An analysis of students’ motivation in esp methodology course the case of pre service language teachers at felte ulis vnu

1 VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION GRADUATION PAPER AN ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS’ MOTIV

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VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI

UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION

GRADUATION PAPER

AN ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS’ MOTIVATION IN ESP METHODOLOGY COURSE: THE CASE OF PRE-SERVICE LANGUAGE TEACHERS AT

FELTE, ULIS - VNU

Supervisor: Nguyễn Thị Thanh Vân (M.Ed) Student: Trần Hoài Linh

Course: QH2016.F1.E2

HÀ NỘI - 2020

ĐẠI HỌC QUỐC GIA HÀ NỘI

TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ KHOA SƯ PHẠM TIẾNG ANH

KHÓA LUẬN TỐT NGHIỆP

ĐỘNG LỰC CỦA SINH VIÊN KHI HỌC KHÓA PHƯƠNG PHÁP GIẢNG DẠY TIẾNG ANH

CHUYÊN NGÀNH: MỘT NGHIÊN CỨU VỀ GIÁO

SINH KHOA SƯ PHẠM TIẾNG ANH

Giáo viên hướng dẫn: Th.S Nguyễn Thị Thanh Vân Sinh viên: Trần Hoài Linh

Khóa: QH2016.F1.E2

HÀ NỘI - 2020

ACCEPTANCE

I hereby state that I: Tran Hoai Linh, class QH2016.F.1.E2, being a candidate for the degree of Bachelor of Arts (English Language Teaching Education) accept the requirements of the College relating to the retention and use of Bachelor’s Graduation Paper deposited in the library

In terms of these conditions, I agree that the origin of my paper deposited in the library should be accessible for the purposes of study and research, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the librarian for the care, loan or reproduction of the paper

Signature

Tran Hoai Linh

Date:

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The journey to the completion of this graduation paper has never been easy, and needless to say, it could be impossible for me to finish the paper without the detailed guidance and enormous support from my supervisor, teachers, friends, and

of course, my family

First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere appreciation to my supervisor, M.A Nguyen Thi Thanh Van, who had the substance of a mother – she brought in the comfort despite the high intensity of the deadlines Her persistent dedication and consultancy were, without doubt, significantly contributed to the fulfillment of this research

I also wish to show my gratitude to all the teachers as well as my peers, the final-year students at FELTE, ULIS, whose assistance as participants of the study was such a blessing to me They were the ones who directly contributed to this research paper, and their unconditional supports throughout the study were truly appreciated

In addition, I am indebted to my classmates, my spirit animals from QH2016.E2.SP.CLC for the joyful and cozy chitchats, which lifted my mood up during the national lockdown I would like to give my special thanks to my beloveds,

Le Thuy Duong, Ngo Thu Phuong and Vu Phuong Anh for the continuous and timely encouragement, and their presence itself was a milestone in the completion of this paper

Last but not least, I would like to express my whole-hearted appreciation to my family, my grandparents, my parents, my sisters and brother for the extraordinary love and understanding Without them, I would be in the middle of nowhere during such hard time

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ABSTRACT

In response to the dominance attached to motivation and its significant effect

on the language teaching field in general and students’ enthusiasm to learn in a better way particularly, the present study targeted at a discrete group of pre-service teachers, which has been proved in the literature review to be the neglected subjects in the motivational field The present study aimed at identifying the types of motivation possessed by the pre-service teachers in a teacher training course namely ESP Methodology at a prestigious university in Vietnam, investigating the motivation factors affecting this particular group of learners together with some suggestions to increase the level of motivation Data were collected through the questionnaire distributed among 121 students participating in the course, as well as the semi-structured interviews with ten students and two teachers, focusing on the students’ motivational factors The questionnaire on types of motivation was developed using the Academic Motivation Scale (AMS) and Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) based on the Self-determination theory, while the motivational factors were adapted from the Dörnyei’s Framework of L2 motivation Results show that students tended towards being intrinsically motivated in an autonomous way The students also found teachers, classmates and course-specific elements enormously influence their motivation level As suggested by the participants, appropriate adjustments to the course projects, enhanced involvement of the practical elements and intimate interactions between students and teachers are able to effectively promote the students’ participation in the course Notably, the study found out that student teachers’ “mental prejudice” towards the ESP Methodology course might affect their active roles in the

class, which accordingly impacts teachers’ enthusiasm and teaching practices

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1

ABSTRACT 2

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 7

LIST OF FIGURES 8

LIST OF TABLES 9

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 10

1.1 Introduction 10

1.2 Background of the study 10

1.3 Statement of research problem & research questions 12

1.4 Scope of research 14

1.5 Significance of the study 15

1.6 Method of the study 15

1.7 Organization of the study 16

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 17

2.1 Introduction 17

2.2 What is motivation? 17

2.3 Theories and Views of Motivation 20

2.3.1 Behavioral View 21

2.3.2 Humanistic View 22

2.3.3 Cognitive View 23

2.3.4 Social learning theory 24

2.4 Self-determination theory 25

2.5 Factors affecting the level of motivation 29

2.5.1 Gardner’s model of motivation 30

2.5.2 Williams and burden’s framework of L2 motivation 31

2.5.3 Dörnyei and Otto’s process model of L2 motivation 31

2.5.4 Dörnyei’s framework of L2 learning motivation 32

2.6 ESP defined 34

2.7 Motivation of Learners in ESP courses 35

2.8 Related studies on motivational analysis of undergraduates 35

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2.9 Conclusion 37

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 38

3.1 Introduction 38

3.2 The setting of the study 38

3.3 Research design 39

3.4 Sampling method 40

3.5 Participants 41

3.5.1 Student participants 41

3.5.2 Teacher participants 42

3.6 Research instruments 43

3.6.1 Students’ Questionnaire (See Appendix D) 43

3.6.1.1 Questionnaire development 44

3.6.1.2 Piloting the questionnaire 44

3.6.1.3 Questionnaire description 44

3.6.2 Semi-structured interviews 46

3.6.2.1 Semi-structured interviews for students (See Appendix E) 47

3.6.2.2 Semi-structured interview for teachers (See Appendix F) 48

3.7 Data collection procedures 49

3.7.1 Data from the questionnaire 49

3.7.2 Data from the two interviews 49

3.8 Data analysis 50

3.8.1 Quantitative data analysis 50

3.8.2 Qualitative data analysis 51

3.9 The researcher stance as the participant 52

3.10 Conclusion 52

CHAPTER 4 DATA ANALYSIS 54

4.1 Introduction 54

4.2 Students’ questionnaire data analysis 54

4.2.1 Section 1: Types of motivation 54

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4.2.2 Factors affecting students’ motivation 60

