Strategies for learning english writing by 10th form students at high schools = các chiến lược ngôn ngữ được ứng dụng trong việc học môn viết tiếng anh cho học sinh lớp 10 tại các trường THPT

With this in mind, this research investigated language learning strategies in writing and individual writing strategies employed by students at Nguyen Xuan On high school.. It aimed to i

vinh university department of foreign language - vơng thị thu hiền

Graduation thesis

strategies for Learning english writing

các chiến lợc ngôn ngữ đợc ứng dụng trong việc học

môn viết Tiếng anh cho học sinh lớp 10 tại các trờng THPT

Field: Methodology

Supervisor: M.A Vũ Thị Việt Hơng

Student : Vơng Thị Thu Hiền

Class : 44b2 Course : 2003-2007

I would like to express my deepest thanks to all the teachers of the Department offoreign languages for their supports in providing with constructive suggestions for thisthesis.

I would like to thank the students at Nguyen Xuan On high school for theirimpartial help by devoting their time giving answers to the survey questionnaires anddirect interviews and discussions, without whose enthusiastic cooperation this study couldnot have been completed

Finally, I am indebted to my family and my friends, who always provide me withutmost support and encouragement in everything and in completing this thesis

Up to now, there has been little research into learning strategies utilized for writing,particularly in Vietnamese context With this in mind, this research investigated language learning strategies in writing and individual writing strategies employed by students at Nguyen Xuan On high school It aimed to identify the most frequently used strategies and different strategy use between “successful” and “less successful” learners in order to find out the most useful strategies in writing in English for high school students

The research was based mainly on the theoretical background of language learningstrategies classified following Oxford’s (1990) six categories and an additional category ofnegative strategies as well as the individual strategies used in the writing process Theauthor hoped to demonstrate that language learning strategies are relevant and could beemployed in the process of writing

Through the result of data analysis of the survey questionnaire and interview, thestudy showed that metacoginitive, cognitive and compensation strategies were among themost useful Nevertheless the most frequently used strategies were memory, affective andsocial strategies Moreover, different individual strategies were demonstrated to be themost effective in different stages of the writing process However, cognitive strategieswere identified the most useful in every stage

Basing on the documentation and literature review and the result of data analysis ofthe survey questionnaires and interviews, the author presents some suggestions onimprovements of teaching writing with the focus on techniques of giving comments onlearners’ written work and the methods of utilizing edition and feedback in the writingclassroom

HSG : High Score Group

LSG : Low Score Group

Table of contents

Acknowledgment i

Abstract ii

List of abbreviations iii

List of tables and figures iv

part A: Introduction 1

1.1 Rationale 1

1.2 Scope of the study 2

1.3 Aims of the study 3

1.4 Method of the study 3

1.5 Research questions 4

1.6 Design of the thesis 4

part B: development 5

Chapter 1: Literature review 1.1 Language learning strategies 5

1.1.1 Learning strategies 5

1.1.2 Language learning strategies 6

1.1.2.1 Definition 6

1.1.2.2 Taxonomy of language learning strategies 8

1.2 Writing product 12

1.3 Writing process and writing strategies 18

1.3.1 Pre-writing 20

1.3.1.1 Generating activities 20

1.3.1.2 Focusing activities 23

1.3.1.3 Structuring activities 23

1.3.2 While writing 24

1.3.3 Post-writing 25

Chapter 2: Methodology 28

2.1 Subjects of the study 28

2.2 Data collection instruments 29

2.2.2.1 Questionnaire 29

2.2.2.1.1 Description of the questionnaire 29

2.2.2.1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of the questionnaire method 30

2.2.2.2 Interview 31

2.3 Pilot study ……… 32

2.4 Data collection procedure 32

Chapter 3: findings and discussions 36

3.1 Results of background information 36

3.2 Results of LLS use in writing 39

3.2.1 LLS use in writing 39

3.2.1.1 Overall LLS use in writing 39

3.2.1.2 Overall LLS use in writing by Group 44

3.2.2 Individual LLS use in writing 46

3.2.3.1 Individual LLS most frequently used in writing 46

3.2.3.2 Individual LLS least frequently used in writing 47

Chapter 4: Implications for teaching writing 51

4.1 General Implications 51

4.2 Implications in teaching writing as a writing process 51

4.2.1 Pre-writing 52

4.2.2 While-writing 52

4.2.3 Post-writing 53

part c: Conclusion 55

References

Appendixes

Appendix 1: Research questionnaire

Appendix 2: Interview questions

Appendix 3: Checklist

Appendix 4: Feedback sample for peer-editing

Appendix 5: Feedback sample for teacher- editing

Part I : Introduction

1.1 Rationale

English nowadays has become an integral part in every aspect of life: in scienceand technology, in economy, and in socio-cultural activities Thus, teaching and learningEnglish has gained constant awareness from educators, students, and parents all over theworld

