attention; referring to background; creatingdistance, marking language outside of one‘s idiolect, etc This study aims to explore anarea of Predelli‘s research: the pragmatic uses of quotations and their ability to helprefer to background and communicate grammatically in thesis writing.

2.2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Up to now, there have been a lot of researchers and writers interested inquotation in their papers or books In fact, studying of quotations is really interestingand practical but not simple task Therefore, we are descendants who are standing ongiants‘ shoulders should inherit and further develop their achievements andcontributions

Firstly, one of the international researches '—Mixed Quotations and Pragmatic Introduction of Multiple Propositions” (Wolf, 2012) can be mentioned In this study,

the author explicate a novel type of linguistic phenomenon that called semanticstacking, then argue that treating mixed quotations as instances of semantics stacking issuperior to treating them as instances of pragmatic enrichment

Volynets (2013) in “Structural and Semantic Features of Quotation in English Media Discourse” base on the descriptive analysis of various quote types and their

specific features This study reveals that intentional changes in reported speech and theinfluence of a new context environment may alter the meaning of the quoted utterance.The research outcomes verify the idea that quotation, being a journalist‘s powerful tool,plays an important role within a text and the understanding of quote‘s structural andsemantic peculiarities is likely to assist readers in perceiving and analysinginformation

Maier (2014) in '—Mixed quotation: the grammar of apparently transparent opacity” investigate into interpretation of a mixed quotation involves the resolution of

a metalinguistic presupposition In this study, the researcher formalizes and evaluates apresuppositional account of mixed quotation Finally, the author addresses thephenomenon of unquotation and argues that it is an essential ingredient for anempirically adequate analysis of mixed quotation in natural language

Wislicki (2014) in —Semantics of Quotation-Against the functional approach to quotation” discusses the semantic expressive power of the most influential theories of

quotations and shows the problems that arise in that kind of approach The findings ofthis research become a bottom line of semantic account that allow calculating themeaning of quotation via composition principles without getting involved into semanticinconsistencies

Wright (2016) in —Pragmatic Quotation Use in Online Yelp Reviews and it Connection to Author Sentiment” discovers seven pragmatic quotations use in a 2014

Yelp review corpus: Collective knowledge, Non-standard, Grammatical, Nonliteral,Narrative, Idiolect, and Emphasis The research questions were answered in this paperare: 1/ What are pragmatic uses of quotations in online writing, speciallyreviews?;2/How do lay readers perceive the use of these quotations?;3/Can quotationused help predict author sentiment?

In Vietnam, there also have many master theses related to quotation such as “ A study on Semantic and Syntactic Features of Words and Phrases in Quotation Marks used in English and Vietnamese Economic magazines” by Tran Kim Oanh (2011) finds

out semantic and syntactic features of words and phrases used in quotation marks inVietnamese and English economic magazines Through this thesis, we can see that, inboth English and Vietnamese economic texts, writers put many words and phrases inquotation marks with many different purposes

“An Investigation into Commonly Used Stylistic Devices in English and Vietnamese Political Quotations” by Pham Thi Phuong Thi (2012) investigates the

commonly used stylistic devices in English and Vietnamese political quotations Bythis contrastive investigation, the similarities and differences of these techniquesbetween two languages have been discovered

'—Linguistic Features of English Inspirational Quotations denoting Education”

by Le Thi Thu Thao (2018) identifies and describes the linguistic nature of Englishinspirational quotations denoting education This thesis has been conducted todetermine the syntactic features, lexical choices, cohesive devices and stylistic devices

However, to the best of my knowledge, there have not been any pieces ofresearch defining, indentifying and describing the linguistic features of quotationsdenoting linguistic in the light of semantics, syntax and pragmatics For all abovereasons, the researcher would like to devote herself to the study of this topic to discoverthe linguistic nature of EQs.

2.3 CHAPTER SUMMARY

This chapter discussed the literature relating to the Quotation theory, which laysthe theoretical background for the research design, data collection, data analysis andthe discussion of the findings in the subsequent chapters of the thesis Besides,previous studies related to this study were also reviewed, and this allows the research

to see the position of this research within the rich literature associated with theQuotation theory

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN

Both qualitative and quantitative approaches will be adopted in this study toget the best results of investigation into the linguistic features of EQs The qualitativeapproach will be used to describe and analyse data to find out the distinctive features

of EQs in terms of semantics, syntax and pragmatics On the other hand, thequantitative approach will employed to seek the occurrence, the percentage of theabove mentioned aspects

3.2 RESEARCH METHODS

The aim of the study is to identify and clarify the nature of EQs in order tofind out their linguistic features in terms of semantic, syntactic and pragmaticfeatures In order to achieve this aim, the research combined different researchmethods as follows:

The descriptive method was used to give a detailed description of linguisticfeatures of EQs

The analytic method was used to clarify and justify a certain features orcharacteristic

The inductive method was helpful in drawing out the generalizations from thefindings and making conclusions

3.4 DATA COLLECTION

The samples will be chosen with the following criteria:

- The samples must be collected in English Linguistic Studies in famous LinguisticJournals; dissertations belonging to Oxford University and University of California

- The quotations‘ authors must be native English speakers

- The samples must be linguistic quotations It means that the samples must concernand relate mainly to case studies of linguistic such as: Discourse Analysis, LinguisticFeatures in general, Stylistic Features, Functional Grammar, Comparative andHistorical Linguistics, Language Learning and Teaching, etc

The procedure for the research is as follows:

-Finding out the semantic features of samples and classifying them into groups -Observing and identifying the syntactic features of the samples and classifying them

into groups

-Exploring and pointing out the pragmatic features in EQs

-Discussing the findings.

-Providing some suggestions for researching, teaching and learning English as a

foreign language

3.7 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY

Because the EQs will be collected in linguistic studies in well-known