Rationale of the research
The focus of linguistics is increasingly moving from the structural aspects of language to its practical application in social contexts, highlighting how texts contribute to understanding social processes Language is now viewed not just as a reflection of reality but as a vital tool in shaping it Consequently, words are inherently loaded with meaning and power, reflecting the interests and perspectives of their speakers or writers (Fiske, 1994; Fowler et al., 1979).
Media play a crucial role in shaping social and cultural dynamics, primarily due to their capacity to generate extensive language and engage vast audiences through various platforms such as print, radio, television, and the Internet The presentation of news is often regarded as the core of media content (Bell, 1991:1) Given the extensive production of media language, numerous researchers have explored its nuances, focusing on specific types of media.
Media language analysis spans various disciplines, including linguistics, discourse analysis, semiotics, sociology, and communication studies (Bell, 1991:5) Researchers explore key issues such as the media's influence on language within society, how media language reflects broader societal and cultural contexts, and its impact on public attitudes and opinions, particularly in the portrayal of individuals and issues (Bell, 1991:4).
This research focuses exclusively on the language used in newspapers, analyzing it through a gender perspective The findings highlight how language can be employed to illustrate and reinforce gender differences.
Scope of the research
This study examines gender representation by analyzing the frequency of women's and men's voices in thirty selected news articles, focusing on the use of noun phrases to introduce both genders.
Caldas-Coulthard's framework is utilized to analyze power dynamics and access to news discourse between genders, specifically investigating the potential underrepresentation of women The following section will examine the use of noun phrases identified in the analysis.
This study focuses on online news reports published between October 1 and October 5, 2014, analyzing thirty articles from The Guardian, The Independent, and The Telegraph While a broader data range would enhance the reliability of the findings, the constraints of time and the limited scope of a minor thesis necessitated a more focused approach It is important to note that this linguistic study is conducted without any expression of the author's personal political views.
Aim and objective of the research
The study primarily aims to analyze gender issues under the light of critical discourse analysis
To achieve this aim, the following objectives were set:
to investigate the manner in which men and women are approached and represented in the media discourse
to explore the journalists‘ underlying ideologies via analyzing the lexical features of the news reports, from which revealing a close relationship between ideologies and media language
In order to realize these objectives, the study is intended to answer the following questions:
How differently were men and women reported in the discourse of the news agencies?
How is gender issue conveyed in term of using of noun phrases to name the actors in newspaper?
Significant of the research
This study aims to deliver both theoretical and practical benefits Theoretically, it seeks to enhance understanding of critical discourse analysis Practically, the findings are intended to assist researchers and readers in developing a critical awareness of the news encountered in everyday life.
Research methodology
The methodological approach is built entirely on the foundation of discourse analysis The research method involves a quantitative and qualitative content analysis Within this area of investigation, Caldas-Coulthard‗s framework
(1995) will be combined the power and access theory given by Van Dijk
This study analyzes thirty genuine news articles in English sourced from British news agencies, including ten from The Guardian, ten from The Independent, and ten from The Telegraph Each article averages between 700 and 1000 words, and the selection spans from October 1.
For further description of the research method, see chapter 2.
Organization of the research
The study consists of three parts They are:
Part A – Introduction – presents the rationale, scope, aim and objectives, significance, general methodology, and design of the study
Part B – Development – constitutes the main part and consists of three chapters
This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), including its definitions, principles, and various approaches It examines Van Dijk's socio-cognitive approach, Fairclough's three-dimensional framework, and insights from feminist critical discourse analysts Additionally, the chapter presents an overview of related studies in the field.
Chapter 2: Methodology and analytical procedures
In this chapter, the methodology and data analysis procedures are mentioned Chapter 3:
This sector gives the findings and discussions of the study
Part C – Conclusion – summarizes the main findings of the study, draws the common and different features in terms of power relations and naming Then suggestions for further research are offered
LITERATURE REVIEW
An overview of CDA
Discourse Analysis (CDA), which originated from Critical Linguistics (CL) in the 1970s, was pioneered by linguists such as Fowler et al (1979) and Kress and Hodge (1979) The field saw significant advancements in the early 1990s through the contributions of scholars like Norman Fairclough, Ruth Wodak, and Teun A van Dijk.
Since its inception in 1998, discourse analysis has evolved into a highly influential field, signifying a pivotal shift in linguistic research from a purely formal approach to one that emphasizes the functional aspects of language.
Discourse, whether written or spoken, is influenced by social structures and practices, as noted by Fairclough (2001) and others (Titscher et al., 2000; Weiss and Wodak, 2003) Language functions as a social semiotic, reflecting the circumstances of society while also having the power to shape, maintain, or alter social relationships (Titscher et al., 2000; Wodak and Meyer, 2001).
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) serves as a method for examining the relationship between language use and social variables, particularly focusing on how power dynamics influence discourse Through CDA, the ideologies related to power relations can be revealed within various forms of communication.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) systematically examines the complex relationships between discursive practices, events, and texts, and their connections to broader social and cultural structures It investigates how these discursive elements are influenced by power dynamics and ideological struggles, revealing the ways in which they emerge from and contribute to power relations Furthermore, CDA highlights the opacity of these relationships as a mechanism that reinforces power and hegemony in society.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), as defined by Van Dijk, Wodak, and Meyer, focuses on how social power, dominance, discrimination, and inequality are expressed and resisted in discourse within social and political contexts Wodak and Meyer (2001) emphasize that CDA examines the nuances of power relations, while Van Dijk (2008) highlights its role as a diagnostic tool for assessing social and political dominance Ultimately, CDA serves as an analytical approach that explores the intricate connections between language, power, and ideology, aiming to challenge and critique the "naturalized" representations of these dynamics.