4.3 Students’ interviews 62

4.3.1 Students’ experiences in the course 62

4.3.2 Factors affecting the students’ motivation 68

4.3.3 Suggestions to increase the level of motivation 72

4.3.3.1 Adjustments to the coursebook 72

4.3.3.2 Adjustments to the course projects 73

4.3.3.3 Practicability-focused course 73

4.3.3.4 Teachers 74

4.4 Teachers’ interviews 76

4.4.1 Issues related to the ESP Methodology course 76

4.4.2 Factors affecting students’ motivation 77

4.4.3 Suggestions to increase the level of motivation 79

4.5 Conclusion 79

CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 80

5.1 Introduction 80

5.2 Research question 1: The motivation types possessed by the pre-service teachers in the ESP Methodology course 80

5.3 Research Question 2 Factors that affect students’ level of motivation in the classroom settings 83

5.4 Research question 3 Suggestions proposed by the teachers and students in the course 87

5.5 Conclusion 91

CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION 92

6.1 Introduction 92

6.2 Summary of findings 92

6.3 Limitations 94

6.4 Suggestions for further research 95

REFERENCES 96

APPENDICES 109

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APPENDIX A TABLE OF RELATED STUDIES ON MOTIVATION OF

UNDERGRADUATES 109

APPENDIX B WILLIAM AND BURDEN’S (1997) FRAMEWORK OF L2 MOTIVATION 111

APPENDIX C DÖRNYEI AND OTTO’S PROCESS MODEL OF L2 MOTIVATION 112

APPENDIX D: STUDENTS’ QUESTIONNAIRE 113

APPENDIX E STUDENTS’ INTERVIEW QUESTIONS 118

APPENDIX F: TEACHERS’ INTERVIEW QUESTIONS 120

APPENDIX G STUDENTS’ INTERVIEWS INITIAL CODING RESULTS 121 APPENDIX H TEACHERS’ INTERVIEWS INITIAL CODING RESULTS Error! Bookmark not defined APPENDIX I DETAILED DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS ANALYSIS IN EVALUATING MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS 141

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Education

Studies

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.5 Dörnyei’s framework of L2 learning motivation 33

Figure 3.1 A Visual Diagram of the Mixed-Methods Concurrent

Triangulation Strategy

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Figure 3.3 A framework for processing interview data 51

Figure 4.1 Pre-service teachers’ reactions towards their

“mental prejudice”

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Figure 4.2 Thematic summary of students’ suggestions to

raise motivational level

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.2 Summary of the student’s participation in the interviews 42

Table 3.4 Detailed description of the questionnaire 46

Table 3.5 Detailed description of the interview questions for

Table 4.3 Mean and SD of AMS External regulation items 56

Table 4.4 Mean and SD of AMS Introjected regulation items 26

Table 4.5 Mean and SD of AMS Identified regulation items 57

Table 4.7 Descriptive statistics analysis in evaluating

1.2 Background of the study

Vietnam has established diplomatic relationship with more than 180 countries

in the world (Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2015) and has maintained trade and economic ties with over 220 foreign markets As the nation has carried out its foreign policy of globalization and integration, The Education Law also clearly specifies

‘compulsory foreign languages included in the national curriculum are those commonly used in international transactions’ (Socialist Republic of Vietnam, 2005)

A recently launched project entitled ‘Teaching and learning languages in public education system from 2008 to 2020 (henceforth Project 2020) has introduced a far-reaching change from supply-driven education system into a demand-based one The project specifies that ‘English is the foreign language to be taught and learnt in public educational organizations, among others (Socialist Republic of Vietnam, 2008).’

The last decade has witnessed a surge in English language teaching and learning in the country In the modern world, where the amazing growth of science and technology has definitely gained its territory, the need for English for Specific Purposes (ESP) becomes more obvious than ever The rising number of business and cultural organizations in the country has put forward the demand for a resource of professionals who are able to use English to communicate in a professional environment This social interest has led to a strong demand for learning English for

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specific purposes (ESP) in colleges, universities and vocational schools in Vietnam Learning English is no longer for its own justification but for using the language in a variety of contexts (Nguyen, 2011), and not solely using English in daily communication, it requires the leaners of English to interpret specialist contents As a result, this demand calls for a revision of ESP practice, which focused on building learners’ repertoire of technical terms and enhancing their skills of reading and translation (Nguyen, 2015)

It is true that due to the recontextualization within language teaching world, ESP teaching has undergone significant changes over the last decades, however, as stated by Chen (2000) it still witnessed non-existent provision of ESP teacher education, training programs and supervision in many areas of the world In Vietnam, ESP teaching is in its infancy (Le, 2014) Despite the concurrently increasing demand for ESP teachers, pre-service teacher education programs in Vietnam have so far

largely neglected this important area In her research Failure in an ESP Program: Why? (2005), Duong, Bui and Bui described the current situation in training of ESP

Teachers in Vietnam:

There is no formal ESP teacher training in the university A typical

ESP teacher is a content teacher who is an expert in their field of study

and has completed their master's or doctoral degree in an

English-speaking country They have never been trained to be a teacher of

English In other cases, an ESP teacher is a General English teacher

who is employed to teach an ESP course For ESP teachers, there are

very few opportunities for professional development, such as seminars

or workshops on methodology or materials development

(p 12)