The function of a language is communication; thus, speaking and listening are theinitial concern for a language learner The ability to speak fluently, persuasively andappropriately and to get information from others is a goal that all foreign language learnerswant to achieve However, in many cases, it is impossible to communicate throughspeaking and listening due to the reason of space, time, the problem of volume, etc Forexample, in the cases when we are away from home and we want to let our parents knowthat we are all right, or when we go to our friend's house to invite them to our dinner nextweekend but nobody is home, or we want to apply for a job, etc In such situations, we mayneed a letter, a note, or a job application, of a social endeavor Therefore, besides speakingand listening, writing is another important part in learning a language

Unfortunately, for decades writing used to be seen only as an aid to Englishlearning process, an exercise in perfecting grammar and vocabulary Many teachersnowadays still consider writing a tool " to consolidate the learning of new structures orvocabulary or to help students remember new items of language to allow students to seehow they are progressing and to get feedback from the teacher and allow teachers tomonitor and diagnose problems" (Hedge, 1998:7)

Having recognized the importance of writing in learning, educational authorities inVietnam have recently paid attention to developing students' ability to write whole pieces

of communication, texts as social endeavor rather than the ability to produce single, clearand correct sentences In fact, students themselves, particularly those at high schools, havealready realized the necessity of learning writing because it is important in their social,educational or professional lives, or at least because it is a part of their learningassessment However, they still have founded writing in English a challenge Beside theproblems of grammar, vocabulary and sentences structures, students have coped with anumber of difficulties in generating, developing, organizing and liking ideas in a cohesivewriting The reason may lie in their lack of knowledge and improper employment of the

writing process and writing strategies, which most teachers cannot provide their studentsdue to the limited time in each writing lesson

Another reason for me to choose this research topic is the assumption thatLanguage learning strategies can be an effective tool in developing learners autonomy,which seems to be paid less concern by both teachers and students at high school Manyresearchers have demonstrated that language learning strategies are the toolkit of effectivelearning that " make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, moreeffective, and more transferable to new situations" (Oxford,1990:8) They can also enablestudents to become more independent, autonomous, life long learners (Oxford,2003:8).Equipped with learning strategies, particularly in writing, students are supposed to bebetter writer in English

For the above- mentioned reasons, the author is encouraged to undertake the studyentitled" Strategies for learning English writing by 10th form students at high schools" inorder to find out the most useful wring strategies for High school students in making betterwritten work The study also aims to provide suggestions for teachers to help their students

to cope with the difficulties in writing in English

1.2 Scope of the Study

The scope of this research is small in its population This is a plenary investigationinto students' perceptions of Language learning strategies and how to apply them in writingfor 10th form students at High Schools

In addition, the study mainly investigated language learning strategies used inwriting, only one skill among four language skills (speaking, reading, listening, andwriting)

1.3 Aims of the Study

The study is aimed at demonstrating that language learning strategies can beapplied to writing in general and writing process in particular as well as finding out themost useful strategies that students can use so as to overcome their difficulties in writing inEnglish and become better writers

The specific aims of the study are as follows:

- To find out the difficulties students face in writing and the strategies they makemost use to cope with these difficulties

- To find out the differences between the use of the strategies by successful and lesssuccessful students.

