INTRODUCTION
Rationale
The tourism industry is one of the largest sectors globally, with a consistent demand for travel Vietnam has emerged as a popular destination for international travelers, highlighting the need to promote its tourist attractions effectively Accurate information is crucial for potential visitors, as they cannot experience a destination before committing to it Travel brochures in English serve as an effective promotional tool, given the language's significance in global communication and its role in facilitating understanding and idea exchange In the tourism sector, English is essential for communication, negotiation, and transaction execution between tourism professionals and tourists.
Dann (1996) describes tourism as a unique promotional act that employs persuasive language to convert potential clients into actual ones This specialized language plays a vital role in shaping the image of tourism, making its understanding essential Fluck (1885) highlights that the use of specialized vocabulary is a key characteristic of tourism language While numerous studies have explored the discourse of tourism texts, there is a noticeable gap in research regarding the linguistic features of brochures from Expanding Circle countries, such as Vietnam Therefore, this study aims to analyze the lexical characteristics of English used in travel brochures in Vietnam.
Aims of the study
This paper aims to explore the unique English lexical features found in travel brochures from Vietnam, addressing a gap in existing research on this subject The study focuses on analyzing the lexical elements present in these brochures to enhance understanding of their language use and effectiveness.
2 a promotional text and in the context of Viet Nam, a non- native English speaking country in Southeast Asia.
Research questions
The study seeks to address the following research question:
What are the lexical features of English used in travel brochures in Vietnam as a global language perspective?
Scope of the study
This study examines the key English lexical features found in travel brochures in Vietnam, utilizing a corpus of nine travel brochures sourced from both the internet and printed materials authored by Vietnamese writers.
Significance of the study
This study offers valuable insights into lexical features that can serve as a model for writers crafting effective travel brochures Additionally, the findings will aid future research exploring various aspects of travel brochures and the English lexis used in other genres.
Organization of the thesis
This paper has been divided into five chapters
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION: states the rationale for the study, the aims and purposes, the research question, the significance, the scope and the structure of the research
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW: provides definitions of key concepts and lays the theoretical background for the study
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLODY: describes the selection of subjects, data collection, data analytical framework and data analysis procedure
CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS: present, analyse, synthesize and discuss the findings obtained from the collected data
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION: summarizes the main issues discussed throughout the paper, points out limitations of the study and makes suggestions for further research This part is followed by the References and Appendix
LITERATURE REVIEW
English as a global language
In "English as a Global Language," Crystal (1997) emphasizes that a language attains global status when it holds a recognized role in every nation This assertion highlights the remarkable spread of English worldwide, leading to its designation as a "global language."
English has achieved an unprecedented global status as a lingua franca, as noted by Kachru (1992), who emphasizes its unique international position, unparalleled in history This century, English has spread widely, akin to the modern use of computers, facilitating cross-cultural communication Its global prominence is evident through its use as a mother tongue in countries like the USA, Canada, and Australia, as well as its official status in nations such as India and Nigeria, where it serves essential roles in government, law, media, and education Furthermore, English is prioritized in foreign language education in various countries, including China and Germany According to Crystal (1997), these factors, combined with global economic developments and advancements in communication technologies, have further propelled English's expansion as a universal language.
In 1991, Rushdie reported that „the English language ceased to be the sole possession of the English some time ago‟ Crystal (1997) also claims in his book
English has evolved into a global language, with only about 20 percent of its speakers residing in the USA, indicating that no single nation can claim ownership over it The language now belongs to both native speakers and those who use it as an additional language, leading to the emergence of various localized forms known as "new Englishes" since the 1960s Halliday, McIntosh, and Strevens noted that English is no longer solely a British or American possession but exists in a multitude of varieties, particularly in former British colonies In regions like West Africa, the West Indies, and South Asia, it is increasingly recognized that British English, especially Received Pronunciation, is not the only model for teaching the language Kachru and Smith highlight that "Englishes" represent both functional and formal variations, reflecting the language's international adaptation As Patil explains, English transforms when it migrates, absorbing local sensibilities and diversifying through the processes of acculturation and indigenization.
New varieties of English retain some cultural and linguistic characteristics of the
Standard English, as defined by Kachru (1992), encompasses not only linguistic norms but also reflects the diverse cultural and linguistic characteristics of the countries where it is used Kachru asserts that New Englishes embody "repertoires of sociocultural identities," showcasing the unique varieties of English found in countries such as Australia, New Zealand, Canada, South Africa, and the Caribbean, as well as within different regions of Britain.
In recent decades, distinct varieties of English have emerged in countries within the outer circle, such as Irish, Scots, and Welsh English, as well as South Asian English in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka Additionally, unique English dialects have developed in former British colonies across West and East Africa, along with new forms in the Caribbean and Southeast Asia, particularly in Singapore This paper focuses on analyzing the features of English in Vietnam, a notable example of an evolving English variety in Southeast Asia.
World Englishes today
The term "World Englishes," as defined by Kachru (1992), represents the diverse functional and formal variations of English across different sociolinguistic contexts globally It highlights the creativity and various forms of acculturation in both Western and non-Western regions This concept promotes a sense of "WE-ness," moving beyond the traditional divide between native and non-native English speakers.
When English interacts with different sociocultural environments, it undergoes processes known as "nativization" and "Englishization" (Kachru, 1992) Nativization refers to the adaptation of English within a local context, while Englishization describes the influence of English on local languages Together, these processes highlight the reciprocal relationship between English and the languages it encounters.
Englishization denotes the significant impact of English on various languages, influencing aspects from pronunciation to literary forms (Kachru, 2011) For example, Kachru (2006) highlighted that Englishization can also affect grammar, as seen in Indian languages adopting impersonal constructions and Korean utilizing passive forms with a "by" equivalent, both of which can be linked back to English.
According to Saghal (1991), nativization, also termed “indigenization” by Moag
(1982, p.235), is the process of transferring a local language to a new cultural environment Honna (2003) (cited in Patel, 2006) explains that when English migrates to foreign language, it diffuses and internationalizes, acculturates and
The adaptation of English within specific social and cultural contexts gives rise to localized forms, often referred to as "Indian English," "Singaporean English," and "Philippine English." This process of indigenization and diversification results in unique linguistic items that reflect the distinct identities and experiences of these regions.
In the context of "Hong Kong English" and other global variants, the most significant nativization occurs at the lexical level, where English adapts to new cultural settings This adaptation is essential as English encounters unique local realities that may lack direct equivalents, leading to the incorporation of native terms According to Crystal (2003), this lexical nativization in New Englishes involves various creative processes, including borrowing, semantic shifts, affixation, compounding, clipping, abbreviation, blending, and hybrid compounding.
