A study on the use of pre reading activities in english reading classes at vo nguyen giap gifted high school in đồng hới city

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING VINH UNIVERSITY ---***--- LAM THI THANH THUY A STUDY ON THE USE OF PRE-READING ACTIVITIES IN ENGLISH READING CLASSES AT VO NGUYEN GIAP GIFTED HIGH

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

VINH UNIVERSITY

-*** -

LAM THI THANH THUY

A STUDY ON THE USE OF PRE-READING ACTIVITIES

IN ENGLISH READING CLASSES

AT VO NGUYEN GIAP GIFTED HIGH SCHOOL IN ĐỒNG HỚI CITY

MASTER’S THESIS IN EDUCATION

Nghe An, 2019

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

VINH UNIVERSITY

-*** -

LAM THI THANH THUY

A STUDY ON THE USE OF PRE-READING ACTIVITIES

IN ENGLISH READING CLASSES

AT VO NGUYEN GIAP GIFTED HIGH SCHOOL IN ĐỒNG HỚI CITY

Major: Theory and Methodology of Teaching English

Abstract

The present study aimed at investigating the attitudes of students towards pre- reading activities in English reading classes at Vo Nguyen Giap Gifted high school, the use of these activities and the difficulties in using them The participants of this research were ten teachers of English and 100 students of the 12th graders at this school Data were collected by means of questionnaire, interview and observation The results revealed that the majority of the students expressed positive attitudes towards the pre-reading activities used in English reading classes In general, most of the participants had distinct perception of these activities Nearly all the students were fond of pre-reading activities and fully aware of the importance and benefits of these activities The majority of the students also recognized the usefulness of each pre-reading activity, took real interests, had high motivation, enjoyed considerable pleasure and agreed about the advantages in the implementation of these activities The investigation indicated that the majority of the participants learned with a variety

of pre-reading activities in the textbook effectively Those pre-reading activities are

“discussion”, “pre-teaching vocabulary”, “true or false prediction”, “pre-questions” and “brainstorming” Sometimes, “visual aids”, “games”, “guessing from pictures/objects/words/sentences” were added Types of communicative arrangement and patterns of meaningful interaction were used to do these activities in class Despite facing some difficulties, the teachers and students tried to surmount them so that the learners could develop their interests in pre-reading activities, feel motivated and facilitate these activities Besides, they could access the new reading lessons better in cooperation Based on the findings, implications were put forwards for teachers and students in using pre-reading activities in English reading classes

I would be eternally grateful to a number of people who helped to bring my study to fruition, which is known as a milestone in all my personal and professional endeavours

My thanks first would go to my supervisor, Assoc Prof Le Pham Hoai Huong, Ph.D., for her constant support, professional expertise, guidance and encouragement, valuable advice and suggestions throughout this long journey despite her many other academic and professional commitments and busy schedule I truly appreciate her constructive feedback, which leads to an enhancement and improvement in the writing of this research

I wish to send my appreciation to my dear lecturers of Department of Foreign Languages, Vinh University who dedicated teaching efforts to us in all the subjects Their passionate devotion has provided me with sufficient knowledge and skills to complete this thesis

I would like to thank the ten English teachers and 100 students who were kind and enthusiastic enough to participate in my surveys with constructive ideas.They all offered their candid answers and great comfort in sharing their ideas with the researcher They have made significant contributions to the nature of the study

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my director board of Vo Nguyen Giap Gifted high school who gave me favourable conditions during my study Additionally, I would like to thank my classmates during courses for the thesis

I really enjoyed what I have experienced with all of you I wish all the best and success for all of you, too

Lastly, I would like to show my deep gratitude to my beloved family, who shared all of the ups and downs of my academic endeavours with their boundless love, patience, tolerance and continuous support-both materially and spiritually, directly and indirectly while I was away from home and busy with my work throughout the course of my study