This is to say, inadequate attention has been paid to ESP teacher education, which leads to English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers’ struggling and having

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to learn about ESP pedagogy through their practice Novice teachers who have no first-hand experience with ESP pedagogy struggle to find the path in such a “thorny way of professionalization” (Ghanbari and Rasekh, 2012) Teaching ESP, hence, requires teachers to spare more time and effort than other English language courses - not because of its nature but because Vietnamese ESP teachers take over their teaching tasks without being equipped with theoretical and practical knowledge about the domain, as ESP education has yet been introduced in English teacher training programs in the country (Nguyen, 2015) The introduction of an ESP Methodology course is therefore consequential, and a state-of-the-art move This tendency can be clearly seen when more and more universities are now introducing Master Degree programs in ESP after years of only offering programs in Applied Linguistics or TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages), including some very reputable universities like the University of Birmingham and Aston University (El-Dakhs, 2010)

1.3 Statement of research problem & research questions

The field of motivation is enormous; many theories have proliferated over the past half century Theories on the topic of motivation were so numerous that some researchers called for some form of unification of theories, both formally and informally (Grosskopf, 2009) “Why people decide to do something, how hard they are going to pursue it and how long they are willing to sustain the activity” are just some of the issues addressed by motivation theoreticians (Dörnyei, 2001, p 7)

In psychology, motivation acts as a force that energizes and directs behavior toward a goal (Eggen & Kauchak, 1994) According to Gardner (2007) “the motivated individual is goal-directed, expends effort, is persistent, is attentive, has desires (wants), exhibits positive effects, is aroused, has expectancies, demonstrates self-confidence (self-efficacy), and has reasons (motives)” (2007, p 10) Motivation in the school context has been highlighted in several studies in recent years Crump (1995) defined the act of motivating as “exciting the mind of the student to receive instruction”

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(quoted in Brewer & Burgess, 2005) In a word, students’ motivation is considered an evoking energy in the teaching and learning process that permeates all levels of education, both in relation to the amount of time students spend studying as well as their academic performance and achievements (Lens, Matos, & Vansteenkiste, 2008)

In the area of teacher motivation research, a marked increase has also been

witnessed since the release of the special issue on motivation for teaching by Learning and Instruction in 2008, which has illuminated the worldwide trend to relate the

current motivational theories to the domain of teaching which has been called a

“Zeitgeist of interest” by Watt and Richardson (2008a) The special issue was an important impetus to setting the agenda for future teacher motivation research The significance of teacher motivation research is also self-evident as it appears to be a crucial factor which demonstrate close relation to a number of variables in education, such as student motivation, educational reform, teaching practice and teachers’ psychological fulfilment and well-being Important as it is, the investigations into teacher motivation in EGP (English for General Purposes) or EAP (English for Academic Purposes) are more commonly witnessed compared to the other composition of English language teaching, namely ESP In the case of pre-service teachers, even, their motivation in learning how to teach ESP is largely neglected

Therefore, the author of this research paper conducted this research, entitled

An analysis of students’ motivation in ESP Methodology course: The case of service language teachers at FELTE, ULIS with a view to investigating the

pre-motivation of the student teachers while participating in the ESP Methodology course Its aims were to identify the motivational types the students possess, determine precisely what elements affect their motivation and provide some suggestions as solutions to improve and increase students’ motivation in the course This paper will employ both quantitative and qualitative approach, which allows for a thorough analysis of learners’ attitudes and an understanding of how they are influenced by numerous factors in the learning environment The types of motivation and the

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motivational factors were collected via students’ questionnaire, then compared to relevant data from the students and teachers’ interviews for thorough insights The suggestions to increase the students’ level of motivation were synthesized chiefly through the interviews Basing on the analysis from the collected data, discussion and implications on aforementioned issues were proposed

With the aims stated above, the research proposed three following research questions for the study:

1 What are the motivation types possessed by the students in the ESP Methodology course?

2 What are the factors that affect their level of motivation in the classroom settings?

3 How can motivation be increased as perceived by the teachers and students

in the ESP Methodology course?

1.4 Scope of research

In this study, the researcher does not intend to cover all ESP realms but focuses

on case studies of the Vietnamese pre-service teachers of the Faculty of English Language Teacher Education in a renowned foreign language university Student participants of the study consist of 121 current last-year students from five classes at FELTE, ULIS This number of students was well-presented because it accounted for three-fourth of the population The teacher participants were two teachers in the ESP division, who were also in charge of three out of five investigated classes Teachers’ opinions were expected to greatly contribute to the study as they are to provide a new perspective of the insiders towards the main study subjects, the students A focus has been placed on (1) the types of motivation possessed by the student teachers, (2) factors affecting the learning motivation and (3) some ways to increase the motivation level The scope of the study is not for generalization but allows the researcher to look deep inside the cases to see what is really happening

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1.5 Significance of the study

By probing students and teachers’ views about factors affecting the learning motivation in university environments and proposed solutions, the study had the potential for expanding our understanding of the current knowledge about learning motivation among pre-service teaching students in the ESP methodology course

The study is significant for the following reasons:

(1) It studies the kind of motivation which is possessed by most of the student teachers

in the Faculty of English Language Teacher Education, which is beneficial to teachers

of ESP in the process of teaching the course

(2) It expresses the factors affecting motivation in the classroom settings

(3) It gives some suggestions for the ESP teachers to help motivate their learners (4) It is hoped to give a new insight into how pre-service teachers can be motivated in learning how to teach ESP

(5) It is time a research into learners’ motivation among Vietnamese student teachers should be carried out, especially in the blossomed era of ESP teaching

Once completed, the research would serve as a source of reference for those who wish to take a closer look at the ESP Methodology course, consequently, exploit

it in more appropriate ways The findings can act as the primary source for further research, especially in curriculum improvement and renovation in the relevant field,

in a larger and more practical scale

1.6 Method of the study

The researcher employed two types of data collection instruments, which are questionnaire and semi-structured interviews Data collected from the questionnaire helped to answer the research question one and two, which seeks the motivational type of the students, while the data collected from the interviews serve as the helpful instruments to give justifications for the motivational factors and suggestions to increase motivational level