The nativizing process consists of several stages, as outlined by Moag (1982), who identified a life-cycle for non-native varieties that includes five key phases: transportation, indigenization, expansion in use and function, and institutionalization While the first four stages are crucial components of this life cycle, the fifth stage, which involves restriction of use and function, may not be applicable in every instance.
Figure 2.1 The Life Cycle of Non- Native Englishes (Kachru, 1992)
The initial phase of "transportation" marks the introduction of English to a previously unexposed region Following this, the "indigenization" phase occurs, where the emerging variety of English begins to incorporate local cultural elements, ultimately differentiating itself from its original form.
7 variety, and from other indigenized varieties elsewhere Kachru (1977) has used
The process of indigenization involves several key stages Initially, English-speaking newcomers encounter local cultural elements that lack equivalents in their native languages, leading to lexical borrowing (Kachru, 1992) The second phase occurs when the local colonial elite starts using English for their communication This progression highlights the evolving relationship between language and culture within the context of globalization.
The "Expansion in Use and Function" signifies the growing prevalence of local varieties of English as their roles expand into new areas such as education, media, and government services Kachru (1992) notes that this evolution transforms English from a foreign language into a second language In the fourth stage, the nativized variety becomes institutionalized, influenced by various factors Ultimately, the final stage involves state-regulated policies that restrict the use and function of English, leading to a decline in its usage within the country.
Different models of World Englishes
The classification of English varieties has sparked extensive debate and research, leading to various models proposed by linguists, such as “New Englishes,” “Three Concentric Circles of English,” “English Umbrella,” “World English,” and “English as an International Language.” Chen (2011) identifies three primary approaches to categorizing these English varieties: dualism, trinalism, and monism.
2.3.1 A dualistic view of the status of English
According to Chen (2011), English can be categorized into two types: original English and new Englishes, with the latter referring to varieties of English that have emerged in non-English speaking countries and gained legal recognition Platt, Weber, and Ho (1984) outline essential criteria for a New English, stating that it must have developed through the education system and in a specific geographical area.
8 native variety of English was not the language spoken by most of the population (3)
The language has evolved to serve various functions for its speakers and writers in the region, becoming localized and nativized This transformation includes the incorporation of native language features, such as sounds, intonation patterns, sentence structures, and specific words and expressions.
2.3.2 A trinalistic view of the status of English
The three-circle Model of World Englishes proposed by Kachru in 1985 includes the Inner Circle, the Outer Circle and the Expanding Circle These circles represent
“the type of spread, the forms of acquisition and the functional spheres in which English is used across civilizations and linguistic communication” (Kachru, 1985, p.12)
Kachru’s Concentric Circles model illustrates the Inner Circle, which encompasses countries where English is the native language, including the USA, UK, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand These nations are considered "norm-providing," as they set the standards and norms for the English language, making it their first language.
Many countries in the Outer Circle, primarily former UK or USA settlements like Malaysia, Singapore, India, Ghana, and Kenya, recognize English as a vital second language within their multilingual contexts This widespread use of English has integrated it into national institutions, and the English spoken in these regions is characterized as "norm-developing."
Countries in the Expanding Circle, such as China, Japan, Greece, and Poland, utilize English as a foreign language or lingua franca for international communication, without any historical or governmental ties to the language These nations have not experienced colonization by Inner Circle countries and do not grant English any special administrative status Consequently, the English spoken in this circle is considered "norm-dependent," as it adheres to the standards established by native speakers in the Inner Circle.
2.3.3 A monist view on the status of English
Yoneoka (2001) introduced "The English Umbrella: Model of a Multicultural Language System," illustrating it as an umbrella The core of the umbrella represents a simplified version of English, encompassing basic vocabulary, syntax, and phonemes The various English varieties, such as native forms like British and Australian English, as well as ESL varieties like Singaporean and Indian English, are found at the tips of the umbrella These varieties are interconnected to the central core through spokes, which act as the communication network and support systems for this diverse linguistic framework.
Upon the spokes lies the fabric covering (4) which is the background socio- cultural systems and the top is an idealized “standard” English (5) According to Chen
The umbrella model, introduced in 2011, offers significant advantages over the concentric circles model by being egalitarian and generic, as it effectively categorizes core elements across all varieties of English Additionally, it is flexible and dynamic, taking into account the sociocultural systems and communication networks that shape language use.
Kachru's Three-circle Model of World Englishes is a highly regarded framework for understanding the spread of English globally This paper utilizes Kachru's model to examine the characteristics of English as it is used in Vietnam, particularly in comparison to other English varieties in Southeast Asia.
Varieties of English in Southeast Asia
The emergence of new Englishes in Southeast Asia is deeply rooted in the region's colonial histories, resulting in varying stages of development due to diverse linguistic backgrounds According to Kachru's three-circle model, countries like Singapore, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Brunei are classified as "outer circle" nations where English serves as a second language In contrast, Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, Myanmar, Laos, and Cambodia are categorized as "expanding circle" countries, where English is primarily a foreign language.
Southeast Asia comprises eleven diverse countries, with ten being ASEAN members, excluding Timor-Leste English, recognized as a second language in nations like Singapore, Malaysia, Brunei, and the Philippines, is increasingly becoming the dominant language across the region It significantly influences various aspects of life, including culture, communication, economy, and politics Consequently, English has emerged as the de facto lingua franca within ASEAN, highlighting its growing importance in regional interactions.
In 2009, the ASEAN Charter officially established English as the sole working language of ASEAN, emphasizing the necessity of English proficiency for competition within the region's labor market and for facilitating free mobility among member countries As a result, many ASEAN nations have made English a compulsory subject in their national education curricula The use of English in Southeast Asia has led to the emergence of unique local varieties, known as New Englishes, which adapt to their cultural contexts and exhibit distinct linguistic features Various studies, including those by Bautista, Crewe, Gonzalez, Llamzon, Platt, and Weber, have documented these characteristics, highlighting the evolution of English in this diverse region.
Ng (2000), Tay (1993b), and Tongue (1979) A brief account of some phonological, lexical, syntactic and discoursal features of Southeast Asian Englishes is presented below
Southeast Asian varieties of English exhibit distinct phonological features, particularly a tendency towards syllable-timing, which arises from the avoidance of reduced vowels (Kirkpatrick, 2008) In these varieties, syllables are pronounced with roughly equal duration, regardless of stress, leading to the absence of the schwa sound This phenomenon is attributed to the influence of speakers' first languages, which often favor syllable timing In contrast, native English employs a stress-timed rhythm, where syllable length varies based on stress, resulting in the use of full vowels in unstressed syllables.