8 language used in the discourse, then reveal the power or struggles over power as well as ideologies hidden
Although the pioneers in CDA such as Fairclough, Wodak, and Van Dijk contributed different methods for CDA, they all shared the same viewpoints of CDA‘s principles
CDA‘s primary interest is to address social problems It does not rely solely on any particular discipline or discourse theory but a multidisciplinary approach and methodology to reveal such problems
Power relations are discursive That is CDA explains how social relations of power are exercised and negotiated in and through discourse
Discourse constitutes society and culture It means that the language use in discourse can contribute to reproducing and transforming social structures and practice, including relations of power
Discourse is ideological because linguistic features and structures are not arbitrary but purposeful in a particular social context By means of discourse, power relations are produced, exercised, and reproduced
Discourse is historical in the sense that texts attain their meanings by existing in specific social, cultural and ideological contexts, time and space
A socio-cognitive approach is needed to understand how relations between texts and society are mediated
Discourse analysis is interpretive and explanatory
Discourse is a form of social action
CDA‘s approaches
1.2.1 Van Dijk’s socio-cognitive approach
Van Dijk‘s approach to CDA is a socio-cognitive approach It is concerned with the relationship between discourse, cognition and society
Discourse is a multifaceted communicative event that extends beyond mere text or dialogue, incorporating a rich social context that includes participants and their characteristics, along with the processes of production and reception (Van Dijk, 1998:2).
Social cognition plays a crucial role in linking discourse structures with social structures, revealing the social representations, attitudes, and ideologies of individuals within a society According to Van Dijk, social cognition refers to the mental representations and processes of group members, which influence their actions, speech, writing, and comprehension of others' social practices To explore this connection, Van Dijk developed a socio-cognitive framework that encompasses three components: social analysis, cognitive analysis, and discourse analysis.
Van Dijk emphasized the importance of examining discourse through the lens of mental representations, particularly how they often reflect an "Us versus Them" dynamic He noted that speakers typically portray their own group positively while depicting others negatively To address this ideological dichotomy in discourse, he proposed a framework that elucidates these contrasting representations.
1 Examining the context of the discourse: historical, political or social background of a conflict and its main participants
2 Analyzing groups, power relations, and conflicts involved
3 Identifying positive and negative opinions about Us versus Them
4 Making explicit the presupposition and the implication
5 Examining all formal structures: lexical choice and syntactic structure, in a way that helps to (de)emphasize polarized group opinions (Van Dijk, 1998: 61-63)
Teun A van Dijk argues that Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) should not be viewed as a strict methodology but rather as a critical mindset and attitude towards discourse He emphasizes that CDA is methodologically diverse, encompassing various approaches from linguistics, psychology, and social sciences CDA can involve analyses of grammatical elements, semantics, pragmatics, and rhetorical strategies, as well as employing methods like ethnography, interviews, and focus groups Van Dijk asserts that effective critical analysis of social issues typically requires a multidisciplinary approach.
1.2.2 Fairclough’s systemic functional grammar approach
According to Jứrgensen and Phillips (2002), Fairclough's approach within Systemic Functional Grammar emphasizes the dialectic relationship between language and society Language not only reproduces and transforms knowledge, identities, and social relations, including power dynamics, but is also influenced by various social practices and structures This perspective highlights the socially constitutive nature of language.
Fairclough and Wodak (1997) emphasize that social interactions are shaped by discourse, while Fairclough (2003) identifies a dialectic relationship among social events, social practices, and social structures His analytical framework is structured into three components: the analysis of text, discursive practices, and sociocultural practices, providing a comprehensive approach to understanding the interplay between language and society.
1 Text analysis is concerned with linguistic analysis pertaining to four criteria: vocabulary, grammar, semantics and cohesion- organization above the sentence level (Fairclough, 2003) Halliday‘s Systemic functional linguistics is exploited for detailed textual analysis
2 As Fairclough (2003) defined, ―discursive practices‖ involves the production and consumption of texts Thus, the second analysis – analysis of discursive practice –is an analysis of how texts are produced, received and interpreted In other words, this stage of analysis depends on background information the participants have, which affects the text production and consumption process
3 The sociocultural analysis is concerned with economy, politics and culture of a communicative event (Fairclough, 2003)
(The detailed framework with three stages will be discussed later in Part 1.2.3)
Fairclough's three-dimensional framework closely resembles Van Dijk's ideology analysis, yet they differ in focus Van Dijk emphasizes social cognition as the mediator between discourse and society, whereas Fairclough highlights the role of text production and consumption in mediating discourse and social structures (Wodak and Meyer, 2001).
Fairclough's three-dimensional framework offers a structured approach for textual analysis, featuring a step-by-step guide and a comprehensive list of concrete questions This framework is particularly beneficial for novice analysts, simplifying the analysis process and enhancing understanding.
1.2.3 Fairclough’s three-dimension framework of CDA
Fairclough‘s framework consists of three sections of description, interpretation and explanation
The descriptive dimension of discourse analysis focuses on the fundamental formal properties of texts, encompassing both verbal and visual elements This stage, rooted in Fairclough's framework, emphasizes the importance of text analysis across various forms, where the term "text" includes not only written words but also semiotic indicators such as images, signs, colors, and sounds (Janks, 1997).
The production and reception processes of an object highlight its dual role as both a product and a resource for interpretation (Janks, 1997) At this stage, a text is understood not just as an outcome of its creation but also as a tool for understanding, with its features and context providing essential cues for interpretation grounded in shared common-sense assumptions.
The explanation dimension seeks to uncover the relationships between interaction and social context, as highlighted by Fairclough (2001) This third dimension emphasizes the socio-historical conditions that shape the production of discourse, representing the underlying power dynamics It aims to address critical questions regarding how discourse influences or maintains specific social relationships within the social structure and the types of social practices related to the subject of investigation.
Feminist critical discourse analysis
Feminist Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) aims to reveal the intricate dynamics of power and ideology within discourse that uphold a gendered social hierarchy It investigates how power, dominance, and access to discourse are created or challenged through textual representations of gendered social practices The scope of feminist CDA encompasses various contexts, including media, advertising, education, workplaces, and government.