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In this study, the researcher adopted both quantitative and qualitative design Quantitative procedures were used to analyze instrument-based information collected from the questionnaire, and qualitative procedures were employed to analyze data collected from interviews

1.7 Organization of the study

The research paper is divided into seven chapters:

Chapter 1: Introduction: This chapter presents the background information about the educational drives in Vietnam, the rationale, aims, significance, participants, the scope, method, and the structure of the research The three research questions are also included in this part

Chapter 2: Literature Review: This chapter offers a review of related literature

in which the author presents the theoretical framework underpinning the study and review studies in the field of undergraduates’ motivation

Chapter 3: Methodology: This chapter gives information about the setting of the research, sampling method, and describes the author’s philosophical stance, research procedure and the process of data analysis

Chapter 4: Data analysis: This chapter presents, analyzes, and interprets the data that were obtained from the questionnaires and the interviews

Chapter 5: Findings and Discussion: This chapter presents the findings of data analysis in correspondent with the three research questions In addition, discussion and implications are made based on the findings

Chapter 6: Conclusion: This chapter summarizes the main points discussed in this study It also mentions the limitations of the study and includes recommendations and suggestions for further studies

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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter reviews the research literature in order to define the term ‘motivation’

in such a vast world of research It also presents the theoretical framework of the two central topics of the research: types of motivation and motivational factors The remainder of this chapter is organized as follows Section 2.2 reviews the theories around the concept ‘motivation’ under the light of educational research Section 2.3 reviews popular views and theories of motivation in both psychological and educational fields and states the central framework of the study, which is thoroughly elaborated in Section 2.4 Section 2.5 reviews the frameworks of factors affecting students’ motivation and presents the chosen framework for investigating the motivational factors Section 2.6 and 2.7 discuss the issues related to ESP and motivation in ESP Section 2.8 reviews empirical studies on undergraduates’ motivation in order to have better insights into the motivational research on education, especially higher education

2.2 What is motivation?

Terrel Bell, former Secretary of Education of United States, has asserted that: There are three things to remember about education The first one is motivation The second one is motivation The third one is motivation (Martin, 2000)

The consequences of an unenthusiastic classroom, as he points out, can be deleterious In many ways, motivation is a critical undercurrent in the learning environment and can be a crucial determinant of student achievement Educational psychologists have long recognized the importance of motivation in the process of learning and teaching There exists a considerable amount of research on motivation, most of which have validated the assumption that motivation is one of the most impactful variables on the students’ success or failure

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“But aren’t undergraduate students supposed to be self-motivated?” John Voight, a mathematics researcher at the University of Sydney, mentioned in his Teaching Statement the common presupposition of motivation in higher education level This situation was reported to be similar in many courses in China, according

to Zang & McNamara (2018) in their book entitled Undergraduate Student Engagement: Theory and Practice in China and UK, that whereas the high school

teaching and learning system are highly structured, at university, students were expected to become more independent and self-motivated, which results in them gradually lose interest in the subject and even started to doubt their ability The answer to the posed question is, therefore, quite to the contrary: student motivation cannot be presupposed or taken for granted

In measuring the motivation to study of undergraduate students, this paper begins with the assumption that motivation is an important element influencing students’ learning process Entwistle (2003) argues that motivation is one of a number

of characteristics which show impact on how students approach their learning and studying and how they perceive the environment in which they learn In another perspective, Guay et al (2010) considers motivation as “the reasons underlying behavior” that is characterized by the growing willingness and volition

In fact, numerous studies have attempted to define the students’ motivation and almost all of them, when dealing with the complexity of motivation, come up with different definitions of the concept In this respect, Gardner (2006, p.242) states that

“motivation is very complex phenomenon with many facets Thus, it is not possible

to give a simple definition.” In his book Teaching and Researching Motivation,

Dörnyei (2010) uses the renowned Indian fable of the blind men disputing over an elephant to draw an analogy with the broadness of motivation:

Each touching a different part of the animal (tusk, tail, ear, trunk, belly) and ending up with a very different mental representation of the animal Similarly, when it comes to understanding motivation – that is, the potential range of influences on human behavior – researchers are

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inevitably selective in their focus since it seems impossible to capture the whole picture

(p 34) Motivation, therefore, is an abstract concept that can be analyzed from several different perspectives In discussing various approaches to understanding motivation, Dörnyei & Ushioda (2011, pp.6-13) defined motivation as ‘a general way of referring

to the antecedents (i.e the origin and the cause) in which the reason people decide to

do something (why), the persistence of the action (how long) and the effort expended

on it (how hard) are concerned He mentioned two basic dimensions of human behavior: direction and magnitude (intensity) as the sub-components of motivation, which was once certified by (Nakata, 2006) ‘the most encompassing definition of motivation’ This definition was also among the advocates of the behavioristic theories of motivation, which focused very much on deep-seated unconscious drives, emotions and instincts shaping human behavior (Dörnyei, 2010)

This research paper will accordingly survey some of the most important dimensions of the motivational palette, namely cognitive behaviors (such as monitoring and strategy use) and non-cognitive aspects (such as perceptions, beliefs, and attitudes) as the focus Different definitions have been proposed in terms with the various motivational approaches According to Dörnyei and Ottó (1998), motivation can be defined as the dynamically changing cumulative arousal in a person that initiates, directs, coordinates, amplifies, terminates, and evaluates the cognitive and motor processes whereby initial wishes and desires are selected, prioritized, operationalized and (successfully or unsuccessfully) acted out Gottfried (2001) defines academic motivation as “enjoyment of school learning characterized by a mastery orientation; curiosity; persistence; task-endogeny; and the learning of challenging, difficult, and novel tasks” (p 525) On the other hand, in supporting motivation to be synonymous with cognitive engagement, Turner (1995) defines motivation as “voluntary uses of high-level self-regulated learning strategies, such as paying attention, connection, planning, and monitoring” (p 413) In line with this