(1) They OFficially announced the winner
(2) I first came TO Thailand two years ago
Another outstanding feature of Southeast Asian phonology is the shift in stress placement Pronouns are regularly stressed and heavy end stress is also common For example:
(3) HE has been to Myanmar twice
Southeast Asian languages exhibit several phonological features, including the substitution of stops /t, d/ for fricatives /θ, ð/ (e.g., "thin" is pronounced as /tin/ and "then" as /den/) Additionally, there is a tendency to simplify consonant clusters at the end of words, and monophthongs often replace diphthongs, as seen in the pronunciation of "make" as /e/ Furthermore, these languages typically lack contrasts in vowel length and tenseness, resulting in words like "bit" and "beat" being pronounced the same way as /bit/.
Southeast Asian Englishes exhibit common syntactic characteristics, particularly in the omission of tense markers for third person present simple and past tense forms Speakers often forgo these markers, relying instead on adverbs to indicate time references For example, a sentence like “I talk to her yesterday” illustrates this tendency.
“yesterday” is used to mark past tense instead of the tense marker “-ed” Kirkpatrick
(2008) also added the relative lack of the use of complex tense forms such as Past Perfect or Past continuous
In Southeast Asian Englishes, the differentiation between count and non-count nouns is less rigid compared to Inner-Circle Englishes Instances of non-count nouns being treated as countable, such as "furnitures," "equipments," "luggages," "a research," or "one evidence," are commonly observed.
In Southeast Asian languages, the copula construction is often omitted, leading to phrases like "he dancing," "she hurt," and "I hungry." This absence is due to the lack of a direct equivalent to English copula constructions such as "she is beautiful" or "she is a doctor."
Southeast Asian English varieties exhibit unique features, with Malaysian English notably characterized by specific syntactic traits According to McArthur (1998) and Schneider (2003/2004), one prominent feature is the absence of noun inflectional endings.
The article discusses various linguistic features, including the prevalence of 13 endings, primarily the plural -s and occasionally the genitive -s It highlights the omission of essential sentence constituents such as objects, subjects, auxiliary verbs, copulas, and prepositions, which creates a "telegraphic" speech effect Additionally, it examines diverse complementation patterns that follow verbs, instances of incorrect concord in noun phrases, innovations in phrasal verbs, and the use of reflexive pronouns for creating emphatic pronouns.
A notable aspect of Southeast Asian English, particularly in Singaporean and Malaysian contexts, is the use of pragmatic particles such as “la(h), leh, hor,” etc These particles, which lack semantic meaning on their own, are commonly found at the end of sentences in informal conversations to convey interactional significance For instance, in Singaporean English, the particle “lah” can transform a verb into a command or soften its tone, especially when the verb's direct usage might come across as impolite.
In Southeast Asia, particularly in Malaysia and the Philippines, code-switching and code-mixing are prevalent in multilingual communities In Malaysia, accomplished bilinguals often use code-switching for rhetorical effect or to accommodate others, while less proficient speakers use it as a repair strategy in conversation Similarly, in the Philippines, code-switching is a common feature in everyday conversations, as well as in media such as films, television, and print An example of this linguistic phenomenon is the blend of Malay and English in the phrase, "She wanted to beli some barang-barang," which translates to "She wanted to buy some things."
Kachru, Yamuna, and Cecil (2006) argue that the most obvious features in Southeast Asian varieties are the loan words and the loan translation Haugen
Lexical borrowing, a term introduced in 1970, encompasses loan words, loan translations, and loan blends Loan words vary across societies and cultures due to differences in realia and referents, such as kinship titles, local food terms, and indigenous values In Singaporean English, examples of loan words include "abang," meaning elder brother or male cousin, and "hanram," which signifies something that is prohibited.
Loan translation, a linguistic borrowing method, involves the literal translation of semantic components from one language to another For instance, in Philippine English, the phrase "for a long time" translates to "since before yet," while "I'm teasing you" corresponds to "joke only." Additionally, loan blends, or hybrids, are prevalent in Southeast Asian languages, where compounds are created from words of different languages, such as "buco juice," referring to young coconut juice, and "pulot boy," which denotes a tennis ball boy in Philippine English.
In 2015, Nor, Zamri, and Awab analyzed the lexical features of Malaysian English, identifying key aspects such as local language referents, semantic expansion, and word formation processes They noted that local terms have been integrated into both spoken and written English in Malaysia Additionally, they highlighted the semantic expansion of words, exemplified by "cut," which retains its original meaning while also acquiring new interpretations.
English for tourism
Language serves as a sophisticated and structured system that utilizes various tools to convey messages and information effectively (Garner and Hancock, 2014) In the context of tourism, language plays a crucial role in captivating and enticing potential travelers.
Tourism English, as defined by Lam (2007), is a distinct register that serves specific purposes, including capturing attention and attracting readers With 15 million people transitioning into tourists, their experiences further enrich this language Tourism brochures, as a key marketing tool, are filled with persuasive language and imagery, effectively shaping expectations and perceptions, as noted by Weightman (1987) Bhatia (1993) highlights that promotional texts, like travel brochures, share linguistic features similar to advertisements Leech's (1966) study identifies key characteristics of advertising language, including the frequent use of modal verbs such as "will" and "can," imperative sentence structures that invite action, and a prevalence of personal pronouns and striking adjectives However, this paper will not analyze the imperative syntactic features.
Numerous studies have examined the English language used in travel brochures, highlighting key linguistic features Research by Iborra and Garrido (2001) and Boonchayaanant (2003) indicates that modal verbs such as "will" and "can" in tourist texts function similarly to those in advertisements Additionally, personal pronouns like "you," "your," "we," and "our" are commonly employed in tourism texts, serving a comparable purpose to their use in advertising Furthermore, Pakkinen's analysis emphasizes the significance of adjectives in enhancing the appeal of tourism-related content.
(2005) agrees that one of the prominent language features of promotional texts is
16 the use of adjectives, wherein, subjectively evaluative adjectives are more effective than factual adjectives
Francesconi (2004) asserts that tourism language presents destinations and services in an enticing and visually appealing way, utilizing dynamic imagery and vibrant colors As a result, travel brochures are filled with descriptive adjectives, superlatives, and intensifiers designed to influence and even manipulate the perceptions and behaviors of potential tourists.
In an analysis of the move and linguistic features of tourist texts, Iborra and Garrido
In 2001, research revealed that adjectives commonly described age, size, and origin in tourist texts, while superlatives were rarely employed The personal pronoun "you" was predominantly used to engage readers and capture their interest Additionally, the modal verb "can" frequently indicated possibilities, and complex noun phrases emerged as a notable linguistic characteristic of this genre.