TABLE OF CONTENTS

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP i

ABSTRACT ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iv

LIST OF TABLES ix

LIST OF FIGURES x

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xi

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Rationale 1

1.2 Aims of the study 3

1.3 Research questions 3

1.4 Significance of the study 3

1.5 Scope of the study 5

1.6 Structure of the thesis 6

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 7

2.1 Introduction 7

2.2 Previous studies related to the study 7

2.3 Definitions of key terms 13

2.3.1 Reading 13

2.3.2 Pre-reading 15

2.3.3 Pre-reading activities 15

2.4 Nature of reading comprehension 16

2.5 Factors affecting students‟ reading learning and teaching 16

2.5.1 Cultural background knowledge 16

2.5.2 Reading motivation 17

2.5.3 Reading anxiety 17

2.5.4 Working memory 18

2.5.5 Authenticity of reading materials 18

2.6 Key models of reading 19

2.6.1 Bottom-up model of reading 19

2.6.2 Top-down model of reading 20

2.6.3 Interactive model of reading 20

2.7 Schema theory of reading and background knowledge 21

2.8 Classroom procedures in teaching reading 22

2.8.1 Pre-reading phase 23

2.8.2 While-reading phase 26

2.8.3 Post-reading phase 28

2.9 Pre-reading activities 28

2.9.1 The importance of pre-reading activities 29

2.9.2 Kinds of pre-reading activities 29

2.10 Difficulties related to pre-reading activities 33

2.11 Summary 35

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 37

3.1 Introduction 37

3.2 Research approach 37

3.3 Research site and participants 39

3.3.1 Research Site 39

3.3.2 Participants 39

3.4 Data collection instruments 40

3.4.1 Survey questionnaires 40

3.4.2 Interviews 42

3.4.3 Observations 44

3.5 Procedures 44

3.5.1 Pilot study 44

3.5.2 Main study 44

3.6 Data analysis 45

3.6.1 Quantitative data 46

3.6.2 Qualitative data 46

3.7 Summary 47

CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 48

4.1 Introduction 48

4.2 Students‟ attitudes towards the use of pre-reading activities in English reading classes 48

4.2.1 Students‟ interests in pre-reading activities in English reading classes 48

4.2.2 Students‟ perception of the importance of pre-reading activities in English reading classes 50

4.2.3 Students‟ opinions on benefits of pre-reading activities in English reading classes 50

4.2.4 Students‟ perception of the usefulness of each pre-reading activity in English reading classes 52

4.2.5 Discussion 57

4.3 The use of pre-reading activities in English reading classes 59

4.3.1 Reality of using pre-reading activities based on the tasks in the pilot textbook 59

4.3.2 Types of arrangement for pre-reading activities 60

4.3.3 Time spent on pre-reading activities and pre-reading techniques 61

4.3.4 Frequency of using pre-reading activities 62

4.3.5 Discussion 71

4.4 Difficulties in using pre-reading activities in English reading classes 73

4.4.1 Difficulties in using pre-reading activities 73

4.4.2 Discussion 82

4.5 Summary 83

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION 84

5.1 Introduction 84

5.2 Summary 84

5.3 Implications 86

5.4 Contribution of the study 90

5.5 Limitations of the study 91

5.6 Further research 92

REFERENCES 93

APPENDIX A: TIMELINE OF THE STUDY 99

APPENDIX B: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STUDENTS 100

APPENDIX C: SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS 106

APPENDIX D: SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR TEACHERS 106

APPENDIX E: CLASSROOM OBSERVATION SHEET 107

APPENDIX F: SAMPLE OF THE INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPT 109

LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.2.1 Students‟ interests in pre-reading activities in reading classes Table 4.2.2 Students‟ perception of the importance of pre-reading activities Table 4.2.4 Students‟ perception of the usefulness of each pre-reading activity Table 4.3.4 Participants‟ reported frequency of using pre-reading activities

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 4.2.3 Students‟ opinions on benefits of pre-reading activities

Figure 4 3.1 Reality of using pre-reading activities based on the tasks

Figure 4.3.2 Types of arrangement used for pre-reading activities

Figure 4.3.3 Time spent on pre-reading activities and pre-reading techniques Figure 4.4.1 Difficulties in using pre-reading activities

LIST OF ABBREVIATION

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Rationale

CLT (Communicative Language Teaching), with its emphasis on meaningful interaction, often in the form of group work, has come to emerge as the increasingly favored approach to language teaching since the late 1970‟s (Brown & Savignon, 2001) In theory, the Grammar-Translation Method (GTM) is expected to give way to CLT Consequently, there has been many great changes in teaching and learning phylosophy Today, students are believed to have the right to develop their full potential However, the educational system in Vietnam conducts numerous tests from end-of-semester tests to periodic ones Besides, there are several national exams administered annually As a result, learners are more and more concerned about their immediate goal to pass exams with safety rather than to improve learning process and strengthen interaction This situation exposes English teachers to the challenge of whether to adopt an exam-oriented or a communicative development approach to language teaching (Pham, 2005)

Obviously, the reality of Vietnamese education would be hard for teachers of English to play the innovative role of the facilitator even though it sounds quite good

in principle To some extent, teachers and textbooks serve as major input for communication needs However, teachers are still limited to transmitting knowledge

to students rather than encouraging them to learn independently, which conspires to render the learning of English as unsatisfactory according to the expectations of the stakeholders In comparison with enhanced transformations all over the world, the quality of Vietnamese education and training has not yet met the nation‟s developmental requirements They are all closely intertwined, which is the major reason causing an imbalance between theory and practical skills, including the teaching and learning of English reading skill at high schools in Vietnam

We cannot deny that reading classes are proving to have far-reaching effect on the way we study English, do tests and take exams, especially for students of grade

12 It has attracted growing interest among students at high school However, English reading classes are chiefly aimed at training students‟ English reading comprehension and improving their reading speed They go without saying that ability training has become a higher priority As a result, most students fail to see academic reading lessons through different exciting lens

The 12th graders at Vo Nguyen Giap Gifted high school are an illustration of the situation described above Under the pressure of study in the last year of upper secondary education , students are overloaded with numerous reading texts of English advanced levels, which usually makes several of them get stuck in the middle of the passages Although English pilot textbooks were recommended five years ago with the content and tasks intended for the specific context of Vietnam, both teachers and students have found it difficult to take on the challenge of effective reading comprehension As passive receivers of knowledge in teacher-dominated classrooms, deep-seated constrained learning habit in the majority of students allow themselves only limited interaction in boring reading lessons Therefore, they cannot develop their deep love toward English reading classes

However, the overall picture is not that gloomy By putting themselves under the right combination of significant communication and task-based activities in the pre-reading stage, students can also enrich the minds as well as foster the pleasure of reading activities, even beyond the classroom as their favourite out-of-class activity

As a teacher of English responsible for applying pilot English textbooks as well as through Master‟s study in Theory and Methods of teaching English, curriculum and pedagogy, questions on how to help upper-secondary English teachers enhance their pre-reading teaching so that their students will be supported in learning process of this skill with the most positive attitudes and fewest dificulties have come up in the researcher‟s mind for over the years

1.2 Aims of the study

- To investigate students‟ attitudes towards pre-reading activities in English reading classes

- To study the reality of implementing pre-reading activities in pilot English reading classes for the 12th graders

- To explore problems in using pre-reading activities at Vo Nguyen Giap Gifted high school

1.3 Research questions

Overall, the research is an attempt to offer some insights into students‟ attitudes towards pre-reading activities, the use of activities for the pre-reading stage and some difficulties encountered It is anticipated that there are diverse views among participants as well as some mismatch in applying types of pre-reading activities and the ways to practice them Hence, these research questions generated below seek to focus on the scope of the data, in order to meet the aims of the study and to achieve the objectives of this research

1 What are students’ attitudes towards the use of pre-reading activities in English reading classes?

2 How are pre-reading activities used in English reading classes ?

3 What are difficulties in the use of pre-reading activities in English reading classes?

1.4 Significance of the study

For English teachers at high schools, who have traditionally placed emphasis

on reading skill, the transition towards developing a task-based approach with great interaction could prove challenging The study offers a detailed insight into the 12thgraders‟ attitudes towards pre-reading activities in English reading classes, which is related to several aspects: feeling, confidence, interest, perception and thought This research should enable classroom teachers and students, educational leaders and parents to have a clear understanding of the reality of using pre-reading activities

based on tasks in pilot English textbook 12, identify problems in English reading classes and be able to evaluate practice of teaching and learning reading lessons at school This in turn may help students to develop the use of activities for the pre-reading stage effectively and have a more and more positive attitude towards them