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definition, Lens, Matos, & Vansteenkiste (2008) regarded motivation as "a psychological process in which personality traits (e.g., motives, reasons, skills, interests, expectations, and future perspectives) interact with perceived environmental characteristics" (p 17), indicating that student motivation can be affected by changes within the students themselves, in their learning environment, or in school culture Considering the context of the study and characteristics of the participants, this definition appears to be the most relevant

2.3 Theories and Views of Motivation

As with the definitions, there is extensive proliferation of theories on motivation Initial perspectives emphasised motivation in terms of mechanistic theories or those based on the cognitive approach (Weiner, 1992) In mechanistic theories, motivation is described in terms of the ‘machine metaphor’ where human behaviour is paralleled to machines with their motivation being based on needs, drives and instincts In cognitive theories, motivational behaviour is predicated on thoughts, beliefs and choices However, this classification is questionable as some theories have

ideas common to both categories

Motivation theories may also have been broadly differentiated into behavioral, humanistic, cognitive and social learning theories (Table 2.1) Again, this is not an absolute categorization as theories may overlap, to illustrate, cognitive social theories; expectancy-value theories explain motivation in the aspect of cognitive processes but the theories are still similar to the mechanistic/behavioral theories (de Vicente, 2003) The source of motivation is also included in Table 2.1 and is differentiated as either being intrinsic (doing something for its own sake) or being extrinsic (doing something for some other reasons) The underlying idea in these theories is that activities will be performed based on the reasons for the action or on the beliefs of the person doing those activities

works through the task, the desired final behaviour is progressively shaped

One of the earliest behavioral theories by Skinner maintained that all behaviors are motivated by rewards which hence reinforce learning According to Skinner, having the correct answers will motivate the student to progress to the next level, working through all levels until the desired behavior is achieved; and as the student works through the task, the desired final behavior is gradually shaped An understanding of motivation begins with a careful analysis of the incentives and rewards presented in the classroom as providing grades, sticks, and other reinforces for learning Therefore, it can be stated that the behavioral theory considers motivation

as the anticipation of reinforcement In this respect, Brown (2001, p.73) says that “to

be motivated to acquire positive reinforcement and motivated by previous experiences

of reward for behavior go hand in hand in order to achieve further reinforcement Behaviorists explain motivation in terms of external stimuli and reinforcement.”

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2.3.2 Humanistic View

In the 1960s, proponents of humanistic psychology argued that motivation in people’s lives was not always about praises or rewards Rogers (1979) stated that the dominant psychology behavioral schools adequately explained why people act as they

do so According to the humanistic perspective, to motivate means to encourage people’s inner recourses and their senses of competence as self –esteem Humanistic views of motivation perceive the individual as a whole and examine the interrelationship of the diverse human needs One of the most influential humanistic theories is the Abraham Maslow hierarchy of needs which was introduced to the world

in the 1940s and 1950s

Maslow believes that people had several needs to satisfy during the course of their life He, figuratively, classified these needs hierarchically in a pyramid from the lowest to the highest

Figure 2.1 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (1968)

Maslow's Hierarchy of needs emphasizes growth and development of the individual in satisfying needs in a hierarchical fashion This may account for differences in behavior of students He regarded ‘the single, holistic principle that binds together the multiplicity of human motives is the tendency for a new and higher

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need to emerge as the lower need fulfils itself by being sufficiently gratified’ (Maslow,

1968, p.55) From a learning point of view, this means that as one becomes more actualized and self-aware, the ensuing development of wisdom will enable appropriate behaviour in a wide variety of situations However, much criticism has been levelled against the assumption that initial satisfaction of the lower needs is required before proceeding to the next need level, as individuals are likely to be faced with more than one need simultaneously

self-2.3.3 Cognitive View

Through the second half of the 20th century the science of human motivation became characterized by a focus on conscious cognitive processes (e.g goals and expectations, self-efficacy beliefs, interpretations of events) shaping action and behavior (Dörnyei, 2010) In the end of the sixties, the cognitive development theory was conducted by Piaget, in which he construed motivational behavior as being based

on thoughts, beliefs and choices This theory, in contrast to behavioral view, considered people as active and curious, searching for information subject That is, the cognitive theorists believe that behavior is determined by our thinking not by rewarded or punished behavior According to Keller (1983, p.389) quoted in Brown (2000, p.160) motivation is “the choices people make as to what experiences or goals they will approach or avoid and the degree of effort they will exert in that respect.”

Numerous theories have been developed under the ground of cognitive view, yet it was the expectancy theory that led the way in explaining motivation in cognitive terms The ‘expectancy’ theory (Vroom, 1964) is based on the premise that people are motivated by the likelihood of success at a task (expectancy) The construct is one of the most important mediators of achievement behavior The expectancy-value theory (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002) additionally stresses the second cognitive influence which

is the reason for engaging in the task (value) Current research on the value construct continues to emphasize two beliefs of the individual but contextual influences are included in the later models

expectancy-24

2.3.4 Social learning theory

The theory is based on the belief that people acquire knowledge, belief, attitudes, and values through observing others in their social world (Atkinson, 1990) Within the learning context, students can see, enact and practise with the assistance from the teacher and peers in the group Also, group activities allow participants, with different skills and levels of skills, to practise interacting within a socially organized unit where they learn from the task as well as from each other

The social learning theory was developed by Albert Bandura (1986, 1977), in which he believed that despite the accuracy of traditional behavioral views of learning, they appeared to be incomplete since they gave only partial explanation of motivation

in learning Promoting this belief, Woolfolk (1998) stated that the behavioral theories often overlooked important elements due to the fact that they ignored social influences

on learning In social cognition theory, the environment, an individual's behavior and his/her attributes influence and are influenced by the other two components

Figure 2.2 Components of Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1986)