Henry and Roseberry's study (1996) highlights the effective use of the personal pronoun "you" to foster a friendly atmosphere with readers Additionally, the modal verbs "can" and "will" are employed to convey promises and opportunities, while the frequent use of adjectives, particularly in their superlative forms, enhances the overall engagement of the text.
Travel brochures as a special kind of genre
Travel brochures serve as engaging print media designed for tourists, providing essential information about locations and events According to Molina and Esteban (2006), these brochures are promotional materials aimed at connecting with current and prospective travelers Historically, they have been pivotal in marketing, enhancing destination awareness, delivering information, and inspiring purchase decisions (Chiou et al 2008, Getz & Sailor 1993, Zhou 1997, Yuksel & Akgul 2006) To effectively attract tourists, travel brochures typically combine rich content with compelling language and imagery that highlight the destination's appeal Ultimately, this information assists travelers in making well-informed choices as they plan their journeys.
Travel brochures play a crucial role in shaping tourist expectations and experiences by providing vital information that reduces uncertainty and potential disappointment (Walter & Tong, 1977; Jackson, White, & Schmierer, 1996; Rhoehl & Fesenmainer, 1992) They serve as a substitute for products that cannot be physically inspected before purchase (Holloway, 2004), and their language often acts as a “self-fulfilling prophecy” that directs expectations and influences perceptions (Weightman, 1987) This dynamic means that the landscape presented in brochures becomes the reality for tourists Consequently, the linguistic and visual elements in travel brochures are extensively studied for their persuasive power, particularly in destinations like Vietnam, where specific language is employed to attract and persuade visitors effectively.
Theoretical framework
Travel brochures in Vietnam showcase unique lexical characteristics of an Expanding Circle English variety, aligning with findings by Haugen (1970) and others These brochures prominently feature lexical borrowing, nativized word formation, descriptive adjectives, personal pronouns, and modal verbs, reflecting the essential elements of tourism texts.
Every language contains unique "untranslatable" words that lack precise equivalents in other languages, often reflecting specific cultural concepts These culture-bound terms encompass various aspects of life, including food, drink, clothing, music, art, sports, dance, and even professions When a language encounters semantic gaps and requires a term to convey a particular idea, it resorts to lexical borrowing to fill these voids effectively.
Language contact often results in borrowing, a natural process where one language incorporates new words from another, known as loanwords Ying (2012) identifies three levels of borrowing: transliteration, loan translation, and loan blend Fantini (1985) further distinguishes between "pure borrowing," where a word retains its original features, and "adjusted borrowing," where it conforms to the host language's structure Other researchers, Bloomfield (1933) and Olmsted (1986), categorize linguistic integration into three levels: words that maintain foreign phonology, those partially integrated, and fully integrated words that are indistinguishable from native terms Haugen (1970) classifies borrowing into three types: loanwords, which involve morphemic importation; loan translation, which combines native terms for semantic change; and loan blends, hybrids of importation and substitution This study aligns with Ying's categorization, recognizing transliteration, loan translation, and loan blend as key types of lexical borrowing.
Transliteration is close to the idea of “pure borrowing” of Fantini (1985) and
A "loanword," as defined by Haugen (1970), refers to a word that is phonetically adapted from a donor language into a borrowing language These transliterated words maintain similarities in sound and meaning to their original forms, allowing them to be used in the borrowing language with the closest possible phonetic and semantic resemblance.
Loan translation, as defined by Bloomfield (1933), refers to the process of borrowing from one language to another by translating the semantic components of a term into their equivalents in the borrowing language In this process, the native term bears no phonological resemblance to the original foreign word.
Kachru (1983: 163) refers to hybrid formation as a characteristic feature of language contact situations He further states that such hybridized lexical items are
Hybrids in non-native varieties of English demonstrate the nativization process, combining elements from local languages and English These linguistic blends arise from the frequent use of two languages in casual conversation, resulting in both single-word and multi-word mixes Kachru (1983) classifies these hybrids into two categories: the first features English modifiers with local language heads, exemplified by phrases like “Evening bajan” and “Eternal upavasi” in Indian English The second group consists of hybrids where the English term serves as the head.
“ahimsa soldier”, “durri weaving” or “sarvodaya leader”
Nor, Zamri, and Awab (2015) highlighted the role of word formation processes in the nativization of Malaysian English, identifying key methods such as affixation, compounding, reduplication, repetition, and conversion Additionally, a corpus-based study by Lee further explored these lexical features.
(2010) reveals different creative processes employed by Malaysian speakers to construct meaning in informal conversations, including borrowing, semantic expansion, loan translation, compounding, blending, affixation, reduplication
Affixation is the process of combining an affix, such as a prefix or suffix, with another word, like a noun or adjective, to create a new word that can alter its grammatical category An example highlighted by Nor et al (2015) is "datukship," which illustrates the productive nature of suffixation in Malaysian English.
Noun „datuk‟ + Suffix „ship‟= datukship, as in lordship
Compounding involves merging two or more existing words to create a new term that often holds a distinct meaning from its individual components The meanings of the original words can usually be inferred from the new compound word.
In the acrolect form of English, certain word combinations are uniquely accepted and may not appear in other English varieties For instance, in Singaporean English, the term "tuition" is combined with "teacher" to create the phrase "tuition teacher," which corresponds to the native term "private tutor."
In Malaysian English, the phrase "last time" combines the adjective "last" and the noun "time" to create an independent adverbial expression referring to the past, as illustrated by the sentence, "Last time I got Honda you know." In contrast, native English typically requires the definite article "the" before "last," making it function as an adjective that modifies "time," as seen in the example, "The last time I met him was three days ago."
Reduplication is a linguistic process where the initial syllable or entire word is repeated, either exactly or with slight phonological alterations, to enhance the meaning of basic words While not a standard method of word formation in English, reduplication frequently appears in children's language, exemplified by terms like "boo-boo" and "choo-choo." It is also employed for humorous or ironic effects, as seen in expressions like "goody-goody" and "pooh-pooh."
2000) However, reduplication is a productive process in the Malaysian language
Reduplication in Malaysian English plays a crucial role in creating expressions that lack direct equivalents in standard English For instance, Nor et al (2015) illustrates this with the phrase “I want this one (shoe) … got shiny shiny …,” where the term “shiny shiny” is derived from Malay reduplication, showcasing the unique linguistic features of Malaysian English.