This section of the thesis examines the contrasting approaches of Debora Cameron and Caldas-Coulthard in discourse and language analysis Cameron explores feminist issues through a sociolinguistic lens, without a specific focus on news discourse, while Caldas-Coulthard employs Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) to investigate these issues within news media Despite their differing methodologies, the insights from both scholars are significant for this research.
In her 1992 study, "Feminism and Linguistic Theory," Debora Cameron explores discourse analysis from a feminist perspective She critically examines various feminist and non-feminist linguistic approaches, highlighting how these methodologies are intertwined with "patriarchal ideology and oppression" (Cameron 1992: 16) Cameron's feminist linguistic theory challenges the prevailing assumption that women are inherently less capable in language use, advocating for a reevaluation of linguistic practices and assumptions.
‗silenced‘ is ―misleading and imprecise‖ and that this has to be examined from case to case (1992: 210-1)
As it was mentioned earlier, she does not specifically concerns herself with news discourse, but her findings related to the feminist reform leading to the
The discussion on the creation of nonsexist language highlights that such language does not inherently ensure linguistic neutrality, as evidenced by findings in various newspapers.
The use of the neutral suffix "person" aims to replace the gendered suffixes "man" and "woman" to eliminate their gender implications; however, this approach may not fully achieve its intended purpose.
‗person‘ has become a reference to woman (1992: 121-2)
Cameron explores feminist issues through the lens of sociolinguistics, while Caldas-Coulthard examines these topics within news discourse using Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) Her research highlights the representation of women in newspapers, particularly emphasizing their marginalization compared to men (1995: 239).
In her 1995 study "Man in the News: The Misrepresentation of Women Speaking in News as Narrative Discourse," Caldas-Coulthard analyzes the portrayal of women and men in three prominent newspapers: The Independent, The Guardian, and The Times Utilizing a quantitative methodology, her research focuses on the frequency of women compared to men as news sources and examines the occurrence of different lexical items associated with both genders.
Caldas-Coulthard's comparative study reveals that women are quoted or given voice in newspapers less frequently than men, highlighting a disparity in representation Additionally, the portrayal of men and women in these publications differs significantly.
Caldas-Coulthard explores the choice of reporting verbs used in quotes from men and women, highlighting that although stage-direction verbs like "cry," "yell," "scream," and "shout" are infrequently used, their presence can reinforce gender stereotypes (1995: 235) However, she does not include specific examples from her research corpus to illustrate this point.
The analysis of newspaper naming conventions reveals that men are typically identified by their professions, while women are often labeled based on their marital and family status This disparity highlights the perception of women as a minority group with limited access to power.
This study is not the first one dealing with the presentation of gender relations in the media
The researcher took some similar studies as inspiration for conducting the investigation on gender relationships in the media, especially considering the representation of women
Fowler's 1991 analysis of noun phrases in The Guardian reveals that many terms used to describe men, such as "professor" and "architect," are applicable to women, yet these terms do not specifically identify women Conversely, certain expressions for women, like "soprano" and "actress," are linguistically gendered and cannot be used for men.
Caldas-Coulthard (1995) conducted an analysis of American newspapers, revealing that news articles are predominantly authored by men and often focus on male subjects Additionally, her study highlighted that male speakers are typically identified by their professional titles in public institutions, whereas women are more frequently referred to by their marital status, family connections, or age Consequently, women are seldom described in terms of their professional roles, and when they are, the accompanying nominal groups tend to be shorter.
Sidnell (1999) indicated that in some countries women are constrained to avoid making appropriate linguistic claims, which can be quite acceptable if pronounced by men
Izabel Magalhães (2005) from the University of Brasilia examines the textual and semiotic elements of advertisements through the lens of critical discourse analysis Her research focuses on advertisements from well-known Brazilian magazines, analyzing them based on semiotic factors as well as vocabulary, modality, cohesion, and intertextuality.
METHODOLOGY AND ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES
DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS
Power and Access
This part shows findings and discussions of research question 1
Research question 1: How differently were men and women reported in the discourse of the news agencies?
The analysis revealed 66 instances of individuals being given a voice, with 18 of these belonging to the most influential group—politicians Additionally, 16 instances were identified within the category of high officials.
21 voices represent professionals and 11 belong to ordinary people The pie chart in Figure 1 summarizes the findings
Figure 1: Representation of the power groups
Politicians High officialS Professions Ordinary People
The analysis reveals that the most accessed group comprises various professions, including notable individuals such as Handicap International physiotherapist Abeer, Judge Neil Ford QC of Bristol, a spokesperson from the Ministry of Justice, and Professor Asghar Zaidi (for a complete list, refer to Appendix 2) The second most frequently accessed group features high-ranking politicians, exemplified by figures like Mr Cameron, Tony Blair, Pope Francis, and the Ministry of Defence in London (see Appendix 2 for the full list) Following this, the third group includes high officials, represented by individuals such as Tim Hancock, campaigns director of Amnesty UK; human rights barrister Adam Wagner; museum director Gunars Nagels; and Metropolitan Police commander Graham McNulty The least accessed group consists of ordinary individuals, with examples including her mother.
Rosalind Hodgkiss; Saida B, 28; Mohamed Abib (see Appendix 2) for the full list of the names)
Professors and politicians dominate the discourse, comprising a third and over a quarter of the voices, respectively, reflecting their high positions within power structures The prevalence of opinions from authoritative figures, such as scientists and political leaders, indicates a strong reader preference for credible sources Notably, less than a quarter of the voices come from high officials, including judges and chairmen, who typically represent influential public institutions This group's substantial social and economic power makes them frequent sources in news coverage.
The least frequently accessed group is represented by ordinary people Only
Seventeen percent of sources are professionals, primarily appearing in discussions surrounding crimes, disasters, and conflicts As analyzed earlier in this section, these individuals often include close relatives of crime victims or are themselves victims of war and conflict.