- To provide suggestions for learners to improve their writing process so as todevelop clear, effective writing in English as well as suggestions for teachers to help theirstudents produce better written work

1.4 Method of the Study

In order to achieve the above- mentioned aims, a combination of severalmethodologies was utilized

The first methodology was documentation The author based on theory of languagelearning strategies and ways of implementing it in writing in English From criticalreading, many reference materials have been gathered, analyzed, and synthesized to drawout a theoretical basis for writing skill for students at high school

The second methodology utilized was the survey questionnaire Surveyquestionnaires were employed by the students at Nguyen Xuan On high School toinvestigate their perceptions about language learning strategies and identify the mostfrequently used strategies and different strategy use between "successful" and "lesssuccessful" learner in order to find out the most useful strategies in writing in English forhigh school students

Beside the use of critical reading and survey questionnaires for data collection, thestudy made use of other supporting methods such as interviews with teachers and students

to gather more information needed

1.5 Research Questions

This study is implemented to find answers to the following research questions:

1 What strategies in writing in English to be most frequently used by Nguyen Xuan

On High School students in general?

2 What strategies appear to be the most useful for them in writing in English?

3 What strategies appear to be the most useful in each stage of their writing process?

1.6 Design of the Study

The thesis is organized into three parts:

Part I " Introduction" provides the basic information such as Rationale, the

scope, the aims, research questions, and the design of the thesis

Part II: Development, consists of four chapters:

Chapter 1 is the literature review providing the theories that would be helpful for

my study It discussed different view on Strategies for language learning, writing product,writing process and writing strategies

Chapter 2 presents the study employed in the research, including the subjects of

the study, the research instruments, data collection procedure, the advantages anddisadvantages of the methodology employed

Chapter 3 presents the findings and discussions of the thesis in which the

collected date from both questionnaire and interview are analyzed in order to find answersfor the research questions posed in chapter one

Chapter 4 provides some suggestions on improvements of teaching writing in

English at high school

Part III "Conclusion" presents a summary of the study and suggestions for

further research on the topic

Part II: DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 1: Literature review

This chapter deals with major aspects of writing learning strategies, withconsideration of learning strategies in general, and then writing learning strategies.Learning strategies are expected to be relevant to writing strategies and can be employedinto the writing process In this literature review, it consists of 3 sections The first sectionpresents different theories on language learning strategies The second section discussesvarious ideas about writing product Then the final one is about writing process and writingstrategies

1.1 Language learning strategies

1.1.1 Learning strategies

The term learning strategies (LS) has been defined by many researchers Weinsteinand Mayer (1986, cited in Lessard – Clouston, 1997) state that LS are “behaviors andthoughts that a learner engages in during learning” which are “intended to influence thelearner’s encoding process” More specifically, Richards and Platt (1992, cited inHismanoglu, 2000) defines LS as “intentional behavior and thoughts used by learnersduring learning so as to better help them understand, learn, or remember new information.”When students understand their own learning process and can exert some control over theirprocess, they tend to take more responsibility for their own learning and they can make aprogress in their learning

This view is shared by Wenden and Rublin (1987, cited in Hismanoglu, 2000) LSare “any set of operations, steps, plans, routines used by the learner to facilitate theobtaining, storage, retrieval, and use of information”

In conclusion, most of the researchers agree that LS are important in all learning.Being equipped with LS students are able to approach learning more easily, more quickly,and more effectively, and thus become better learners

1.1.2 Language Learning Strategies

1.1.2.1 Definition

The topic of language learning strategies attracts much attention of researchers andpractioners This section presents definition by Nunan (1991), Tarone (1983), Rubin(1987), Oxford (1990)

All the definitions share one similarity in that they recognize language-learningstrategies are used in an effort to learn something about L2 For example, according toNunan (1991), language-learning strategies are "mental progress which learners employ tolearn and use target language" Another definition conducted by Tarone (1983, cited in

Lessard – Clouston, 1997) emphasizes that LLS is “an attempt to develop linguistic andsociolinguistic competence in the target language – to incorporate these into one’sinterlanguage competence” The concept focuses on the product of LLS as linguistic orsociolinguistic competence that is the knowledge of a codified language or the ability touse the target language meaningfully.