“kilat kilat”, as in “Aku mahu kasut yang ini, ada kilat kilat ”, intensifying the brightness of the shoes
Repetition serves to emphasize sounds and concepts, reinforcing emotional impact As noted by Ghomeshi et al (2004), it is a prevalent poetic device that highlights key themes through repeated elements.
Repetition serves as a fundamental unifying device in poetry, encompassing sound, syllables, words, phrases, lines, stanzas, or metrical patterns This technique not only fosters a continuity of action but also allows for reduplication, which creates new morphemes that carry additional meaning.
Review of previous studies
There are several previous studies which offer useful knowledge on various features of travel brochures
Dhitthita (2009) conducted a study on the linguistic features of attraction moves in tourist leaflets, emphasizing modal verbs, imperatives, personal pronouns, and adjectival pre-modifiers The findings indicated that the modal verbs "can" and "will" were most frequently used, serving to express possibility and deliver essential information to potential tourists.
In order to inform some important information to tourists and also to suggest tourists to visit attraction or join activities there, the imperatives “turn”, “take”,
“contact”, “call” and “get” were frequently used Furthermore, the top five personal
27 pronouns were third personal pronouns, including “it”, “its”, “their”, “his”, and
This study analyzes the linguistic features of tourism texts, emphasizing the use of positively connoted attributive adjectives to vividly portray tourist attractions It specifically focuses on the lexical characteristics of tourism discourse.
The next study in tourism brochures to be mentioned was by Henry and Roseberry
In a 1996 study analyzing written English texts from airline magazines, newspapers, and tourist information materials globally, researchers found that personal pronouns such as "you" and "we" were commonly employed to foster a friendly and personal tone The modal verbs "can" and "will" were predominantly used to convey promise and opportunity Additionally, there was a notable prevalence of adjectives, particularly in their superlative forms, used in both pre- and post-modifying positions.
Maasalmi's 2013 study conducted a corpus-based semantic analysis of tourist brochures from the United States, the British Isles, and Canada, revealing statistically significant differences in the use of adjectives among these English-speaking regions While Maasalmi focused solely on the specialized tourism discourse of native English speakers, my research aims to investigate the lexical features within a non-native community, expanding the understanding of tourism language beyond the confines of native usage.
David (2008) highlights the significant nativization of English in Malaysia and the Philippines, where speakers have integrated local language elements and created new vocabulary This trend reflects the influence of local cultures on the English language, resulting in a unique lexicon that incorporates entrenched local terms.
In the Malaysian and Philippine varieties of English, 28 terms have been adopted across diverse categories including people, events, cultural activities, places, political movements, religion, arts, films, food, clothing, and quotations.
Ying (2012) explored the lexical features of China English, a distinct variety of English within the Expanding Circle The research focuses on three levels of borrowing: transliteration, loan translation, and a combination of both, as well as nativized expressions that represent concepts unique to China This study is pertinent to my research as it addresses varieties of English in the Expanding Circle.
In 2002, Ramly, Othman, and McLellan examined the processes of Englishization and nativization in Brunei Darussalam, utilizing a corpus of spoken and written language from the region Their findings highlight that nativization of English involves semantic shifts, new collocations, and the adaptation of syntactic structures, as well as the transcreation of similes, metaphors, and proverbs from other languages, alongside hybrid lexical constructions that blend concepts from multiple cultures This study's focus on lexical nativization aligns with my own research.
Furthermore, as discussed earlier, Nor, Zamri and Awab (2015) illustrates lexical features of Malaysian English, including local language referents, semantic expansion and word formation processes
Research on the nativization of English has primarily focused on indigenized varieties in Outer Circle nations, such as Singapore, Malaysia, and the Philippines, while little attention has been given to Expanding Circle countries like Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia Additionally, although there is extensive literature on the language of tourism texts, particularly regarding lexical and syntactic features, research specifically targeting lexical aspects remains scarce This paper aims to address these gaps in the existing literature.
29 to look at the lexical features of tourism English used in Viet Nam, a country in the Expanding Circle
METHODOLOGY
Data corpus
This study analyzed data from nine English-language travel brochures created by Vietnamese authors and travel agencies, showcasing a range of tourist attractions across northern, central, and southern Vietnam The brochures, detailed in Table 3.1, provide insights into the diverse offerings of the country's tourism sector.
Table 3.1 The Corpus of nine travel brochures
No Name of the brochures Coding
2 Vietnam special packages for Asian B2
Data collection
Out of more than 20 collected travel brochures, nine were selected for their quality and diversity, ensuring a range of perspectives Brochures authored by the same individuals were excluded to enhance content variety Although some brochures provided information on Vietnam travel, they were not included due to uncertainty about their authorship, raising concerns about the credibility of non-native English speakers.
The collected brochures, sourced from both online platforms and printed copies, feature comprehensive texts while excluding map details, advertisements, and information related to other countries like Laos and Cambodia The brochures vary significantly in length, ranging from 9 to 68 pages.
Data analytical framework
Three types of lexical borrowing:
- Transliteration: transliterated words are phonetically similar to the donor language form and the borrowing language form
- Loan translation: the semantic components of a given term are literally translated into their equivalents in the borrowing language
- Loan blend (hybrids): loan blend consists of two or more elements and at least one element is from a local language
- Transliteration: ca phe den, Da Nang
- Affixation: the combination of an affix with another word to form a new word that may result in a change in the word class
- Compounding: the process of taking two or more existing words and combining them to form a new lexical item that could carry a totally different meaning from the original words
- Reduplication: a process in which the initial syllable or the entire word is doubled
- Repetition: a sound, syllable, word, phrase, line, stanza, or metrical pattern is repeated
- Conversion: the functional shift of one part of speech to another without the addition of a suffix
- Semantic expansion: standard English lexemes that have the original meaning as well as an extended semantic range of meanings not originally in native English
- Conversion: I can song for you
- Six groups of descriptive adjectives:
2 Size/ quantity/ extent: denoting size, weight, extent
- SQE: big, deep, heavy, huge
3 Time: denoting chronology, age, frequency
4 Evaluative/ emotive: denoting judgements, affect, emphasis
6 Location: denoting location, distance or describing the physical aspects, setting or the atmosphere of a location or attraction
- EE: bad, beautiful, best, fine, good
Halong bay, the bay of descending dragon, is one of the most beautiful places on earth
4 Modal verbs Modal verbs “can” and “will” - You can stop at the
- A beach tour like this will let you explore all the fun, activity, and food
Modal verbs “we” and “you” - Each of our products is built with extensive study about where you go, what you see, how you do and who you meet
6 Others new features other than the five listed above
Data analyzing procedure
The analysis of lexical features in travel brochures utilizes both qualitative and quantitative methods, focusing on the frequency of specific elements This dual approach offers a comprehensive understanding of the lexical aspects, as outlined in the previously discussed analytical framework.