The findings reveal that influential groups, such as professors and politicians, enjoy superior access to newspaper discourse, allowing them to significantly shape public narratives Their prominent role in media discourse enables them to influence public attitudes and perceptions of the world.
As this research is aimed at analyzing the distribution of power between women and men, the power structures should be examined in terms of gender
The analysis reveals that women are primarily represented in lower power structures, appearing once as politicians, four times as high officials, five times as professionals, and six times as ordinary individuals The findings, illustrated in the pie chart and Table 1, show that women's voices in newspapers predominantly originate from these lower tiers, with high political status being the second most common position However, representation of women in the highest political roles remains limited.
Table 1: Numbers of women and men in the power group
The representation of ordinary women and men is nearly equal, with a ratio of 6:5; however, the disparity becomes evident in high-ranking positions, where male experts and officials outnumber females by approximately three to one Notably, the political landscape reflects this imbalance, with only one recorded female politician compared to 17 males.
Figure 2: Representation of women in different groups
Women in prominent non-political roles, like high-ranking officials, are underrepresented in public discourse, contrary to expectations They are frequently depicted primarily in relation to their familial roles, such as mothers, sisters, or partners, particularly in the context of crime, accidents, or conflicts, as illustrated by the case of 14-year-old Rosalind Hodgkiss, a missing teenager from London.
Gross’s mother; Kayleigh-Anne Palmer, who was 24 weeks pregnant was killed by her boyfriend; Kay’s distraught mother, Helen Bage; a relative believed to be a grandmother of the missing girl Madeleine…)
Some example cases of women‘s voices found in the media included statement such as:
Politicians High officials Professions Ordinary People
Magali expresses a poignant concern about societal rejection, stating, “If society didn’t reject us, we could truly thrive.” She highlights the isolation felt by her community, emphasizing that despite their contributions, such as paying taxes, their positive impact remains unnoticed Ultimately, she believes that their efforts are overshadowed by the stigma they face.
Magali Meignen is a French Muslim woman affected by the laws established by the French parliament regarding the wearing of headscarves She, along with other Muslim women, feels a sense of rejection due to these regulations that dictate when and where they can express their religious identity.
Muslim individuals, particularly women, face isolation in workplaces due to restrictions on wearing hijabs, which serve as a symbol of their religious identity While both Muslim men and women wear headscarves, laws mandating their removal apply solely to women, highlighting a significant disregard for gender equality by the French government This creates a “humiliating” obligation for Muslim women to expose their heads, further emphasizing the systemic bias they encounter Consequently, many Muslim women are compelled to seek remote work opportunities as a response to these discriminatory practices.
The article emphasizes the importance of using terms like "enterprising women," "the webmistress," and "the women e-traders" to highlight the capabilities of women who successfully establish and manage their own businesses This choice of language reflects a commitment to recognizing the contributions of women entrepreneurs while addressing the underrepresentation of Muslim women's inequality.
“I attempted to cultivate a small garden near our home due to the difficulty in accessing vegetables as I once did,” she recounts “I was planning to tend to the plants alongside my four children when suddenly, a bullet struck my neck, causing me to collapse and lose sensation I could no longer move, and my children began to scream and cry.”
(c) One day she said to her Handicap International physiotherapist, Abeer,
"I urgently need a prosthesis so I can be present for my children I want to shield them from witnessing my amputation and ensure they understand that I am still capable of supporting and engaging with them fully."
(d) When she saw the bodies in the clinic she started shouting at everyone she knew, “Go, go, go! Get out of here now, you will die in this place!”
The article titled "Syrian refugees: 'We want to go home That is our dream'" highlights the plight of women as key victims of the Syrian conflict These women are portrayed as a powerless group, often left to manage farm work and family responsibilities after their lives have been disrupted by violence Despite having husbands, they face the harsh reality of conflict alone, constantly worrying about the safety of their children in a dangerous environment.
Naming New Actors
This part shows findings and discussions of research question 2
Research question 2: How is gender issue conveyed in term of using of noun phrases to name the actors in newspaper?
This analysis focuses on the portrayal of ordinary individuals within the corpus, specifically examining any distinctions in the representation of ordinary women compared to ordinary men By exploring various phrases that include proper names, we aim to uncover the nuances in their descriptions.
35 attributed to the people in the article where they are quoted are taken into consideration
In the analyzed corpus, 207 instances when people are mentioned can be found; 77 to women and 130 belong to men For the full list of the phrases, see Appendix 3
The following tables provide lists of different labels used with ordinary female actors (Table 2) and ordinary male actors (Table 3), from the simplest phrases to the most complicated ones
Table 2: Nominal groups attributed to women
Emmanuelle Rouy, 30 his pregnant girlfriend
Betty, his wife of 74 years
Kay‘s distraught mother, Helen Bage
Barre – a relative of Yusra‘s mother Safiya Hussien, a dinner lady
Kayleigh-Anne Palmer, 16, who was 24 weeks pregnant
Yusra, an A-grade pupil at the City Academy in Bristol who planned to become a dentist
Table 3: Nominal groups attributed to men
25-year-old man convicted murderer Arnis Zalkalns her husband, youth worker Mohamed
41-year-old Latvian builder Arnis Zalkalns a former Bristol public schoolboy, Andrew Ibrahim
Sir John Scarlett, who retired as head of the intelligence service in 2009 and was chairman of the Joint Intelligence Unit during the last war in Irag
In this context, both ordinary women and men exhibit similar characteristics A comparison of the two tables reveals that the introductions of speakers, regardless of gender, share many commonalities The structures of these introductions can be summarized effectively.
Mrs/Miss/Ms/Mr surname, profession/job
Family or other relation to a person, name + surname, (age)
(Relation to a person/event),(name +) surname, (age), profession/job
Research indicates that certain linguistic structures are predominantly associated with one gender, reinforcing the sociolinguistic view that women are often named, titled, and addressed differently than men Key findings include the tendency to refer to women by their first names, while men are frequently characterized by their jobs and professions, highlighting a distinct disparity in gendered communication.