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According to Bandura (1986), self-efficacy is a self-judgment of one's ability

to perform a task in a specific domain and is thus situation specific Zimmerman (1989) pointed out that students can be described as self-regulated in which they establish their goals, develop plans to attain these goals, commit to and implement the plan, reflect on their actions and redirect behavior He describes these students as metacognitively, motivationally and behaviorally active participants in their own learning processes Corno (1994) argued that such individuals had ‘volition’ in which they had the tendency ‘to maintain focus and effort toward goals despite potential distractions’ (p.229)

However, there exists a dramatic shift in learning and motivation towards the concept of learner-centeredness in recent motivation theories Focus is placed on active control of the learner and the motivational value of that control (Svinicki, 1999) Associated theories involve constructivism, self-regulation in learning (Pintrich, 1995), and self-determination in motivation (Deci et al, 1991) which depicts a larger shift toward personal responsibility

2.4 Self-determination theory

The favor for individual accountability in motivation has been explicitly shown

in the study, where the student participants are asked for what influences their behaviors, how their motivation in the learning process is constituted and why it matters In this sense, the researcher decided to adopt the self-determination theory (SDT) as the theoretical framework of the study The principles of the SDT state that individuals' motivations differ, being determined and driven by contexts that manifest themselves in different ways, making students' motivation for learning "a complex, multi-determined phenomenon, which can only be inferred by observing behavior, either in real performance situations or by self-reporting" (Guimarães & Bzuneck,

2008, p.111)

In the self-determination theory, motivation is based on the learner’s perceptions of being in control of his or her own destiny In the context of the course,

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the learner makes choices about the learning goals and develops strategies to achieve them The teacher encourages learners to make choices about how to learn or what direction to take in fulfilling the aims and objectives of the course As students develop the ‘habit’ of reflecting on their learning, they become more competent, progressing to becoming ‘deep’ learners who become more interested, more focused, more challenged and more motivated The ESP Methodology course is designed accordingly with the learner-centered approach, including the rich involvement of collaborative projects, with the sole aim of boosting practical exposure Hence, a primary instructional method in response to the learner-centered theory is necessary

to encourage students’ understanding of real-world problems

According to (Ryan & Deci, 2000), students have not only different quantities, but also different qualities of motivation that can vary from time to time depending

on the learning and teaching context Therefore, teachers are encouraged to expand his/her understanding of the different types of student motivation possible in any given context, so that they are in a better position to provide a more conducive learning environment to students that better promotes their learning (Marsh, 2000) Kohn (1999, p 257) contended that “the implicit premise of the words “intrinsic” and

“extrinsic” is that there are qualitatively different kinds of motivation, and the kind matters more than the amount.” Corpus, McClintic-Gilbert and Hayenga (2009) expand this categorization further ‘…the question of what motivates leaners’ behavior

in achievement contexts is one of long-standing interest to psychologists and educators.’

It can be observed that much of the research in this area has classified motivation as either intrinsic (i.e., inherent to the self or the task) or extrinsic (i.e., originating from outside of the self or the task) Assumptions can be drawn that, students are often thought to be learning either for the sake of learning or as a means

to some other end, whether it be praise, tangible rewards, or meeting the demands of powerful authority figures

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Hypothesis is that every student is not and cannot be always intrinsically or extrinsically motivated towards certain tasks According to Krause, Bochner and Duchesne (2006) teachers frequently use extrinsic motivation like rewards, praise, free time, food and even punishment to encourage and stimulate their students towards learning This inclination, as stated by Weller (2015), may be followed by a decline

in internal motivation when being exercised in unnecessary events The majority of researchers have believed that motivation is not exclusively intrinsic or extrinsic in orientation, instead, a balanced pedagogical approach in the classroom should be supported with the inclusion of the combination of both types (Williams, & Williams, 2011) The efficacy of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations depends on time and context; therefore, educators may use these only at a particular time and or in a certain activity Similarly, the same activity can be seen as intrinsically or extrinsically motivating by different students (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002) It is very important for educators to understand the different types of extrinsic motivation and how they may work as they cannot always rely on intrinsic motivation to promote learning Many of the classroom activities that a teacher wants students to do are not necessarily in themselves interesting or enjoyable therefore, using more active and volitional forms

of extrinsic motivation such as electronic media sources are effective strategies for successful teaching (Ryan & Deci, 2000) The researchers (Ryan & Deci) proposed a Self Determination Theory (SDT) in order to:

Make the critical distinction between behaviors that are volitional and

accompanied by the experience of freedom and autonomy—those that

emanate from one’s sense of self—and those that are accompanied by

the experience of pressure and control and are not representative of

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extrinsic motivation as a continuum starting from a-motivation (not motivated); to external regulation (where a task is attempted to satisfy an external demand); introjected regulation (a task is done for ego enhancement); identification (where the task is valued for itself) and integrated regulation, which is the most autonomous kind

of extrinsic motivation and exists when external regulations are fully assimilated in a person's self-evaluations and beliefs of their own personal needs Integrated motivations thus share qualities with intrinsic motivation but are still classified as an extrinsic from of motivation The goals that the learner is trying to achieve, henceforth, are reasons extrinsic to the inherent enjoyment or interest in the task Understanding the different types of extrinsic motivation is very important as the types of extrinsic motivations show how much a student is self-determined during a learning task and also shows the quality of effort he or she is putting into a task (Reeve, Deci & Ryan, 2004)

Intrinsic motivation is at the end of this continuum It is considered the best form of motivation to promote in-depth learning and to improve performance and competence in learning outcomes (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Reeve, 2002; Kusurkar et al, 2013) Based on SDT, an individual is never thought to be exclusive intrinsically or extrinsically motivated and motivation is different for various activities Furthermore, both intrinsic and extrinsic types of motivation are always present in separated levels, which can be influenced The key feature in the transformation of extrinsic to intrinsic motivation is called internalization The level of internalization differs across the SDT continuum (see Fig 2.4) As students internalize regulations and assimilate them to the self, they experience greater autonomy in action This process may occur in stages, over time, but it is not a developmental continuum, which must progress through each stage of internalization Rather, they can relatively readily internalize a new behavioral regulation at any point along this continuum depending on both prior experiences and current situational factors (Ryan, 1995) The higher the level of internalization, the more autonomous is the motivation, the more self-determined the students become Autonomous motivation is calculated as an average of the scores on