Later, Rubin (1987, cited in Clouston, 1997) stresses more on the processes of LLSwhen he defines LLS as strategies which contribute to the development of the languagesystem that the learner constructs and affect learning directly

However, Oxford's (1990) definition, apart from recognizing the most importantfeature of language learning strategies like other researchers, suggests that their use canhave an affective purpose ( i.e to increase enjoyment)

He says:

…language-learning strategies are specific actions, behaviours, steps, or techniquesthat students (often intentionally) use to improve their progress in developingsecond language (L2) or foreign language (FL) skills These strategies can facilitatethe internalization, storage, retrieval, or use of the new language Strategies aretools for the self – directed involvement necessary for developing communicativeability (Oxford, 1992/1993, cited in Lessard – Clouston, 1997)

Oxford also emphasizes more on the processes and the characteristics of LLS Heclaims that the LLS are flexible and influenced by a variety of factors but, in the end, allowlearners to become more self-directed They, students themselves can control their ownlearning process and intentionally improve their language with LLS Oxford adds there is adistinction between learning strategies and learning styles Learning styles are “the generalapproaches that students use in acquiring a new language or in learning any other subject”(Oxford, 2003:2) while LS mention specific behaviors or thoughts learners use to enhancetheir learning In such situations, learning styles will determine “how” whereas LLS willdetermine “how well” the students learn a second or foreign language Oxford also showsthe relationship between the two: “When the learner consciously chooses strategies that fithis or her learning style and the L2/FL task at hand, these strategies become useful toolkitsfor active, conscious, and purposeful self-regulation of learning” (2003:2)

Investigating all the definitions mentioned, Hismanoglu (2000) concludes, “LLSare good indicators of how learners approach tasks or problems encountered during theprocess of language learning” (para.23) In other words, in order to understand, learn, or

remember new language items, learners assess the situation, plan, and select appropriateskill by using LLS.

Many scholars believe that effective use of LLS is one of the most important skillsthat students need to master in order to achieve success in language learning Students whothink and work strategically are more motivated to learn and have a higher sense to self-efficacy or confidence in their own learning ability (Oxford, 1990) That is, strategicstudents perceive themselves as more able to succeed academically than students who donot know how to use strategies effectively

In short, LLS can develop the learners’ communicative competence and helplearners become better language learner as well For that reason, it is hopeful to adapt LLS

in writing to improve learners’ writing ability

1.1.2.2 Taxonomy of Language learning Strategies

This section presents the description of the most common classifications oflanguage learning strategies by Rubin (1981), O'Malley (1985) and Oxford (1990)

Rubin (1981) classifies language learning strategies into 2 categories The firstprimary category consists of six general strategies like Classification/ Verification,Monitoring, Memorization, Guessing/ Inductive inferencing, Deductive Reasoning andpractice, which may contribute directly to language learning Classification/ Verificationstrategies refer to the strategies which learners use to verify and clarify their understanding

of the new language while Guessing/ Inductive inferencing strategies help learners useprevious obtained linguistic and conceptual knowledge to derive explicit hypotheses aboutthe linguistic form, semantic meaning or speaker's intention Deductive Reasoningstrategies are considered to be problem solving strategies which learners use to look forand use general rule in approaching the foreign or second language Practice strategiescontribute to the storage and retrieval of language while focusing on accuracy of usage.Memorization strategies refer to strategies, which contribute to the storage and retrieval oflanguage Monitoring strategies focus on strategies in which learners notice errors (bothlinguistic and communicative), observe how a massage is received and interpreted by theaddressee and then decides what to do about it

The second primary category including Creating Opportunities for Practice andProduction Trick strategies contribute indirectly to learning

Another classification proposed by O’Malley (1985), there are 3 mainsubcategories of LLS: metacognitive strategies, cognitive strategies, and socioaffectivestrategies Stern(1987) divided LLS into five main subcategories: management and

planning strategies, cognitive strategies, communicative – experiential strategies,interpersonal strategies, and affective strategies

However, the classification of Oxford (1990) presented below has received greatpopularity

Oxford divides LLS into 2 main categories: direct strategies and indirect strategies.Each category is divided into subcategories as illustrated in Figure 1.1:

Memory strategiesDirect strategies Cognitive strategies

Compensation strategiesLanguage learning strategies

Metacognitive strategies

In direct strategies Affective strategies

Social strategies

Figure 1.1: Types of Language Learning Strategies

The direct strategies, which directly involve the subject matter (i.e the L2 or FL).They include three sub-categories: Memory strategies, Cognitive strategies, Compensationstrategies Each of them will be discussed in much more detail

a. Memory strategies: “aid in entering information into long – term memoryand retrieving information when needed for communication” (Oxford, 1990, cited inClouston 1997) i.e Memory strategies enable learners to store and retrieve newinformation They are broken down into four smaller sets: Creating mental linkages,Applying images and sounds, Reviewing well, Employing action the first letters of eachstrategies set form of acronym ' CARE' having a memory aid ' Take CARE of yourmemory and memory will take CARE of you'( Oxford,1990,p.38) Each of these smallersets covers some specific strategies, as shown in the following