Initially, all the descriptive adjectives found in the travel brochures were identified and categorized based on Biber et al (1999) semantic categorization of adjectives
The analysis involved manually identifying personal pronouns such as "we" and "you," along with their corresponding modal verbs "will" and "can." Additionally, the study tabulated the frequency of various descriptive adjectives in descending order The counts for the modal verbs and personal pronouns were recorded, and instances of lexical borrowing and nativized word formation processes were noted Finally, examples were extracted and examined to understand their usage in travel brochures.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Lexical borrowing
Transliterated words maintain phonetic similarity to their original forms in the donor language, ensuring that the borrowing language captures both sound and meaning In Vietnamese, transliteration involves omitting diacritical marks, such as tone indicators For instance, “Hạ Long” becomes “Ha Long” when the underdot is removed, and “Hà Nội” is simplified to “Ha Noi” by discarding tone marks and circumflex accents In the context of Vietnamese travel brochures, transliteration effectively conveys cultural elements, frequently appearing in geographical names, culinary terms, personal names, and references to festivals and fine arts Notably, geographical names are the most commonly transliterated loan words A comprehensive list of these transliterated terms can be found in the Appendix.
Table 4.3 Examples of transliteration in Vietnamese travel brochures
Transliterated loan words Vietnamese original words
Culinary ca phe sua da cà phê sữa đá
Bun Cha ca Bún chả cá
Lau Cua Dong Lẩu cua đồng
Tom nuong la chuoi Tôm nướng lá chuối
Geographical names Ba Be Ba Bể
Tam Coc Bich Dong Tam Cốc Bích Động
People‟s names Hoang A Tuong Hoàng A Tưởng
Ba Chua Xu Bà Chúa Xứ
Nong Van Den Nông Văn Dền
Buildings Chua Phap Hoa Chùa Pháp Hoa
Nha Tho Nui Nhà Thờ Núi
Terms related to fine arts
Trees Vo qua bau Vỏ quả bầu
Ethnic minority Lo Lo Lô Lô
Regarding geographical names, there are instances in which transliterated words contain description of the place For example, in the phrase “chua Phap Hoa”, “chua
The Vietnamese geographical names often include descriptive terms, such as "Doi" and "chua." One effective method for translating these names is to omit the Vietnamese descriptions and use their English equivalents, like "Tran Quoc Pagoda," "Hai Van Pass," "Muong Hoa Valley," "Ta Van Village," and "Vinh Moc Tunnels." Alternatively, incorporating English explanations in brackets can enhance understanding, as seen in examples like trong cave (drum cave), Mat Quy (monster head), Am Tich (teapot), and Trinh Nu (virgin) cave.
Brochures B7 and B9 in Vietnam notably retain diacritical marks and use local names in their original form, indicating a trend towards preserving the authenticity of the Vietnamese language in English translations This approach aims to maintain the cultural integrity of Vietnamese terms, particularly those related to cultural elements.
(5) Xôi xéo, Bánh cuốn, Phở, Bún thang (B7)
(6) Đình làng, Tổ nghề, Bà Nà, Trường Sơn, Phú Quốc, Đà Lạt, Vũng Tàu, Lâm Đồng, Long Hải, Tây Nguyên, Cát Tiên, Yok Đôn, Đắk Lắk, Buôn
Ma Thuột, Chợ lớn, Bình Tây, Huế, Trung Nguyên (B9)
Loan translation involves the literal translation of the semantic components of a term into their equivalents in another language An example of this is the Vietnamese term “Động Thiên Đường,” which is translated as “Paradise Cave.”
“paradise” means “Thiên Đường” and “cave” means “Động” “West lake” is another good illustration of this, in which “west” mean “tây” and “lake” means
“hồ”, and the whole original Vietnamese phrase is “hồ Tây” Examples of loan translation can be briefly illustrated in Table 4.2
Table 4.2 Examples of loan translation in travel brochures
No Loan translation Vietnamese original words
1 Red river delta Đồng bằng sông Hồng
2 Vietnam‟s Triple Religion Tam giáo
3 Temple of Literature Văn Miếu
4 One Pillar Pagoda Chùa Một Cột
5 Temple of the Jade Mountain Đền Ngọc Sơn
6 Water Puppet Múa rối nước
13 Paradise cave Động Thiên Đường
15 Reunification Hall Dinh Độc lập
16 The War Remnants Museum Bảo tàng chứng tích chiến tranh
18 Country Lady Temple Bà Chúa xứ
19 Lion dance Múa sư tử
21 Surprise cave Động Sửng sốt
22 swan islands Hòn Thiên Nga
23 incense burner Đỉnh lư hương
24 thumb islands Hòn ngón tay
25 August Revolution Square Quảng trường cách mạng thán+g tám
Quần thể danh lam thắng cảnh Tràng
27 Valley of Love Thung lũng Tình yêu
Loan blends are prevalent in various Southeast Asian English dialects, such as Philippine English, which features terms like "buco juice" and "pulot boy," and Malaysian English, which includes words like "bersanding" and "tepung tawar." However, the data analyzed in this study does not include any examples of loan blends.
Nativized word formation processes
The analysis reveals a lack of affixation, compounding, reduplication, repetition, conversion, and semantic expansion in the examined tourism texts, primarily due to the specialized nature of travel brochures These written materials undergo meticulous editing to eliminate flaws and often feature advanced vocabulary and concepts As promotional texts, travel brochures demand high language accuracy, which limits the occurrence of processes like conversion and affixation Additionally, such linguistic features are seldom observed in Vietnamese English.
Descriptive adjectives
Table 4.3 presents the total number of descriptors categorized using semantic grouping of adjectives
Table 4.3 Descriptive adjectives used in the travel brochures
Figure 4.1: Descriptive adjectives used in the travel brochures
The analysis of the travel brochures reveals that miscellaneous descriptive adjectives dominate at 35.2%, followed by evaluative/emotive adjectives at 26.5% Local descriptors account for 14.25%, while size, quality, and extent (SQE) descriptors and time descriptors hold nearly equal shares at 10.4% and 10.2%, respectively Color descriptors represent the smallest category at just 3.5% The subsequent sections will provide a detailed examination of how these various types of descriptive adjectives are utilized in travel brochures.