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score identified regulation and intrinsic motivation, whereas controlled motivation is

calculated as an average of the introjected regulation and external regulation scores

(see Fig 2.3)

Figure 2.3 Self-determination continuum

In other terms, SDT has addressed the issues of (a) the processes through which such

non-intrinsically motivated behaviors can become truly self-determined, and (b) the

ways in which the social environment influences those processes (Ryan & Deci, 2000)

2.5 Factors affecting the level of motivation

In line with the increasing interest in motivational studies and their impacts on students’ achievement, motivation has become widely investigated in Vietnam

However, most of the studies put focus on the academic subjects of high school

students or language skills of EFL learners As a point of departure from previous

studies, this study aimed to explore motivating factors among certain groups of

pre-service teachers participating in their specialized course The study seeks to provide

some insight as to the factors contributing to learning motivation among Vietnamese

student teachers The motivational models were selectively adapted from those of

Amotivation External

Regulation

Integrated Regulation

Identified Regulation

Introjected Regulation

Intrinsic motivation

Self-30

foreign/second language learning/teaching (EFL/ESL) regarding the limited sources

in the ESP learning/teaching field

2.5.1 Gardner’s model of motivation

Drawing on the findings obtained from extensive studies on motivation, Gardner (1985) suggested that the language learners who have positive attitudes toward the target situation will be more successful than those without such positive attitudes In their previous studies, Gardner & Lambert (1959) came to the conclusion that aptitude and motivation strongly correlated with learners’ L2 achievement In this model, “a motivated learner is, therefore, defined as one who is: (a) eager to learn the language, (b) willing to expend effort on the learning activity, and (c) willing to sustain the learning activity” (Gardner, 1985, p 10)

Figure 2.4 Gardner's socio-educational Model (Gardner, 1985, p 220)

In this model, motivation has an important role as follows First, it mediates any relationship between language attitudes and language achievement Second, it also has a causal association with language anxiety Third, it has a role in the learning

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context, which is informal, revealing the voluntary nature of the motivated learners’ participation in informal L2 learning contexts In his current model, Gardner (2000) focused on motivation and language aptitude as the two most essential factors in language achievement and explains how integrative motivation influences language achievement

While some studies show a correlation between integrative/instrumental attitudes and language learning motivation (i.e Chang & Huang, 1999; Ely, 1986; Vaezi, 2008); others indicate that integrative attitudes did not significantly contribute

to motivation (i.e Kraemer, 1990) Furthermore, the mere focus on the learner’s overall attitude does not account for motivational sources which are nearly associated with the learner’s immediate learning situation Thus, many researchers have tried to develop a model that addresses some of the questions untouched by the integrative/ instrumental dichotomy

2.5.2 Williams and burden’s framework of L2 motivation

Williams and Burden (1997) offer a framework for motivation in L2, in which they consider diverse perspectives of factors that impact L2 learner motivation They divide them into internal and external factors Internal factors consist of intrinsic interest of activity, perceived value of activity, sense of agency, mastery, self-concept, attitudes, and other affective states while external factors consist of significant others, the nature of interaction with significant others, the learning environment, and society expectations and attitude Each of those sub-scales is split into serveral corresponding

factors, which can be seen in details in Appendix B

2.5.3 Dörnyei and Otto’s process model of L2 motivation

This model focuses on the primary desires to complete the action and the following retrospective assessment (Dörnyei, 2000; Dörnyei & Otto, 1998) It tries to combine different influential conceptualizations related to motivation in a systematic process-oriented framework (Dörnyei, 2000, p.6) This model, therefore, considers L2

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learners’ motivation as something unstable; instead, it continuously changes in the long process of motivation for the L2 learning Dörnyei (2000) asserts that the most important benefit of a process-oriented approach is that it presents a useful and effective method of interpreting and integrating the motivational factors that impact the student’s learning behaviors in the classroom context

As expressed by Dörnyei and Otto (1998), the model consists of two parts: Action Sequence and Motivational Influences The first part represents “the behavioral process whereby initial wishes, hopes, and desires are first transformed into goals, then into intentions, leading eventually to action and, hopefully, to the accomplishment of the goals, after which the process is submitted to final evaluation” (Dörnyei & Otto, 1998, p.5) On the other hand, motivational effects contain the complete energy sources and motivational forces which feed the behavioral process Action sequence consists of three phases: pre-actional, actional and post-actional stage (Dörnyei, 2000) According to (Winke, 2005), each stage can be influenced both

by the learner and the environment external to the learner containing the classroom

context and all that it includes See the model in detail in Appendix C

2.5.4 Dörnyei’s framework of L2 learning motivation

Taking into account the criticisms on the integrative/instrumental dichotomy and the limitations associated with it, Dörnyei (2001, p 34) calls for a more

“educational orientation in L2 motivation research The common assumption underlying such an educational movement seems to be a focus on motivational sources closely related to the learner’s immediate learning situation rather than their overall attitudes toward the target culture (i.e integrativeness)” Dörnyei (1994) believes that L2 motivation is an eclectic, multifaceted construct which requires to incorporate distinctive levels to integrate various parts Dörnyei (1994a) conceptualized L2 motivation within a framework of three relatively distinct levels (see Figure 2.7): (a) language level, (b) learner level, and (c) learning situation level

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Figure 2.5 Dörnyei’s (1994a) framework of L2 learning motivation