 Creating mental linkages strategies: grouping, associating / elaborating, andplacing new words into a context;

 Applying images and sounds strategies: using imagery, semantic mapping,using keywords, and representing sounds in memory;

 Reviewing well strategies;

 Employing action strategies: using physical response or sensation and usingmechanical techniques

b. Cognitive strategies: “are used for forming and revising internal mentalmodels and receiving and producing messages in the target language” (Oxford, 1990, cited

in Clouston 1997) The term refers to the way learners use previous knowledge to help

solve new problems This type of strategy is more limited to specific learning tasks andthey involve more direct manipulation of the learning material itself Cognitive strategiesare sub-categorized into:

 Practicing strategies: repeating, formally practicing with sounds and writingsystem, recognizing and using formulas and patterns, recombining, andpracticing naturalistically;

 Receiving and sending messages strategies: getting the idea quickly and usingresources for receiving and sending messages;

 Analyzing and reasoning strategies: reasoning deductively, analyzingexpressions, analyzing contrastively, translating, and transferring;

 Creating structure for input and output: taking notes, summarizing, andhighlighting

c Compensation strategies: “are needed to overcome any gaps in knowledge of

the language” (Oxford, 1990, cited in Clouston 1997) Two types of compensationstrategies are:

 Guessing intelligently strategies: using linguistic clues, and using other clues;

 Overcoming limitations in speaking and writing strategies: switching to themother tongue, getting help, using mime or gesture, avoiding communicationpartially or totally, selecting the topic, adjusting or approximating the message,coining words, using a circumlocution or synonym

Contrasting with direct strategies, all following strategies are called indirectstrategies because they can support and manage language learning without indirectlyinvolving the target language (Oxford, 1990) They are divided into three groups:Metacognitive strategies, Affective strategies, Social strategies These strategies will bediscussed in detail

d Metacognitive strategies: “help learners exercise ‘executive control’ through

planning, arranging, focusing, and evaluating their own learning” (Oxford, 1990, cited inClouston 1997) They will help learners to regulate their learning, improve theirorganization of learning time, self-monitoring and self-evaluation after the learningactivities have been completed (e.g., identifying one’s own learning style preferences andneeds, planning for an L2 task, gathering and organizing materials, arranging a study spaceand a schedule, monitoring mistakes, and evaluating task success, and evaluating thesuccess of any type of learning strategy) Oxford stresses the importance of this type of

strategies and states that metacognitive strategies are strong predictor of L2/FL learning.(Oxford, 2003:13) Metacognitive strategies can be divided into:

 Centering your learning strategies: overviewing and linking with already knownmaterial, paying attention, and delaying speech production to focus on listening;

 Arranging and planning your learning strategies: finding out about languagelearning, organizing, setting goals and objectives, identifying the purpose of alanguage task, planning for a language task, and seeking practice opportunities;

 Evaluating your learning strategies: self-monitoring, self-evaluating

e Affective strategies: “enable learners to control feelings, motivations, and

attitudes related to language learning” (Oxford, 1990, cited in Clouston 1997) According

to Oxford,' the affective side of the learner is probably one of the very biggest influences

on language learning success or failure' There are three types of affective strategies:

 Lowering your anxiety strategies: using progressive relaxation deep breathing

or meditation using music, using laughter

 Encouraging yourself strategies: Making positive statements, taking riskwisely, rewarding yourself

 Taking your emotional temperature strategies: listening to your body, usingchecklist, writing a language learning diary, discussing your feeling withsomeone else

However, Oxford also poses an idea that learners nowadays do not see affectivestrategies as effective strategies as much as before because other strategies such ascognitive and metacognitive strategies that make them overcome the emotional problems.The higher proficient the learners are, the less need for effective strategies they have.(Oxford, 2003:14)

f Social strategies: Language is a form of social behavior, hence appropriatesocial strategies are very important to promote this process “Social strategies help studentslearn through interaction with other” (Oxford, 1990:13) They refer to the co-operatinglearning activities that involve peer interaction to achieve a common goal in learning and

to ask questions for clarification The subcategories of social strategies are:

 Asking questions strategies: asking for clarification or verification, andasking for correction

 Co-operating with others strategies: co-operating with peers, and withproficient users of the new language

 Empathizing with others strategies: developing cultural understanding,becoming aware of others’ thoughts and feelings

In conclusion, in comparison with the other classifications, Oxford's classification

is more comprehensive and complete Ellis (1994:359 ) states ' the most comprehensiveclassification of language learning strategies to date is that provided by Oxford' and Brown(1994) agrees that Oxford 'provide the most comprehensive taxonomy of learningstrategies currently available' In addition, it is more systematic in linking individualstrategies as well as strategy group with, in general, four language skills and in particular,writing skill The other classifications do not focus these aspects In summary, mostscholars agree that there are six main language learning strategies namely memory,cognitive, compensative, metacognitive, effective, and social strategies

1.2 Writing product

While defining the writing product, Brookes & Grundy (1990) compare the twosets of definition of “writing product” and “draft” Writing product is “the end results ofour labors and has about it an air of finality and completeness” Draft “is a version of thetext which the writer knows he / she will improve on” (Brookes & Grundy, 1990:22)

According to Hedge (1998) it is not easy at all to make a clear distinction betweenfinal product and draft because we can not assure when a piece of writing has become anunchangeable, final product

Feedback in writing is also the problem because each teacher has her/his owncriteria in grading a writing product Therefore, different teachers may judge one writtenwork as a good, fairy good or even not good at all product In general, most of teacherswould agree that a written product should be graded basing on the following criteria:

 Getting the grammar right

 Linking ideas and information across sentences to develop a topic

 Punctuating meaningfully

 Using the conventions of layout correctly, e.g in letter

 Getting the correct form of writing e.g letters, essays, reports

 Using a range of sentence structures

 Having a range of vocabulary

 Developing and organizing the content clearly and convincingly

 Spelling accurately

 Getting the correct function of the writing e.g narrative, description,comparison and contrast

(Hedge, 1998:8)

A Greek language researcher Gabrielatos shares the view Gabrielatos (2002)categorizes the elements of a good writing according their nature in terms of a writingproduct as Language, Layout and Organization, Relevance to the task and Regard for thereader, and Clarity of the product Each element is categorized into sub-elements as well

Language:

 The spelling is correct and consistent (e.g Bristish & American spelling)

 There is accurate and appropriate use of Grammar & Syntax

 There is accurate and appropriate use, as well as a good range ofvocabulary

Layout and organization

 The layout is relevant to the text-type

 The text has sections/ Paragraphs which have a clear focus

 The method of organization is clearly identifiable (e.g similarity/contrast,for/against, cause/effect, before/after, linear/flashbacks) The organization canalso help the reader to understand the content

 There is clear linking between each section, paragraph, sentence and theprevious and following one

 The punctuation help the reader understand the organization

Another criterion to judge a good written work is relevance of the writing to thetask and regard for the reader

 There is the appropriate coverage (all the points required by the task areincluded and irrelevant points are avoided)

 The level of explicitness (the reader provides the exact amount of informationrequired/needed by the reader)

 The appropriate and consistently used style (the level of formality)

 The tone is consistent with the writer’s purpose.

Another point that Garbrielatos mentioned is that the clarity of the writing.Garbrielatos distinguishes the clarity in different types of text For instance, in a narrativetext, the reader needs to be clear regarding the sequence or events in time, the charactersand their relationship Meanwhile, in an argumentative one, the writer's ideas should bestated clearly and supported by arguments and examples and the link between events/orargument should be clear

In this case, a successful writer is the one who can produce good written work asdefined above The successful writer is a “good writer” who “has a sense of purpose, asense of audience, and a sense of direction in their writing” (Hedge, 1998:9) She statesthat good writers start with an overall plan in their heads or their notes They think aboutwhat they want to say and whom they are writing for After that, they write the draft oftheir writing and as working on the draft, good writers are constantly reviewing, revisingand editing their work

This opinion is approved and clarified by Tribble (1996) and Garbrielatos (2002).According to them, an effective writer can produce effective writing However, onlythrough an effective writing process can the writing achieve its most efficiency They, thus,specify another aspect of a good writing, i.e writing process, which will be discussed indetail in the next section