It is also anticipated that this research will make some contribution to teaching and learning pre-reading phase as part of reading section in Quang Binh since it is an important area that needs more attention Additionally, lack of research in this domain is a concern, particularly in current pilot English reading classes Therefore, I hope to provide useful research in this area of using pre-reading activities for English reading classes I strongly believe that the findings from this study might contribute

to improving a good knowledge of pre-reading activities, raise students‟ awareness of the importance of implementing pre-reading activities, fostering a positive attitude to using them and suggesting useful strategies that could be applied for the pre-reading phase by both students and teachers As a result, this helps students able to motivate themselves in the pre-reading stage, promote interaction and communication in boring reading classes, enhance the pleasure of using these activities and prepare better for while-reading stage It also develops the deep love toward reading outside class, instead of only appreciating while-reading tasks for tests and examinations

The study is hoped to bring benefits for teaching and learning English at Vo Nguyen Giap Gifted high school It is to help the teachers realize the importance of pre-reading activities in English reading classes more deeply By means of research instruments, the reality of teaching and learning reading in general and applying pre-reading activities in particular are discovered The benefits and challenges of the application are focused on as well Moreover, the study suggests some solutions for the challenges, which are to help the teachers facilitate these activities Therefore, it

is a really helpful document for teachers teaching English of grade 12 at high schools They may pay more attention to improving pre-reading activities For students, the

study may also help them to realize the significance of using activities for

before-you-read in before-you-reading classes, which they do not always appreciate before It is to wake

them up to see how interesting and essential participating in pre-reading activities in English reading classrooms is It gives them a chance to reconsider their learning at school as well In brief, the study brings great advantages for both teachers and students

It is hoped that the information, conclusion and recommendations drawn from the research results will be of some importance to teachers, schools, future researchers, relevant stakeholders and indirectly to pupils with reading problem The findings of the study may help graders 12 with reading difficulty since the results may be disseminated to different stakeholders The same findings may also be used

as a basis for relevant non-governmental organizations to help provide the support services to these students in schools This study can be among the many literature references to the future researchers and to show gaps which need further investigation It may accord public education on how to teach learners with pre-reading problem in an ordinary English classroom

1.5 Scope of the study

The study just makes an initial attempt to conduct a small-scale investigation into students‟ attitudes, practice of using pre-reading activities and dificulties in using them The aspects of pre-reading activities that the study focused on are the frequency of using pre-reading activities, the number of activities implemented in the pre-reading phase and the way of organizing these activities The study was restricted

to investigate the above questions and carried out at Vo Nguyen Giap Gifted high school in Đong Hoi city, Quang Binh province with the attendance of ten teachers of English and 100 students of grade 12 from 3 random classes at this school during the school year 2018-2019

1.6 Structure of the thesis

Chapter One: Introduction

This part presents the introduction of study, which includes the rationale, aims and objectives, research questions, significance, scope as well as the structure of the thesis

Chapter Two: Literature Review and Theoretical Background

This chapter is devoted to the review of the previous related studies, points out the gaps in the literature and then shows the theoretical background of the study

Chapter Three: Methodology

The research methods, data collection, data analysis and research procedures of the study are described in this chapter

Chapter Four: Findings and Discussion

This chapter elaborates the findings of the study, including perception of students on pre-reading activities, using them, problems faced and instructional strategies applied for these activities

Chapter Five: Conclusions and Implications

This chapter gives a summary of the major findings, suggests some implications, points out limitations of the study and provides suggestions for further research

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

2.1 Introduction

This chapter reviews the previous studies related to the current research and points out the gaps in the literature The review continues with the definitions of the key terms mentioned in the study, the nature of reading comprehension, factors affecting reading learning and teaching It then shows the key models of reading and classroom procedures in teaching reading Additionally, the chapter presents the theoretical basis of pre-reading activities, including kinds of pre-reading activities and especially the importance of these activities Furthermore, it discusses the activities applied for the pre-reading phase

2.2 Previous studies related to the study

In the world

In the task-based approach, interaction is thought to facilitate language acquisition as learners have to work to understand each other and express their own meaning By interacting with others, they get accustomed to listening to language which may be beyond their present ability, but which may be assimilated into their knowledge of the target language for use at a later time According to CDC (1999), learners play the central and active role in learning while negotiating with other learners in the class and deciding on learning objectives Learners are also involved

in designing the content of the lesson and creating appropriate tasks because learning

is considered as a cooperative effort between learners and teachers They are fully involved in the learning process, whereas taking responsibility for their own learning, developing learning skills and independence and preparing for their successful lifelong language learning Nunan (1989) adds that the process of personal growth of learners, their social activity and creative thinking is also included in Task-Based Learning (TBL)

Designing and using task-based activities in the classroom introduce a modern and effective approach in language learning They should be definitely included in English reading lessons for upper-secondary school students, especially in the pre-reading phase The language used for pre-reading activities comes from the learners‟ needs which determine to a great extent the content of the reading lesson Finally, using pre-reading activities is a creative, enjoyable and motivating type of learning focused in particular on communication between learners

Numerous studies have been conducted comparing the retention effects of different reading teaching strategies A substantial range of research concerning effective reading has provided us with valuable insights and suggestions to pre-reading instruction in the English language classroom However, using pre-reading activities needs to be personalised according to learners‟ different learning needs, goals and styles Since most pre-reading activities takes place inside of the reading classroom, learners are also trained to raise their awareness of the knowledge and the benefits involved in knowing these activities and the process of applying them

In the world, there are many researches related to pre-reading activities.Tang and Moore (1992) focused on the effects of cognitive and metacognitive pre‐reading activities on the reading comprehension of ESL Learners Pre‐reading activities such

as title discussion and vocabulary training have been shown to be effective in decreasing oral reading errors and increasing reading rate and comprehension across

a range of reading levels Experiment 1 in this paper examines the effects of these cognitive activities in combination on the reading comprehension of three adult ESL emergent readers Experiment 2 explores the relative effects of this procedure, and a metacognitive strategy for presenting these pre‐reading techniques, on the comprehension levels of five adult ESL learners Single subject research designs were employed in both studies The results of both studies indicate that the cognitive strategy was effective in raising comprehension levels However, in experiment 2, the metacognitive instructional strategy, while similarly effective in raising

comprehension levels, was also associated with enhanced maintenance in a subsequent non‐treatment phase Implications of these findings for instructional practice with ELS learners, both proficient and novice first language readers, are considered