37 within their family and other relations Next subsections will give a detail look on these circumstances
The analysis highlights the use of first names as a form of address for women in the examined articles, with three women cited and referred to by their first names In contrast, there are no instances of men being addressed in this manner within the same corpus.
Magali Meignen, a Roman Catholic who converted to Islam 11 years ago, leads the initiative, expressing concern about societal rejection that hinders their potential to thrive She notes that despite their contributions to society, including paying taxes, their isolation prevents public recognition of their efforts, leaving their image unchanged.
Magali Meignen was mentioned at the first time by full name However, the next time when her voice was reported, she was just introduced by first name
Reem, a 38-year-old woman, expressed her urgent desire for a prosthesis to her physiotherapist, Abeer, stating, "I want a prosthesis fast because I want to see my kids I don’t want them to see my amputation or think that I can’t help them." Her determination highlights the emotional impact of her condition on her relationship with her children and her desire to maintain a sense of normalcy in their lives.
Khalida recalls a tragic moment while tending to a small garden near her home, where she attempted to grow vegetables for her family While caring for her plants alongside her four children, she was suddenly struck by a bullet in the neck, rendering her immobile and causing her to lose sensation The horrifying incident led to her children shouting and panicking in fear.
Reem and Khalida, two Syrian refugees, share a common dream of returning to their hometown, reflecting the aspirations of many women at the refugee site who are often identified only by their first names This anonymity may stem from their suffering and poverty, which can overshadow their identities However, it is essential for journalists to honor these women by using their full names, acknowledging their individuality and the dignity they deserve.
There are more similar examples of using only the first name also with the women whose speech is not reported as in (j), (k), (l) but only one such example of a man (m)
(j) He finally stopped performing later in 2012 when Betty, his wife of
74 years, died - although he continued to attend Shriners’ meetings
Police are actively searching for 14-year-old Alice Gross, who went missing in Hanwell, west London, after leaving her home at 1 PM Scotland Yard has updated Alice's family about the ongoing investigation and developments in the case.
(l) While awaiting trial in prison, Robinson wrote two letters to Kay’s distraught mother, Helen, describing himself as…
(m) Safiya Hussien and her husband, youth worker Mohamed, are horrified
Fowler (1991) notes that applying first names and diminutives is more challenging for men than for women, highlighting a sociolinguistic trend where women are more likely to be addressed by their first names.
The analysis of tables 2 and 3 reveals that men's professions are referenced more frequently than women's in this corpus, with men mentioned twenty-two times compared to only eight mentions for women.
(n) her husband, youth worker Mohamed
(o) Easton Labour councillor Afzal Shah
(p) Rebekah Brooks, former New of the World editors
(r) the paper’s former royal editor Clive Goodman
(s) the paper’s former feature writer Dan Evans
(t) Mark Bryant Heron QC the prosecutor
(u) 17-year-old student activist Joshua Wong
(v) Assistant chief constable Louisa Rolfe of Avon and Somerset police
(w) Nimko Ali, a leading campaigner on FGM in Bristol and a worker with the charity Integrate Bristol
(x) Edmondson’s barrister Sallie Bennet-Jenkins QC
(y) former culture secretary Tessa Jowell
Research indicates that women's professional titles are typically shorter than those of men While women often have concise nominal phrases like "a + job/profession," men's job descriptions frequently include additional details, such as "who ," resulting in longer, more informative phrases For example, a man's title might read, "Sir John Scarlett, who retired as head of the intelligence service in 2009 and was chairman of the Joint Intelligence Unit during the last war in Iraq." This trend highlights that men are more frequently described in terms of their professions, a pattern that is also evident among ordinary individuals in the analyzed corpus.
In the analyzed texts, women are more frequently described through familial and relational terms, with fifteen instances noted, compared to only five instances for men This highlights a significant disparity in how gender roles are represented, emphasizing women's connections to family and relationships more than men's.
(z) the dowager’s son, the Duke of Devonshire
(ab) her husband, youth worker Mohamed
(ad) His son, George IV
(af) her mother, Rosalind Hodgkiss
(ag) A relative believed to be a grandmother
(ah) The dowager Duchess of Devonshire, the last of the Mitford sisters (ai) Kathleen Kennedy, President Kennedy’s sister
(ak) Barre – a relative of Yusra’s mother Safiya Hussien, a dinner lady (al) his pregnant girlfriend
(am) Kay’s distraught mother, Helen Bage
(ao) her baby, named Lily-Rose
(ap) Betty, his wife of 74 years
(aq) his 16-year-old daughter
The findings indicate that women are more frequently depicted in the context of family and marital status compared to men As a result, women are often represented in their relationships with men, with the analysis revealing six instances of women being portrayed in relation to men, while only one instance shows a man in relation to women.
The article highlights that a total of 17 ordinary individuals, comprising 10 women and 7 men, are referenced with regard to their age The close numerical representation of both genders suggests that the ordinary women and men mentioned share similar age characteristics.
A summary of the findings
The study investigates the frequency of reported male and female voices, along with the noun phrases employed to reference both genders, in order to address two key research questions.
How differently were men and women reported in the discourse of the news agencies?
How is gender issue conveyed in term of using of noun phrases to name the actors in newspaper?
The analysis reveals a significant gender disparity in newspaper reporting, with a ratio of female to male voices at 1:3 Most women quoted are from ordinary backgrounds, while men predominantly hold professional and high-ranking positions This indicates that men are more frequently represented in positions of power, suggesting that newspapers often exclude women from influential roles in their discourse.
When naming new actors, women are often referred to by their first names more frequently than men, highlighting a disparity in respect within media representation This suggests that women may require greater acknowledgment and respect in public discourse.