Miscellaneous descriptive (MD) is the largest group of descriptors in the travel brochures Within the scope of nine travel brochures analyzed, the percentage of
MD adjectives significantly surpass other descriptor categories in size, quantity, extent (SQE), time (T), and location (L), being nearly three times more prevalent Their diversity is unparalleled, encompassing a wide range of descriptive terms, which complicates their examination and evaluation The table below highlights the twenty most frequently used MD adjectives found in the nine brochures.
Table 4.4 Twenty most frequent MD group descriptors
MD adjectives are versatile and can effectively describe a wide range of qualities associated with linguistic strategies Notably, among the four most commonly used adjectives, "famous" stands out as a prime example of this adaptability.
The term "popular" is utilized 50 times to effectively showcase the euphoria technique, while adjectives such as "quiet" and "lively" are strategically incorporated to engage readers These choices enhance the overall appeal of the content.
(1) Nha Trang has grown into one of the most popular ecotourism sites in
(2) Hanoi Opera House is without doubt one of the most famous cultural and architectural monuments of Hanoi (B7)
(3) Bac Ha, a lively and colorful mountain town, well-known for its Sunday Market filled with locals from the various hill tribes (B1)
The article highlights the frequent use of the word "ethnic," alongside "natural" and the keyword "free," to create isotopies that resonate with audiences Additionally, the term "private" is strategically employed for ego-targeting Adjectives such as "professional," "experienced," and "knowledgeable" further enhance the appeal and credibility of the content.
“official” are utilized to form a sense of trust and reliability in the travel destinations Examples (5) – (9) demonstrate this
(4) Though united, today there are still distinct and honored ethnic cultural variations (B1)
(5) Ban Gioc Waterfall is considered as the largest natural waterfall in
(6) Our English speaking guides are knowledgeable and experienced (B2)
(7) You can always trust us for professional ground handling services (B3)
Evaluative and emotive (EE) adjectives play a crucial role in enhancing the allure of brochures, making them more appealing to potential visitors These descriptive words emphasize the quality and magnificence of attractions, effectively highlighting the unique features of tourist destinations.
(8) romantic lakes and alpine scenery, amazing views of the ocean, stunning white sandy beaches, picturesque blend of land and sea (B1)
(9) majestic limestone, splendid arched-roof kiosks, impressive temple (B5)
(10) nice and pristine island, spectacular underground rivers, amazing huge cave, fantastic views (B9)
Table 4.5 looks at the top twenty most frequent adjectives in the EE descriptor group
Table 4.5: Twenty most frequent EE group descriptors
The data reveals a strong connection between adjectives in the EE group descriptors and nature, with terms like "stunning" appearing 46 times, "spectacular" 36 times, "breathtaking" 21 times, and "scenic" 13 times This highlights the emphasis on natural beauty in the language used.
Vietnamese‟s appreciation and promotion of their nature in travel brochures The following examples illustrates this:
(11) Discover the region's picturesque scenery and the local cottage industries and stunning floating market of Cai Be and Cai Rang on the
(12) You can see the whole of Ban Gioc waterfalls, seeing the majestic and spectacular beauty of the falls with the yellow rice fields, the blue sky, …
(13) Ha Giang is famous with scenic mountainous topography, colorful hill tribes and typical local culture (B8)
(14) The emerald waters host dolomite islets and are bordered by some 3,000 craggy limestone cliffs dotted with breathtaking caves and grottos (B1)
These adjectives, together with the most frequent word in the list, “beautiful”, and some other adjectives like “exciting”, “gorgeous”, “amazing”, “magnificent”, “fun”,
“enjoyable” and “exquisite” are employed to create euphoric atmosphere in order to attract the readers to visit the tourist destinations Some excerpts are shown below:
(15) Visitors can continue their adventure journey to explore many beautiful untouched regions in the surrounding area (B2)
(16) Many ethnic minority villages are located on mountain side surrounded by amazing terrace fields (B2)
(17) Visit and enjoy the magnificent landscape of Ba Be lake (B8)
(18) It is renowned for the exquisite woodwork used in the construction
Table 4.6 reveals the frequency of ego- targeting adjectives in the corpora
Table 4.6 Ego-targeting adjectives/ no of instances per 100 words
Travel brochures in Vietnam effectively utilize ego-targeting adjectives to highlight the magnificence and uniqueness of their attractions These impactful descriptors create a sense of adventure for readers, suggesting experiences that are unparalleled and extraordinary.
(19) Hoi An is now designated a UNESCO World Heritage site, and a great place to discover genuine Vietnamese architecture (B1)
(20) Popular spots include the atmospheric Dark & Light Cave, the aptly named Amazing Cave and the unique Luon Cave (B9)
(21) Cua Dai is truly an ideal place for a beach vacation in the center of
(22) A four-day R&R tour designed to get you to the best beaches for sunbathing, swimming, and snorkeling (B4)
4.3.3 Adjectives which describe the size, quantity and extent
(SQE), time descriptors (T), color descriptors (C) and location descriptors (L)
The four descriptor categories—SQE, T, C, and L—primarily consist of factual adjectives that provide essential information about attractions, including location, time, rules, and regulations These adjectives serve to inform readers and enhance their experience by presenting appealing details about tourist destinations SQE and color descriptors are particularly effective in adding visual nuances, stimulating the reader's imagination with common colors and brightness terms like blue, green, white, and colorful Examples from brochures demonstrate the practical application of these adjectives in attracting potential visitors.
(23) It is the centerpiece of the extensive Ba Be National Park where lakes, waterfalls, caves and unusual rock formations abound (B1)
(24) Cat Ba Island is the largest island in Ha Long Bay, a body of water littered with majestic limestone karsts in a blue-green sea (B5)
(25) You can see the whole of Ban Gioc waterfalls, seeing the majestic and spectacular beauty of the falls with the yellow rice fields, the blue sky, … (B6)
(26) The annual Thap Ba Festival in spring draws a crowd of Cham descendants (B4)
The location descriptors are used to denote location and distance The brochures in Viet Nam utilize several unique adjectives describing locations and nature like
The Vietnamese tourism brochures highlight the allure of “mountainous,” “serene,” “untouched,” “rustic,” and “secluded” destinations Notably, the term “local” appears frequently, with a rate of 43.75 per 100 words, indicating a strong emphasis on local attractions This focus provides travelers with rich insights into the unique offerings of Vietnam's diverse landscapes and cultural experiences.
(27) The country has 1000 miles of spectacular coastline, with topography ranging from mountainous jungles to white sand beaches, and rice paddies to rainforests (B1)
(28) Indulge yourself with inspirational photos of untouched beautiful landscape on the way to and in the little mountain town of Lang Son (B8)
(29) Visitors to Sa Pa will have chances to discover the unique customs of the local residents by trekking on long buffalo trails (B2)
The analysis of nine travel brochures reveals a significant use of superlatives, totaling 143 instances The most common form is "the *est," appearing 77 times, followed by "the most *" with 35 occurrences, and the irregular "the best," which has 31 instances These superlatives serve to emphasize the unique features of tourist destinations, effectively distinguishing them from competitors This strategic use of superlatives enhances the allure of tourism language, underscoring the exceptional qualities of the destinations and services promoted.