Jecksembieyva (1993) offered an insight into pre-reading activities in EFL/ESL reading textbooks and Turkish preparatory school teachers‟ attitudes toward pre-reading activities The main focus of this study was to investigate pre-reading activities in EFL/ESL reading textbooks and to determine teachers‟ attitudes toward pre-reading activities Fifteen reading textbooks for EFL/ESL students for different proficiency levels (beginning, intermediate, and advanced) were analyzed for types of pre-reading activities To determine EFL teachers‟ attitudes toward pre-reading activities, a questionnaire was developed and administered to 79 EFL teachers, in the BUSEL (Bilkent University School of the English Language) at Bilkent University (Ankara, Turkey) in May, 1993 An analysis of data collected from the EFL/ESL reading textbooks revealed the following types of pre-reading activities: use of pictures, graphs, and other illustrations; asking questions; asking students to make predictions; introduction and discussion of vocabulary; class discussions or debates related to the text; providing background information necessary for understanding the text; and discussion of real-life experiences The following pre-reading activities are frequently presented in textbooks for a particular level of students: asking questions; use of pictures, graphs, and other illustrations; and preteaching vocabulary in the elementary level; use of pictures, graphs, and other illustrations; and making predictions in the intermediate level and making predictions; use of pictures, graphs, and other illustrations; pre-teaching vocabulary; and class discussions in the advanced level The questionnaire indicated that all participants use pre-reading activities (100%); almost all the teachers use textbooks including pre-reading activities (92.27%); all participants recognized the importance

of pre-reading activities and expressed a positive attitude toward pre-reading activities Almost all the activities listed in the questionnaire are used by the teachers

In addition, Alemi and Ebadi (2010) did research on the effects of pre-reading activities on ESP reading comprehension The study intended to investigate the effects of pre-reading activities on reading comprehension of L2 learners of science and technology majors In this respect, the following research question was under consideration: Will comprehension be facilitated if students are instructed through restoring to pre-reading activities? To carry out this research, participants were selected on the basis of Michigan Test of English Proficiency and were assigned into control and experimental groups Members of each group were randomly assigned to one of the two experimental and control groups Data analysis was conducted through T-test statistical procedures The findings revealed that better comprehension can be gained through restoring to pre-reading activities

Many studies aimed to investigate whether pre-reading activities were efficient and effective for language learners‟ reading comprehension These studies reported positive results when incorporating pre-reading activities, as compared with classes with no pre-reading activities According to Alemi and Ebadi (2010), the participants were divided into experimental group and control group Three types of pre-reading activities, pictorial context, vocabulary pre-teaching, and pre-questioning were carried out for the experimental group They found that the pre-reading treatment group demonstrated better comprehension as compared with the non-treatment group That is, regardless of the type of pre-reading activities, they were all comparatively more effective in improving the participants‟ reading comprehension

Marinaccio (2012) aimed to compare different pre-reading strategies that improve students‟ comprehension The research determined that teachers who activated students‟ prior knowledge before reading enhanced their students‟ comprehension Data were collected through observation of students utilizing three diffrent prereading strategies, an interview with a classroom teacher, and a multiple-

choice comprehension quiz The study reveals that the students benefied from the feature walk pre-reading strategy the greatest because the students‟ prior knowledge and peer interaction were used with the greatest degree Teachers‟ implications include knowing the pre-reading strategy that will be the most effient and knowing the text for students to successfully comprehend the provided text

Ekaningrum and Prabandari (2016) studied students‟ perception of pre-reading activities in Basic Reading II Class of the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University The researcher wanted to find out the varieties of pre-reading activities used by the teacher and the students‟ perception of the implementation of the pre-reading activities There were two problem formulations in this study: 1) What kinds of prereading activities that are used by Basic Reading II teacher in the English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University? 2) How is the students‟ perception of pre-reading activities used by the teacher? The result of this research showed that brainstorming, pre-teaching vocabulary, prequestioning, visual aids, and KWL strategy were the varieties of pre-reading activities used by the teacher There were two different implementation of pre-teaching vocabulary There were also two activities combined together.They were the use of visual aids and KWL strategy The students had positive perception of the use of pre-reading activities in Basic Reading II Class The students got many advantages from using pre-reading activities which help them to understand reading materials

In Vietnam

There are some researches related to the topic of pre-reading activities A study

on some possible effective pre-reading activities to improve reading skills for the 2nd-year English majors was carried out at the Military Science Academy by Nguyen Thi Hong Minh in 2008 According to the study, reading receives a special focus in many second or foreign language teaching situations There are a number of reasons for this First, many foreign language students often have reading as one of their most

important goals They want to be able to read for information and pleasure, for their career, and for study purposes In fact, in most EFL situations, the ability to read in a foreign language is all that students ever want to acquire Second, written texts serve various pedagogical purposes Extensive exposure to linguistically comprehensible written texts can enhance the process of language acquisition Good reading texts also provide good models for writing and provide opportunities to introduce new topics in order to stimulate discussion and study language Reading, then, is a skill which is highly valued by teachers and students alike at the Military Science Academy.