In analyzing the language used to describe ordinary individuals, it is evident that descriptions for women and men often reflect gender biases Women are frequently characterized by their familial roles, such as mothers, wives, and sisters, while men are predominantly identified by their professions and job titles Furthermore, the noun phrases associated with male professionals tend to be more extensive than those used for female professionals, highlighting a disparity in how each gender is represented in language.
The findings of this research align with those of Caldas-Coulthard (1995), which examined the nominal groups used to describe individuals in newspapers The study reveals significant disparities in the portrayal of women and men; women are predominantly introduced through their familial and relational roles, whereas men are often characterized by their professions and job titles.
101) Moreover, she claims that the nominal phrases referring to the jobs and professions of women tend to be shorter than those attributed to men (1995:
Discriminatory attitudes contribute to gender inequity and challenge gender equality in media, as highlighted by Van Dijk (2009), who notes that women are often undervalued as news sources and actors, leading to their under-representation in news media This results in a significant lack of female voices, with men predominantly controlling news discourse Consequently, the media fails to effectively combat gender inequality, which profoundly impacts society Changing entrenched gender ideologies requires sustained effort, making it essential for news agencies to adopt a gender perspective to promote equity and deliver balanced information.
Limitation and recommendation for further studies
One significant limitation of this study is its small-scale database, as it was conducted over just five days with only thirty news pieces Consequently, the findings cannot be generalized to represent underlying gender issues across all media types.
The study's scope is broad and does not concentrate on specific news events, resulting in a diverse range of topics Consequently, there is limited data available regarding the representation of women.
The study's limited application of the research framework highlights the need for a more thorough exploration of the methodology, which could yield more compelling results To enhance understanding of gender-related ideologies in news discourse, future research should investigate additional aspects such as passivation, nominalization, sentence modes, and thematization.
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Appendix 1: List of articles from The Guardian, The Independent and The Telegraph
No Name of articles Author and Date Source
Police searching for missing teenager Alice
Gross find body in the river Brent
- By: Vikram Dodd, Chris Johnston and agencies
- Published: Wednesday 1 October 2014 11.05 BST www.theguardian.c om
Family of six-month-old girl mauled to death by dog ‗left devastated‘
- Published: Sunday 5 October 2014 15.07 BST www.theguardian.c om
Online abuse dossier directed at Kate and
Gerry McCann is handed to police
- Published: Thursday 2 October 2014 07.27 BST www.theguardian.c om
Duchess of Devonshire is laid to rest at
- Published: Thursday 2 October 2014 19.53 BST www.theguardian.c om
France‘s Muslim women towards homeworking
- Published: Friday 3 October 2014 10.00 BST www.theguardian.c om
Violent clashes break out in Hong Kong after counter-protesters storm sit-in
- By: Tania Branigan in Hong Kong and Jonathan Kaimanin Beijing
- Published: Friday 3 October 2014 14.55 BST www.theguardian.c om
Missing Yusra Hussien showed no sign of radicalisation, family and friends say
- Published: Friday 3 October 2014 19.32 BST www.theguardian.c om
Teenager convicted of murdering pregnant girlfriend and jailed for life
- Published: Friday 3 October 2014 18.38 BST www.theguardian.c om
9 Syrian refugees: ‗We - By: Giles Duley www.theguardian.c
II want to go home That is our dream‘
- Published: Sunday 5 October 2014 06.00 BST om
Phone hacking: News of the World‘s Ian
- Published: Friday 3 October 2014 11.16 BST www.theguardian.c om
Act for new 'British Bill of Rights'
- Published: Wednesday 1 October 2014 12:20 BST www.independent. co.uk
European Convention on Human Rights: What has it ever done for us?
- Published: Friday 3 October 2014 www.independent. co.uk
'unworkable' Tory plans to scrap ECHR
- Published: Friday 3 October 2014 06:51 BST www.independent. co.uk
Domestic violence victims are being forced to face abusers in court ordeal, lawyers warn
- By: Paul Gallagher, Simon Lennon
- Published: Saturday 4 October 2014 23:00 BST www.independent. co.uk
Former MI6 head warns parents of sexual predators using apps 'to track children's location'