This model by Dörnyei, therefore, corresponds with the study’s designated motivation definition, which revolves around the interactions between students’ personal traits and perceived learning environment In the model, the language level encompasses various components related to aspects of the L2, such as the culture and the community, as well as the intellectual and pragmatic values and benefits associated with it This element thus will not be the focus in this research The learner level deals with effects and cognitions associated with motivational processes Learning situation level is comprised of intrinsic and extrinsic motives, and motivational conditions which consist of three parts: course-specific, teacher-specific, and group-specific components This model can be a useful framework not only for language researchers and teachers to be used to identify motivational sources, but also

to propose motivational strategies (Hosseini & Shokrpour, 2019)

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2.6 ESP defined

The definition of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) as conceptual term appeared in the literature only in the 1960s Hutchinson and Waters (1987, p.19) define ESP as an “approach” rather than a product, meaning that ESP does not involve

a particular type of language, teaching materials or methodology

The term English for Specific Purposes is meant that type of language learning which has its focus on all aspects of language pertaining to a particular field of human activities (Wright, 1992, p, 3) In other words, it is a way of teaching/learning English for specialized subjects with some specific vocational and educational purposes in mind In an ESP syllabus, the teaching content is geared to the special language 'repertoire' referring to the specialized aims that are required of the learners (Gatehouse, 2001) It bids a new learner-centered approach to English language teaching whose methodology is based on the specific needs of the learner Kennedy and Bolitho (1984, p 3) point out that ESP is based on “an investigation of the purposes of the learner and the set of communicative needs arising from these purposes”

As a matter of the fact, ESP is contrasted with EGP, or English for General Purposes If English is taught as a second language along with other subjects for educational purposes as some useful subject to the learners in the future, then this is EGP While for EGP there is generally no immediate requirement for the learners to use English for any real communicative purposes, ESP heads to the conception and preference for communicative competence As a specific approach to language teaching, ESP requires that all decisions as to content and method be based on the learner’s reason for learning (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987, p 19)

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Figure 2.6 GE vs ESP (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987, P 67)

2.7 Motivation of Learners in ESP courses

Motivation is one of the vital factors influencing the success of learning process,

it plays an indispensable role in learners’ achievement Thus, Hutchinson and Waters (1987, p.8) assert that “Learners were seen to have different needs and interests, which would have an important influence on their motivation to learn and therefore on the effectiveness of their learning.” In ESP context, learners show a great interest to learning, since they are aware of their needs in specific situations It is suggested that selecting appropriate teaching materials can help to raise learner’s motivation and keep them stimulating Strevens (1988), an ESP specialist, gives four implications for higher motivation in ESP courses: (1) Being focused on the learners’ needs, they waste no time (2) They are relevant to learners (3) They are successful in imparting learning (4) They are more cost-effective than General English courses

2.8 Related studies on motivational analysis of undergraduates

Motivation has been shown to vary within and between classes (Crede & Phillips, 2011) Existing motivation research has done much to advance the field, but

it also offers several caveats for teachers who wish to measure and improve motivation

in their classrooms

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While there exists a rich and growing body of research on undergraduates’ motivation, most of them focus on fields such as economic, technological, medical or other social fields Pazoki and Alemi (2019) investigated needs from the perspective

of ESP learners’ motivation at three Iranian state universities They aimed to identify factors that affect engineering students’ motivation for learning technical English in ESP courses using a mixed method design The results showed five motivational components of main sources of engineering students’ motivation to learn technical English, namely (1) ideal-self (2) ought-to self (3) instrumentality promotion motivation (4) learning conditions and (5) learning experience These components were in agreement with Dӧrnyei’s L2 Motivational Self-system Moreover, the results showed that Engineering students had negative attitudes towards elements of ESP learning experience, presenting the call for modifications in ESP

In a relevant aspect, the research by Houbad (2015) was conducted to identify the reasons of political science students’ insufficient motivation towards the ESP learning With the population of political sciences students at Tlemcen University, a descriptive case study research was implemented using three research instruments (students’ questionnaire, teachers’ interview and classroom observation).The results obtained through the three research tools revealed that political science students were instrumentally motivated to learn the English language, and the factors that may affect their level of motivation were (1) the insufficient time devoted to English course (2) students’ low level of proficiency (3) inappropriate teaching methods and materials (4) inappropriate ESP teacher training

Tomak and Šendula-Pavelić (2017), on the other hand, aimed at determining ESP medical students’ preferred motivational orientation in his study The results of the principal component analysis of the questionnaire survey showed a three-factor solution with Instrumental, Integrative and Personal Motivation as subscales The results indicated that students of medical and healthcare studies were more integratively motivated The participants, who self-assessed their English language knowledge as better, had also greater motivation towards learning the language

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Considering the nature of this study, the most relevant research found would

be the study by Wheeler, Chiu, Maeng and Belt (2018), in which he investigated factors may influence teacher assistants (TA)s’ motivation to teach within reform-based instructional contexts This qualitative study used an Expectancy-Value Theory (EVT) framework of motivation, together with open-ended surveys and interviews of six purposefully selected TAs, from which revealed that TAs held varied views on their ability to be successful and their perceived value of teaching in a laboratory context TAs’ beliefs and subjective value for teaching appeared to be informed by TAs’ prior experiences with inquiry and interactions with students The summary of

related studies on undergraduates’ motivation can be seen in Appendix A

To conclude, although much motivation research on undergraduates has been brought about, few scratches the pre-service teachers’ relevant areas Furthermore, almost all of the abovementioned studies solely focus on the students’ intrinsic/extrinsic or integrative/instrumental polar of types of motivation Most also managed to investigate the factors affecting students’ motivation to learn, but solely

by the generalization of results from interview’s data without any concrete theory or model to base on Consequently, additional studies are needed to gain a more complete understanding of students’ motivation in the language teaching methodology classes, including the pre-service teachers in the ESP methodology course This study also employed the self-determination motivation theory as the focal theoretical framework with a view to providing a deeper insight into the raised problems

2.9 Conclusion

This chapter considered a literature on various views and models of motivation and reviewed a number of previous studies on the undergraduates’ motivation The author found that, while certain areas have been well researched and documented, gaps in the research still exist The next chapter will present the philosophical standpoint, methodology and processes of data analysis employed in the current study, under the light of the theories discussed above