Nguyen Thi Tuyet Chinh (2011) researched modifying pre-reading activities to improve 10th graders‟ reading comprehension at Nguyen Sieu School through an action research project The result claimed that modified pre-reading activities can enhance reading comprehension for grader 10 at this school

Tran Thi Thanh Mai (2013) at Hai Phong private university studied designing pre-reading activities for the 1st English majors at this university It showed that pre-reading activities help motivate these students to get engaged in reading lessons as well as do brainstorming

In 2013, Hoang Thi Tam Thanh also conducted a study on an evaluation of pre-reading activities in the new textbook English 11 It revealed that, to some extent, activities in the pre-reading phase are useful for motivating and improving students‟

In conclusion, there have been few studies in Vietnam relating to pre-reading activities Some studies only focused on the effect of while-reading activities/tasks on reading comprehension, reading fluency and reading accuracy or investigated into the reality of teaching while-reading phase or the use of strategies for while-reading phase in English reading classes Other studies did research on all the phases of reading skill

Gaps in the literature

In spite of a large number of researches related to pre-reading activities, they only investigated the teachers‟ pre-reading strategies to teach reading and the effects

of these activities on reading comprehension They only focused on students‟ attitudes or students‟ They modified, designed or evaluated the tasks in the textbooks Moreover, they largely focused on the aspect of improving reading comprehension and utilizing pre-tests as well as post-tests, which is appropriate for tertiary students In other ways, they did not offer an investigation into all the three aspects like in my study Besides, the thesis about the application of pre-reading activities in pilot English reading classes of grade 12 students at Vo Nguyen Giap

High School has not been done before in Vietnam

As noted above, there were mixed results in selecting the most effective means

of using pre-reading activities to maximize the benefits of the reading comprehension process Also, such pre-reading activities have been used mostly on high school students in Asian countries Hence, it is necessary to conduct an investigation into the use of pre-reading activities, especially the perception, the implementation and the problems they face with while using these activities in order to have deep insight into the reality of using them in English reading classes Its result would partly contribute

to the improvement of academic reading lessons at high school To some extent, it can bridge the gaps in the literature between the previous studies and this research

2.3 Definitions of key terms

2.3.1 Reading

Reading is considered the most essential skill of language learning as virtually all children learn to read as part of their first language acquisition process The term reading has been used for many years in a narrow sense to refer to a set of print-based decoding and thinking skills necessary to understand text (Harris & Hodges, 1981) Snow, Burns, and Griffin (1998, p.15) state, “Reading is a complex developmental challenge that we know to be intertwined with many other developmental accomplishments: attention, memory language, and motivation, for example Reading is not only a cognitive psycholinguistic activity but also a social activity”

In teaching reading, teachers or students should first know the concept of this language skill This is important in order that the teachers can teach it well and the students can learn it easily Alderson (2005, p.13) states that reading involves perceiving the written form of language either visually or kinesthetically It is not just looking at words because reading is a complex, diverse process The reading process, like many other processes, involves a number of distinct, yet connected, stages An often overlooked stage in the reading process is preparing to read, preparing both your mind and your surroundings, so that you are able to concentrate on the reading material Another stage in reading process involves your eyes working together with your memory To learn new material by reading, you hook it to what‟s in your memory Obviously, knowledge builds on knowledge To build the knowledge base required in college, you need to marshal your self-discipline so that you actively engage with all interactions between your eyes and your memory

Meanwhile, Grabe and Stoller (2002) say that reading is the ability to draw meaning from the printed page and interpret this information appropriately Performing the reading process skillfully takes much concentration and self-discipline Before you start a reading session, you should seek out suitable places and appropriate times to enjoy reading As a result, you‟ll not be interrupted or distracted

by other people or noise surrounding you Never think that you can concentrate

adequately when you‟re in a room where people are talking, or the TV is on, or music

is playing loudly, or when you‟re expecting phone calls If you are uncomfortable with silence, as some people tend to be, experiment honestly with what gives your comfort

To conclude, reading is the active process of understanding print and graphic texts Reading is a thinking process Effective readers know that when they read, what they read is supposed to make sense They monitor their understanding, and when they lose the meaning of what they are reading, they often unconsciously select and use a reading strategy (such as rereading or asking questions) that will help them reconnect with the meaning of the text Reading skills and strategies can be taught explicitly while students are learning subject-specific content through authentic

reading tasks

2.3.2 Pre-reading

Pre-reading is a stage frequently found in lessons which aim at helping

students to develop receptive skills It is the pre in the pre, while and post sequence

of activities to help students become better readers In other words, the pre-reading section consists of activities and exercises to prepare students before they do the actual reading in class (Saricoban, 2002)

Pre-reading is known as the process of skimming a text to locate key ideas before carefully reading a text (or a chapter of a text) from start to finish It is also called surveying or previewing Pre-reading provides an overview that can increase reading speed and efficiency Pre-reading typically involves looking at (and thinking about) titles, chapter introductions, summaries, headings, sub-headings, study questions, and conclusions (Alderson, 2005)

2.3.3 Pre-reading activities

Pre-reading activities introduce students to a particular text, elicit or provide appropriate background knowledge, and activate necessary schemata Previewing a text with students should arouse their interest and help them approach the text in a

more meaningful and purposeful manner as the discussion compels them to think about the situation or points in a text (Floyd & Carrell, 1987)

Pre-reading activities include the activities and discussions before reading which reduce the uncertainty that the students bring to the texts (Vacca & Vacca, 1989) They are able to activate the students‟ background knowledge Nunan (2003) states that all experiences which are accumulated and brought to the reading texts belong to the readers‟ background knowledge These activities help the students to relate their background knowledge and the new information which they find in the text (Ajideh, 2006)

What all successful pre-reading activities have in common is that they are student-centered The instructor has to identify the potential problems of readability inherent in a chosen reading text, and then has to help students find ways to match or surpass those difficulties Rather than just provide answers or summarize the content, the instructor can help learners ascertain the sources of their reading difficulties (Khabiri & Pakzad, 2012)

2.4 Nature of reading comprehension

There have been various viewpoints on reading comprehension nature, upon which it should be seen and evaluated on the basis of language function in society Reading comprehension is the process of using syntactic, semantic and rhetorical information found in printed text to reconstruct in the reader‟s mind, using the knowledge of the word he or she processes, plus appropriate cognitive skills and reasoning ability (Devine, 1986)

2.5 Factors affecting the teaching and learning of reading skills

There are many problems that may specifically interfere with success or failure

in the teaching and learning of English reading However, this study only focuses on the following main factors

2.5.1 Cultural background knowledge

Reading comprehension is an active and conscious mental activity in which readers achieve comprehension by using clues from contextual information, personal expectations, cognitive processing skills, and cultural background knowledge Ausubel (1992) argues that learning is effective when it is processed with meaningful materials related to the knowledge that learners already possess Learners‟ existing knowledge base needs to be organized so that new information is easily matched with its cognitive structure