1 October 2014 12:56 BST www.independent. co.uk
Revealed: The best and worst countries in the world to grow old
- Published: Wednesday 1 October 2014 14:13 BST www.independent. co.uk
- Published: Wednesday 1 October 2014 14:15 BS www.independent. co.uk
18 Ukraine crisis: Is Latvia next on Putin‘s hit list?
- Published: Friday 3 www.independent. co.uk
Man who escaped car crash hit and killed by wife rushing to help him
- By: Loulla-Mae Eleftheriou-Smith
- Published: Sunday 5 October 2014 15:20 BST www.independent. co.uk
Pope Francis: 'I believe in guardian angels and everyone should listen to their advice'
- Published: Friday 3 October 2014 11:34 BST www.independent. co.uk
Brimstone: British missile envied by the
US for war on Isil
- By: Ben Farmer, Defence Correspondent
01 Oct 201 www.telegraph co.uk
22 A British Bill of Rights should be welcomed
03 Oct 2014 www.telegraph co.uk
Help for Heroes: Up to
75,000 British scarred by Iraq and Afghanistan
- By: Ben Farmer, Defence Correspondent
03 Oct 2014 www.telegraph co.uk
- By: Gordon Rayner, Chief Reporter
01 Oct 2014 www.telegraph co.uk
25 £600,000 a week paid out in child benefit to parents overseas
- By: Christopher Hope, Senior Political Correspondent
04 Oct 2014 www.telegraph co.uk
'ontological explosion' of pension fund managers who have
- By: Steven Swinford, Senior Political Correspondent
- Published: 10:00PM BST 05 Oct 2014 www.telegraph co.uk
'their jaws wrapped around the udders of the state'
04 Oct 2014 www.telegraph co.uk
Isil jihadists driven out of Rabia after two-day siege
- By: Richard Spencer, Rabia, north- west Iraq
02 Oct 2014 www.telegraph co.uk
'Terrorist volunteer' recruited by alleged
- By: Dean Nelson, South Asia Editor and David Bergman in Bangladesh
03 Oct 2014 www.telegraph co.uk
Rolling Stones live shows drugs are good for your health, Italian mayor suggests
01 Oct 2014 www.telegraph co.uk
Appendix 2: Categories of men and women whose voices are reported
Politicians – heads of states, government and parliament members
Nimko Ali, a leading campaigner on FGM in Bristol and a worker with the charity Integrate Bristol
Chris Heaton-Harris, the Conservative MP for Daventry Chris Over, from Daventry district council
Mr Cameron Tony Blair the Prime Minister The Justice Secretary, Chris Grayling
Former Attorney General Dominic Grieve
Plaid Cymru MP Elfyn Llwyd, a family law specialist before becoming an MP
Shadow Justice Minister Andy Slaughter
Boriss Cilevics, a parliamentarian with the Harmony Centre Party Andrejs Pildegovics, the Foreign Minister
Pope Francis The Ministry of Defence in London
Michael Howard Lord Ashcroft, the Conservative peer Boris Johnson, the Mayor of London
High officials – managers, directors, chairmen, chancellors and commanders
Assistant chief constable Louisa Rolfe of Avon and Somerset police Emma Pearmaine, a family law specialist at Simpson Millar and director of the Leeds Law Society
Emma Scott, director of Rights of Women
Metropolitan Police commander Graham McNulty Chris Heaton-Harris, the Conservative MP for Daventry chancellors
Former MI6 head Joshua Wong, co-founder of another student group
Sir John Scarlett, who retired as head of the intelligence service in 2009 and was chairman of the Joint Intelligence Unit during the last war in Irag
Toby Porter, the chief executive of HelpAge International
Tim Hancock, campaigns director of Amnesty UK Adam Wagner, a human rights barrister
Gunars Nagels, the museum director
Russian-speakers, the Harmony Centre‘s leader – Nils Usakovs
Yury Petropavlovsky, a campaign manager for the party
Bryn Parry, co-founder of Help for Heroes
The president of the Families of Flight 93, Gordon Felt
Professional people – policemen, coroners, teachers, priests and various experts
Edmondson‘s barrister Sallie Bennet-Jenkins QC Charlotte McDonald- Gibson
Rachel Reeves, the shadow Work and Pensions secretary Handicap International physiotherapist, Abeer Wassila and Abdullah, the Handicap
A Scotland Yard spokesman Kimouche,the e-traders Christopher Quinlan QC, prosecuting,
Edmondson, 45 Mark Bryant Heron QC the prosecutor
The colleague Judge Neil Ford QC, the recorder of Bristol
An MoJ spokesman Professor Asghar Zaidi His friend and fellow performer Jim Nasby Elizabete Krivcova of activist group Non-Citizens Congress Ben Goodlad, senior weapons analyst at IHS Jane‘s
Prof Neil Greenberg, the Royal College of Psychiatrists‘ expert on military and veterans‘ health
A spokesman National Park Service spokesman Mike Litterst
(usually their occupation is not mentioned) her mother, Rosalind Hodgkiss
Saida B, 28 Meignen Faiza Barre Kayleigh-Anne Khalida her mother labourer Mohamed Abib Aston Robinson his son Dave the man
Appendix 3: Women and men when naming new actors
Women Men the missing London teenager Alice
14-year-old Alice her mother, Rosalind Hodgkiss
Alice Gross six-month-old girl
A relative believed to be a grandmother a 10-year-old girl
The dowager Duchess of Devonshire
Last of the Mitford sisters
The dowager Duchess of Devonshire, the last of the Mitford sisters
Duchess of Cornwall the duchess the dowager
Debo the Mitford sisters – Nancy, Pamela,
Kathleen Kennedy, President Kennedy‘s sister her sister Nancy
Oum el-Benette (not her real name), 35
Metropolitan Police commander Graham McNulty
McNulty Convicted murderer Arnis Zalkalns Zalkalns labourer The general labourer 25-year-old man
A second man, aged 51 41-year-old Latvian builder Arnis Zalkalns
Det Sgt Gary Baker Chris Heaton-Harris, the Conservative
MP for Daventry Chris Over, from Daventry district council
A Scotland Yard spokesman Elvis Presley the Prince of Wales Prince Charles the dowager‘s son, the Duke of Devonshire
Canon David Perkins Deborah Vivien Cavendish Winston Churchill
John F Kennedy Evelyn Waugh Adolf Hitler Charles Andrew Cavendish his father
11th Duke of Devonshire her husband
Missing Yusra Hussien the 15-year-old
Barre – a relative of Yusra‘s mother
Yusra, an A-grade pupil at the City
Academy in Bristol who planned to become a dentist a 17-year-old girl
Assistant chief constable Louisa Rolfe of
Nimko Ali, a leading campaigner on
FGM in Bristol and a worker with the charity Integrate Bristol his pregnant girlfriend
Kayleigh-Anne Palmer, 16, who was 24 weeks pregnant his girlfriend
Kay‘s distraught mother, Helen Bage
His sister Michaela her baby, named Lily-Rose
Jenkins QC former culture secretary Tessa Jowell
Sienna Miller her friend Archie Keswick
38-year-old woman called Reem
Fateh Kimouche Kimouche, the e-traders Leung Chun-ying Benny Tai, a co-founder of Occupy Central
17-year-old student activist Joshua Wong
Leung the chief secretary Carrie Lam Joshua Wong, co-founder of another student group her husband, youth worker Mohamed a former Bristol public schoolboy, Andrew Ibrahim
Mohamed Abib Easton Labour councillor Afzal Shah Shah