1.3 Writing process and writing strategies

Most scholars assert that successful writers appear to go through a certain processthat leads to successful pieces of written work Therefore, in order to produce better writtenproduct by the writer in the writing process should combine writing strategies and the use

of particular techniques or methods

Brookes & Grundy (1990) define writing process as the means by which writersreach writing product After that, Tribble (1996) clarifies the “means” as the different

stages the writers go through during writing He provides the most commonly reportedwriting procedure as in Diagram below:

Figure 1.2: Most Commonly Reported Writing Process

However, Tribble (1996) disagrees with the above diagram because it does not give

a true picture of what successful writers actually do According to him, writing process is

“recursive” and complex line Good writers do not gradually go through stages of theprocess yet revisit some of the stages many times before a text is completed In otherwords, to complete the task, the writers can come back to collect data, which was notapparent at the planning stage, or may revise the plan radically in order to cope withchanges having developed in the argument, or revise the style of the text to reach theirintended audience Thus, the whole writing process is dynamic and unpredictable, not afixed sequence

Pre-writing (-Specifying the task

- Planning and outlining

- Focusing information and style for your readership)

(- Checking grammar / lexis

- Surfacing features (punctuation, spelling, layout, quotation, conventions, and references))

(Tribble, 1996:38)

Figure 1.3: Recursive Writing Process

In Hedge (1998:21), writing as “a recursive activity in which the writer moves

backwards and forwards between drafting and revising, with stages of re-planning in

between”

To make it easy to monitor and evaluate students’ writing process The recursive

writing process in writing is considered to be included 3 main stages: pre-writing,

while-writing and post-while-writing

1.3.1 Pre-writing

Pre-writing is a stage centering on engaging students in the writing process and

preparing the input needed for while-writing stage According to Brooke & Grundy (1990),

there are three activities in Pre-writing: generating activities, focusing activities and

structuring activities

1.3.1.1 Generating activities

Hedge (1998:21) argues “before putting pen to paper, the skilled writer in real life

considers two important questions…What is the purpose of writing and…Who am I

Pre-writing

Editing Revising

Composing / drafting

Publishing

(Tribble, 1998:39)

writing this for?” It means that before starting to write, writers should determine thepurpose and the audience of the piece of writing so as to choose an appropriate writingstyle and form.

Purposes:

- To express understanding

- To reflect, clarify, and explore ideas

- To explain, inform, instruct, or report

- To retell and narrate

- To describe

- To state an opinion, evaluate, or convince

- To experiment

Audiences:

- Specific person (e.g., self, teacher, friend, older person, younger person, parents)

- Specific group (e.g., class, team / club, grade, age group, special interest group)

- General audience (e.g., school, community, adults, peers, students, unspecified)According to Hedge (1996), there are specific types of writing such as :

- Personal writing - Public writing - Creating writing

- Social writing - Studying writing - Institutional writing

requestForm fillingApplications (for memberships)

Poems StoriesRhymesDramaSongsAutobiography

Social writing Studying writing Institutional writingLetters

SynopsesReviews

Agendas

MinutesMemoranda ReportsContracts

Advertisements Business letters

Public notices

Instructions Reviews

PostersSpeeches Curriculumvitae

ApplicationsSpecificationsNote-making (doctors andother professionals)

(Hedge, 1996:96)

Table 1.4: Text Types

After that, students can use the following strategies to generate ideas in this phase:

 Talking with and interview people who know something about the topic

 Focused free writing (i.e nonstop writing on an intended subject tocrystallize ideas and feelings)

 Brainstorming

 Listing

 Mapping and webbing (i.e., drawing thought webs or graphicrepresentations of the topic)

 Using reporter’s questions (i.e., Who?, What? When? Where? Why? How?)

 Making similes and metaphors (i.e., asking “What is it like?)

 Reading and examining (Researchers have proved that reading is closelyrelated to writing Reading here means read the model texts, read thefeedback from their previous writing, read other materials related to thetopic given, or even any types of text which can help writers generate ideas,imitate the way of composing, or provide them with necessary vocabularyand structures.)

Finding similarities and differences by comparing and contrasting concepts,pictures, and objects

1.3.1.2 Focusing activities

These activities help writers to identify priorities in what they have to say Amongthe number of ideas they have found in generating activities, students retain the mostrelevant and interesting ideas that stick to the topic and leave out those irrelevant and lessinteresting