2.5.2 Reading motivation

Falk (1978) claims that learners who are most successful in learning a target language are those who like to speak the language, admire the culture and have a desire to become familiar with or even integrate into the society in which the language is used Especially, in reading comprehension, without motivation, learners have difficulty in dealing with it Indeed, a learner with enough motivation is likely to gain an acceptable knowledge of a L2 despite his language aptitude or other cognitive characteristics, according to Dörnyei (1990)

There is no doubt that motivation plays an active role in the learning process of

a second or foreign language Nunan (2004) considers motivation as a key factor which determines “the amount of effort a learner is ready to put into language learning” Whereas, Ellis (2008), in an overview of research on motivation, asserts that motivation affects the extent to which language learners persevere in learning and their actual achievement

2.5.3 Reading anxiety

It is true that anxiety in reading may have a negative effect on student‟s ability

to learn a language It is a type of stress that learners who are not native to a language feel when studying a new language This occurs when they are facing with an unfamiliar or too difficult task “Anxious students are likely to experience mental block, negative self-talk and ruminate over a poor performance which affects their ability to process information in language learning contexts” (MacIntyre & Gardner,

1991, p 87) In this respect, foreign language anxiety acts as an affective filter, which results in the students‟ being unreceptive to language input

2.5.4 Working memory

Engle (2012), in controlled attentive view of working memory, places a strong emphasis on the role of the central executive in efficiently managing available attentive resources Working memory includes a storage component and an attention control component known as the central executive Whereas, it is believed that the central executive plays a crucial role in guiding processing within working memory Many studies conclude that working memory span makes contribution to reading comprehension, both through influencing the ability to learn what cues are important

in the L2 and through which influencing how well the learner can make use of these cues during reading

2.5.5 Authenticity of reading materials

The notion of authenticity has been much discussed by many researchers According to Morrow (1977), authenticity relates to “a stretch of real language, produced by a real speaker or writer for a real audience and designed to carry a real message of some sort” According to this definition, the real meaning of authentic materials is that they are spontaneous and natural language which is produced for the native speakers, not for the purpose of teaching and learning language

Authentic materials in our life are newspapers, magazine articles, TV and radio broadcast, meetings, documents, speech, the Internet, films and daily conversations However, the aim of all language reading lessons is to allow learners a greater degree

of independence and confidence when they confront reading the target language in a real world context In addition, reflecting the naturalness of spoken language, authentic reading materials can narrow the distance between the learners and the actual social reality Thus, if learners constantly receive the authentic reading input, they will find it easier to communicate with native speakers in real life Therefore, their true reading ability can be developed positively (Akbari & Razavi, 2016)

To conclude, although each above-mentioned factor has impact on the process

of students‟ reading learning in different ways, all of them help the students figure out their weakness and strength so that they can apply more suitable solutions for their improvement objectives in learning language

2.6 Key models of reading

2.6.1 Bottom-up model of reading

One of the early reading research works has helped to develop a bottom-up model of reading process as a mere decoding of graphic prints In other words, the bottom-up model describes reading as a process of matching letter-sound relationships to derive meaning out of a printed page working from a single letter up

to the stretches of sentences (Carrell 1988; Dubin and Bycina 1991; Nuttall 1996; Nunan 1989; Wallace 2001) Hence, this view of reading regards the reader as passive recipient of information They simply absorb the meaning, which resides in the text exclusively through graphic decoding process alone (Nuttall 1996; Carrell 1988)

In the same manner, according to McDonough and Shaw (1993, p 16), the bottom-up model was expressed as “a one-way traffic system in which everything flows in one direction only” This clearly means that the reader simply absorbs the meaning that the writer puts in a text plodding through the text starting from the letters up to sentences (Davies 1995; Nuttall 1996; Nunan 1989; Carrell 1988)

Explaining this model a bit further, Wallace (2001, p 22) contends that the bottom-up model of reading emphasizes “text-based features” at word and sentence level Moreover in McDonough and Shaw (1993, p 16), the reader is considered as

“empty vessel” that is simply filled in with the information the writer supplies to him

In other words, the bottom-up model of reading underrates the role of the reader and what he brings into to interact with the writer on the basis of his background knowledge of the world and the language systems Therefore, it was considered to be

unsatisfactory to encapsulate the reading process (Nuttall 1996; Wallace 2001;

Carrell 1988)

2.6.2 Top-down model of reading

The distinction between bottom-up and top-down processing became a cornerstone of reading methodology for years to come Christine Nuttall (1996, p16-17) compares bottom-up processes with the image of a scientist with a magnifying glass or microscope examining all the minute details of some phenomenon, while top-down processing is like taking an eagle‟s eye view of a landscape below Such a picture reminds us that field-independent and field-dependent cognitive styles are analogous to bottom-up and top-down processing, respectively

Goodman (1982) is closely related to top-down approaches of reading The top-down school of reading theory claims that readers fit the text into (cultural, syntactic, linguistic, and historical) knowledge they already possess and then check back when new or unexpected information appears

As a complement, some other authors mention that the top-down model comprehends reading not as the bottom-up processing of words, and that the meaning

is not entirely residing in the text The knowledge, experience and concepts that the reader brings to the text, in other words, his/her schemata, are a very important part in the process (Dechant, 1991, p 25)

2.6.3 Interactive model of reading

A half-century ago, perhaps, reading specialists might have argued that the best way to teach reading is through bottom-up methodology We should teach symbols, grapheme-phoneme correspondences, syllables, and lexical recognition first Then comprehension would be derived from the sum of parts More recent research on teaching reading has shown that a combination of top-down and bottom-up processing, or what has come to be called interactive reading “In practice, a reader continually shifts from one focus to another, now adopting a top-down approach to

predict probable meaning, then moving to the bottom-up approach to check whether that is really what the writer says” (Nuttall 1996, p 17)