Robinson, of Humber Road, Cheltenham Judge Neil Ford QC, the recorder of Bristol
Christopher Quinlan QC, prosecuting, News of the World‘s Ian Edmondson
A former News of the World news executive
Ian Edmondson Andy Coulson, former New of the World editors
Rebekah Brooks, former New of the World editors
Edmondson, 45 hacker Glen Mulcair the paper‘s former royal editor Clive Goodman its former newsdesk executives Greg
Wassila and Abdullah, the Handicap
Emma Pearmaine, a family law specialist at Simpson Millar and director of the Leeds Law Society
Emma Scott, director of Rights of
Betty, his wife of 74 years
Elizabete Krivcova of activist group
Ms Krivcova his 16-year-old daughter the wife, 44 her mother the Queen
Rachel Reeves, the shadow Work and
Miskiw, Neville Thurlbeck and James Weatherup the paper‘s former feature writer Dan Evans
Mark Bryant Heron QC the prosecutor Bryant Heron
The colleague Lord Prescott Lord Freddie Windsor, her former boyfriend Jude Law
George Best‘s son Callum Best Sir Paul McCartney and Heather Mills her husband
Mr Cameron Tony Blair the Prime Minister
Mr Grady a 21-year-old man his father
Former Attorney General Dominic Grieve
Dominic Grieve the Prime Minister The Justice Secretary, Chris Grayling
Mr Cameron Tim Hancock, campaigns director of Amnesty UK
Adam Wagner, a human rights barrister Plaid Cymru MP Elfyn Llwyd, a family law specialist before becoming an MP Shadow Justice Minister Andy Slaughter
An MoJ spokesman Former MI6 head Sir John Scarlett, who retired as head of the intelligence service in 2009 and was
XI chairman of the Joint Intelligence Unit during the last war in Irag
Sir John World‘s oldest clown Floyd ‗Creeky‘ Creekmore
Mr Creekmore his son Dave Andrew Beyer, or 'Bumbo the Clown' Putin
Gunars Nagels, the museum director
Mr Nagels President Vladimir Putin a Russian diplomat Boriss Cilevics, a parliamentarian with the Harmony Centre Party
Russian-speakers, the Harmony Centre‘s leader – Nils Usakovs
Yury Petropavlovsky, a campaign manager for the party vice-chairman, Miroslav Mitrofanov Andrejs Pildegovics, the Foreign Minister
Mr Pildegovics The 54-year-old man her husband
Pope Francis The Pope The Ministry of Defence in London Ben Goodlad, senior weapons analyst at IHS Jane‘s
Appendix 4: A sample of an article
Headscarf ban turns France’s Muslim women towards homeworking
By: Faiza Zerouala Published: Friday 3 October 2014 10.00 BST
Every day, C transforms her neat sitting room into a bustling workshop, meticulously arranging her equipment on the table She dons rubber gloves and carefully measures out ingredients from various jars to create 250g bags of sweets, each adorned with her logo that showcases a stick of barley sugar.
Belmokhtar, 39, lives in Compiègne, northern France, and manages the Candine
Halal website offers a range of treats, including chocolate-coated marshmallow bears, preserved cherries, and acid drops, all made without pork gelatin to ensure they are halal This means that their products fully comply with Islamic dietary guidelines, making them suitable for those who adhere to these dietary restrictions.
Belmokhtar's journey into self-employment began as a response to her desire to maintain her religious practices while supporting her family Previously a secretary in a laboratory, she grew tired of removing her hijab each morning and decided to resign Two years ago, she started her own business selling sweets, which not only provides for her family but also allows her to observe her ritual obligations and pray five times a day at the appropriate times.
The French parliament has enacted laws regulating the wearing of headscarves by women, starting with a ban in March 2004 that prohibited school staff from displaying religious symbols or garments In April 2007, these regulations were extended to public service providers, while private firms remain without specific guidelines on this matter.
Belmokhtar is not alone; many women with similar backgrounds and religious beliefs are establishing online businesses While statistics are currently lacking, it is evident from social media that numerous small websites like hers are emerging.
Two years ago, Oum el-Benette, a 35-year-old entrepreneur, founded Yesmine Shop, specializing in clothing for Muslim women The shop offers a variety of modest apparel, including abayas, scarves, tunics, shawls, and woollens, all designed to be long and loose-fitting in accordance with Islamic guidelines To maintain privacy, the faces of the models featured on the site are blurred.
XIII or pictures are taken in such a way as to conceal their heads She determined to uphold religious tradition which prohibits any representation of humans or animals
Hijab Glam, managed by Magali Meignen, a Roman Catholic who converted to Islam over a decade ago, features blurred faces on its website Meignen, now in her 30s, developed an interest in Islam during her secondary school years through her Muslim friends After exploring the faith more deeply, she made the decision to embrace Islam.
Magali, a trained sales professional, faced challenges in securing a job that permitted her to wear a hijab After working for three years as a teaching assistant, she experienced the "humiliating" requirement of uncovering her head Despite receiving a job offer at a call center, she was again unable to wear her scarf, highlighting ongoing issues of religious expression in the workplace.
In 2009, after deciding to leave traditional employment, she embraced self-employment following her brother's advice, facilitated by new, simpler freelance regulations Investing her savings of approximately €1,000 ($1,300), she launched a website specializing in headscarves, inspired by her own struggles to find stylish hijabs in stores.
After the birth of her son, 28-year-old Saida B felt inspired to start a small business due to the challenge of finding clothing without human figures or anthropomorphic animals In 2010, she launched her own brand to address this need.
Salam‘Stick, initially selling decals either for decorative purposes or to customise clothes
She began her entrepreneurial journey by selling decorative jumpsuits personalized with babies' names in French or Arabic Expanding her offerings, she introduced wall stickers, including a variety of decals predominantly showcasing Muslim prayers "Recognizing a gap in the market, I believed young Muslims would appreciate unique garments and decorations," she explains.
Saida B initially worked as an executive in a service company before starting her own business After completing her training as an assistant manager, she began her career at the age of 21, aware of the restrictions on her personal style Ultimately, she left her corporate job in 2008, feeling constrained by the environment.
―religious obligation‖ to wear a hijab