As a result of the limitations of the top-down model of reading process, many reading experts in the 1980s proposed a newer and more insightful model of reading

in the communicative approach to language teaching which combines the two earlier views of bottom-up and top-down process of reading the interactive model of reading (Wallace 2001; Davies 1995; and Grabe 1988) The interactive reading process underscores the interaction between the bottom-up process and the top-down view of reading to reconstruct meaning from the text (Eskey, 1988; Widdowson 1979; Mera 1999; McDonough & Shaw 1991; Dubin & Bycina 1991)

In conclusion, the interactive model assumes that all bottom-up and top-down processes interact In fact, the term interactive can be interpreted in two ways as said

by Hedge (2000) The first one describes the relationship created between the reader and the text while the reader tries to make sense of it In this process of meaning building, the reader is totally involved in an active process where he combines information from the text and his previous knowledge and experiences In Hedge‟s (2000) words, “reading can be seen as a kind of dialogue between the reader and the text, or even between the reader and the author” (p 188)

2.7 Schema theory of reading and background knowledge

According to schema theory, the basis for comprehending and remembering ideas in stories and other types of texts is a reader‟s schema (i.e., organized background knowledge into which the text fits (Cook 2001; Norton 1997) This means a reader uses background knowledge of different kinds of texts, knowledge of the world, and the clues provided by the writer in the text to create meaning Similarly, Alderson (1985) cited in Norton (1997, p 136) elaborated that, “in schema theory a reader comprehends a message when he can bring to mind a prior knowledge that provides a good account of objects and events explained in the text”

Nunan (1989) observes that schema theory of reading is an interactive process between what the reader already knows about the topic or subject and what the writer writes Therefore, reading is not simply decoding of graphic symbols and applying grammatical knowledge to the text Concerning this, Gauntt (1990) cited in Norton (1997, p 137) expressed that prior background experience of both text structures and content facilitates comprehension of a given text Moreover, Girma (1994, p 15) argued that foreign language readers might fail to comprehend a text unless they fit it into their prior knowledge of content and formal schemata

Likewise, Bernhardt (1984, p 325) in Dumessa (2002) claims that learner‟s

“inside the head factors determine the interpretation of the discourse” Hence, schema theory of reading emphasizes the importance of activating and building of relevant background knowledge, building expectation and context, arousing interest, setting purposes for rapid and accurate recognition of linguistic unit in the text for effective and efficient comprehension of a text (Norton 1997; Eskey 1988)

2.8 Classroom procedures in teaching reading

In late 1970s and early 1980s, the communicative approach to language teaching and learning brought to light useful classroom procedures employed in reading lesson presentation so as to help learners develop reading skills According to Williams (1984, p.38) communicative approach to language teaching suggests three phases of classroom reading lesson treatments These are “pre-reading, while-reading and post -reading activities.” He also further states that classroom reading activities are designed to teach students the reading comprehension process not just to test their ability to come up with the right product of reading

According to the interactive view of reading lesson presentation that is favored

in the communicative approach to language teaching suggested the exploitation of reading passages in three-phase approach (Carrell 1988; Williams 1984; Mera 1999 ; Dubin & Bycina 1991) In light of this idea the current ELT coursebook for grade 12 suggested reading lesson presentation in three views in the classroom Therefore, it

seems important to review the three phases of classroom procedures in teaching reading that help learners develop efficient reading skills

2.8.1 Pre-reading phase

Many reading experts stressed the importance of pre-reading activities in teaching reading skills because pre-reading activities refer to tasks carried out before reading a text to create a conducive situation for the successful comprehension of the text For instance, Aebersold and Field (1997, p 65) argued that skipping the basic pre-reading activities could cause comprehension failure to a reader In the same manner, Williams (1983) found that, pre-reading assistance is particularly useful in reading classroom because it helps to establish not only a proper mental set for the reading and discussion of the passage but also the relevant background information provided by the teacher as introduction In addition, pre-reading discussion involves students themselves and give the necessary motivation for reading the passage The two pre-reading activities which are very commonly used in tandem are brainstorming and skimmimg

Barr and Johnson (1997) suggested that interactive approach to teaching reading takes the pre-reading phase of reading lesson presentation as a spring-board since it makes the readers feel relaxed and prepared to comprehend the main issues raised in the text Therefore, many writers on interactive approaches to teaching reading agree that there should be some main activities to be carried out before reading

2.8.1.1 Activating students’ prior knowledge

Prior knowledge is defined as “individuals present understanding and organization of a topic, idea, concept, event, object or person” by Barr and Johnson (1997, p.10) Therefore, activating and mobilizing a reader‟s existing knowledge before reading facilitates comprehension of a passage to be read later This idea elaborates that reading is not a decoding of graphic display However, it is an “active process in which there is a constant dialogue between the passage and the

students‟previous knowledge” (Beatie et al 1984, p 204) Bernhardt (1984) also shared the similar view that prior knowledge provides students with a framework to comprehend incoming data through accommodation and assimilation on the basis of the existing background knowledge Likewise Anderson (1984) cited in Barr and Johnson (1997, p 111) suggested that prior knowledge enables the reader not only to comprehend but also to organize new information and remember it more effectively

Data indicated that reading the previews before reading the stories increased students‟ learning from stories by a significant and impressive amount Stevens (1982) increased learning from text compared with a control group for 10th-grade students reading a history passage by teaching them relevant background information for that passage Hayes and Tierney (1982) found that presenting background information related to the topic helped readers learn from texts regardless of how that background information was presented or how specific or general it was Alvarez (1990) used case-based instruction to develop students‟ abilities to assemble and incorporate different knowledge sources in memory

In the pre-reading phase, students also need to be aware of the structural or formal pattern of the text they are going to read Formal schemata of a text indicates that knowledge of how information can be organized helps readers to comprehend and anticipate different types of text organization (i.e rhetorical structures of the text type) Therefore, these are useful activities for second and foreign language learners

in academic situations (Aebersold & Field, 1997)

2.8.1.2 Previewing the text to build expectation

According to Grant (1987) previewing is an extremely important skill in all reading situations It is like looking at a map before starting a journey A well-designed textbook, website or other print resource has a variety of elements or features that are applied consistently to help the reader locate and use the material Some texts have more of these features, and clearer cues, than others do Previewing

a course text can help students to identify the text features and use them efficiently

Previewing or surveying a text makes the passage simpler and more predictable

to comprehend This means previewing various aspects of the text enables the readers

to predict and build expectations of what they are going to read about and give them a framework to help them make sense of the information (Aebersold & Field, 1997) Hence, various scholars such as Grant (1989, p 91-92) , Aebersold and Field (1997) and Dubin and Bycina (1991, p 202) suggested how previewing a text before thorough reading operates, for example, examining several textual features such as the title and the subtitles, the introduction, the conclusion of a text, illustrations, diagrams and the captions and reading the first sentences of each paragraph

In short, since different passages lend themselves to different previewing activities (Aebersold & Field, 1997), teachers should help their learners in the right direction to match the text with the most useful previewing activities to set their students expectations for reading In other words, teachers have to expose their students to various text previewing techniques so as to facilitate smooth comprehension of the passage students read

2.8.1.3 Establishing a purpose for reading

Setting a purpose for reading helps keep students focused and engaged while reading, and gives them a mission so that comprehension can be reinforced Reading with purpose motivates students who tend to rush, take their time reading so they won‟t skip over key elements in the text It is the reason why many reading experts underline that readers need to have clear purposes for reading before they begin reading because reading without having a clear purpose can lead the students to frustration For instance, White (1989, p 89) in view of communicative approach to reading argued that, “the students should first of all be given a reason for reading.” In addition, regarding the significance of purpose setting for reading activities, Barr and Johnson (1997, p 114) contend that, “a purpose provides direction and focus for understanding and thinking about the text”

However, according to Aebersold and Field (1997, p 66), concerning purpose setting for reading, the teacher should take into account the learners‟ language and proficiency level to determine the appropriate tasks for them that they can carry out

by reading the text This means, in other words, there should be the match between the text and the reader in terms of language difficulty and concept complexity when they set purposes for reading text Hence, teachers‟ purpose for having the students read a text could vary For example, they read for specific information where scanning for particular item makes sense rather than reading for the whole text, or if the students want to grasp the gist of the text, skimming or sampling the text could be appropriate tasks (Aebersold & Field, 1997; Gebhard, 2000) Hence, there are varieties of techniques of setting purposes in which the teacher can play more directive roles

In summary, when reading is taught, teachers usually follow a framework of three stages to teach a lesson The pre-reading stage is the first stage It is followed

by while-reading stage and the post-reading stage The pre-reading section consists

of activities and exercises to prepare students before they do the actual reading

2.8.2 While-reading phase

First and foremost at the reading phase students should read silently and independently and utilize explicitly various reading strategies Therefore, silent reading has to be practiced in class in most cases, even though the teacher might read aloud sometimes some part of a text for reviewing and discussing the passage with the whole class However, students should not read aloud the text in the classroom (Grellet, 1981) Because, as Nuttall (1982, p 20) observed, “ When the students read the text aloud they may not extract necessary messages within appropriate speed as when they read silently” In intensive reading classrooms the students should approach a text under close and right kind of the teachers‟guidance to comprehend the text (Nuttall 1982, 1996) This guidance can be offered while the students work

on various reading stage tasks (Dubin & Bycina, 1991) These include a text structure discussion and guessing meanings of new words

2.8.2.1 Recognizing text organization

Text organization serves as a means of enhancing comprehension because it provides the readers with a powerful strategy for organizing information in a memorable fashion (Readence, 1989) Therefore, making learners aware of text structures or features helps them to become efficient readers (Harmer, 2007) According to William (1984) a text is not a mere gathering of sentences It is rather constructed from interrelated logically organized sentences and paragraphs, which can convey meaningful message Hence, teachers have to make their students aware

of some textual features of a text organization so as to help them comprehend the text effectively

For example, English teachers should draw their students‟attention to the structure of a text organization such as reference, connectives, vocabulary etc by asking them look at the relationships between sentences and in any single or one paragraph (William, 1984; Harmer, 1991) Teachers can help their students by drawing their attention to any signal words that announce the relationships in the text while they read Thus, introducing text organization in reading lesson can facilitate comprehension of a given text because text organization helps the reader recognize how individual sentence or group of sentences relate to each other and contribute to create meaning in the entire text

2.8.2.2 Guessing meanings

Aebersold and Field (1997, p 141) stated, “readers need to know how to employ strategies to deal with the unknown words they encounter when they read” Hence, teachers need to have knowledge of the strategies available to help students develop their skills to deal with unfamiliar words in the classroom to enhance their students‟ comprehension For example, if the unknown word appears several times and the student cannot get a general idea without it he/she has to be trained how to

arrive at the meaning using word attack-skills such as guessing word meaning from

context and using knowledge of word-building or word-formation process (Dubin,

1976; Harmer, 1991)

2.8.3 Post-reading phase

Aebersold and Field (1997, p 117) argue that “one of the most frequent and

time honoured activities of post reading stage is the use of comprehension questions

to revise the information in the text” Therefore, the comprehension questions exploit

the different aspects of the passage such as the main ideas of the text, some specific

details, the difficult parts etc Moreover, the comprehension activities focus on

language items For example the post reading stage of lesson presentation deals with

rhetorical organization, grammatical patterns and vocabulary items These activities

can be carried out once the main ideas of the text have been reviewed The exercises

on linguistic elements focus on grammar points, vocabulary in context and discourse

features of the passage In addition, there are other various activities that can be done

at this stage of reading lesson presentation like, listing facts, summarizing main

points, completing tables or diagrams, discussion and writing compositions (Dubin &

Bycina , 1991; Aebersold & Field, 1997; Willam, 1984 ; Mera, 1999)

In conclusion, the post reading stage of reading lesson presentation is intended

to review the content of the passage and to consolidate what the students have read

and at the same time to relate the textual information to the learners‟ knowledge,

interest and opinions Moreover, this stage of reading lesson treatment focuses on

linguistic elements such as grammar, vocabulary, discourse features and rhetorical

organizations (Nuttall 1996; Mera 1999; William 1984; Dubin and Bycina 1991)

Reviewing the content of the passage and reflecting upon what the students have read

can be carried out through comprehension activities

2.9 Pre-reading activities