(30) Halong bay, the bay of descending dragon, is one of the most beautiful places on earth (B8)
(31) Cai Rang Floating Market, just 6km from Can Tho, is the biggest floating market in the Mekong Delta (B9)
(32) This universally famous food is best enjoyed in Hanoi (B7)
Modal verbs
In travel brochures, the most frequently used modal verbs are "will" and "can," appearing 130 and 91 times, respectively, across nine analyzed brochures These verbs effectively convey promises and opportunities, while other modal verbs like "should," "might," and "must" are used less frequently, occurring only once or twice.
The modal verb "will" highlights the value and benefits visitors can expect when exploring tourist attractions, while "can" emphasizes the possibilities and advantages these destinations provide For instance, brochures B4 (p6) and B2 (p4) illustrate these points effectively.
The number of modal verbs “will” and “can” in each brochure is presented in the table below:
Table 4.7: The number of modal verbs “will” and “can” in each brochure
The modal verb "will" is predominantly used in brochures B3 and B9, while "can" appears frequently in brochures B1, B8, B3, and B9 These brochures utilize "will" and "can" to convey concepts of possibility, certainty, and necessity, which are essential for tourists to understand.
Personal pronouns
The personal pronouns “you” and “we” are the most commonly used pronouns in the analyzed brochures The other pronouns rarely found in the data like “they”,
Pronouns like "she," "he," and "it" serve as cohesive devices, referencing previously mentioned nouns, locations, or individuals, with an informative communicative purpose In contrast, personal pronouns such as "you" and "we" are strategically used to engage and persuade tourists, fostering a friendly and inviting tone "You" directly addresses the readers, while "we" represents the writer, creating a sense of connection The prevalence of these pronouns is illustrated in Figure 5.
Figure 4.2 Personal pronouns “you”, “we” and their corresponding
"we" & the corresponding you/we your/our you/us yourself/ourselves
Using the pronouns "you" and "we" creates a friendly and inviting tone that fosters a sense of involvement, encouraging readers to explore tourist attractions The second-person pronoun "you" makes readers feel personally valued and understood, highlighting the writers' eagerness to assist This approach effectively conveys readers' needs, desires, and hopes, leaving a lasting impression of care and attention As a result, readers feel special and unique, which is why personal pronouns are extensively utilized in travel brochures.
(496 times), below are some examples:
(33) Each of our products is built with extensive study about where you go, what you see, how you do and who you meet (B8)
(34) ITS‟ highly trained and professional employees are dedicated to providing you a wide range of quality services tailored to meet your needs (B1)
(35) Feel the wind in your hair and enjoy the freedom of the open road!
The use of the first-person pronoun "we" in advertising creates an impression of obedience and a commitment to excellent service, suggesting that readers can relax and enjoy their leisure while leaving the work to the advertisers This dynamic is exemplified in examples 42-44.
(36) We can be your most trusted local partner in Vietnam for all travel related arrangements in Vietnam (B3)
(37) Our tours are designed around what the clients want and need to create a once in-a-lifetime experience (B9)
(38) Contact us for the full descriptive, detailed itineraries, as well as information on other sites and activities (B1)
Writers often use personal pronouns to tailor their message, emphasizing how their products and services cater to the specific needs and benefits of the reader This approach effectively encourages potential customers to explore the offerings and consider visiting the tourist destination.
49 attractions It is clear that the communicative purpose of using first and second person pronouns is persuasive.
Others
In addition to the five main lexical features of travel brochures in Vietnam, there are less prominent characteristics, such as newly coined expressions These expressions arise when writers think in Vietnamese and translate directly into English, resulting in language that may not sound natural or idiomatic to native English speakers Although these newly coined phrases are not found in Standard English dictionaries, they are often understood by both Vietnamese individuals and foreign audiences, with or without additional context Trinh (2002) provides numerous examples of such expressions used by Vietnamese writers.
The phrase "serving time," derived from the Vietnamese "giờ phục vụ" (where "giờ" means "time" and "phục vụ" means "serving"), is commonly misunderstood in English In native English, "serving time" specifically refers to the duration spent in prison For business contexts, the appropriate terms to use are "business hours" or "operating hours."
Travel brochures in Vietnam frequently feature newly coined expressions, such as "hidden pleasures," which translates from the Vietnamese phrase "thú vui tiềm ẩn." This unique collocation does not exist in native English The use of such innovative phrases highlights the creativity found in Vietnamese travel marketing.
“equable temperatures” and “cooperative weather” is from B5 (p2) and “carbon producing transport” is from B3 (p4)
Discussion
This study investigates the lexical characteristics of travel brochures in Vietnam, a non-native English-speaking country within the Expanding Circle The analysis highlights five key lexical elements: lexical borrowing, nativized word formation processes, descriptive adjectives, modal verbs, and personal pronouns It reveals that while transliteration and loan translation are prevalent in lexical borrowing, loan blends are absent Additionally, nativized word formation processes were not identified The study finds that descriptive adjectives, particularly evaluative and emotive ones, dominate the language, with superlatives frequently used to emphasize unique features of tourist destinations Modal verbs like "will" and "can" are commonly employed to convey promise and opportunity, while personal pronouns such as "you" and "we" create a friendly and inviting tone, effectively encouraging tourists to explore these locations.
This study reveals similarities in lexical borrowing features with previous research by Haugen (1970), Ying (2012), and Kachru, Yamuna, and Cecil (2006) Notably, transliteration and loan translation are prevalent in Vietnamese English and other Southeast Asian English varieties However, this study did not identify loan blends or hybrids, contrasting with findings from Nor, Zamri & Awab (2015) and Ramly, Othman, & McLellan (2002), which reported such evidence.
In Vietnam, 51 nativized word formation processes have been identified, suggesting that the nativization of English is primarily occurring at the initial two levels of lexical borrowing: transliteration and loan translation.
Another interesting finding is new coined expressions such as “hidden pleasures” or
“cooperative weather” and this can be considered a distinctive feature of Vietnamese English
The study's findings align with previous research by Henry and Roseberry (1996), Leech (1966), Boonchayaanant (2003), Iborra and Garrido (2001), Francesconi (2004), and Pakkinen (2005), confirming that descriptive adjectives are used to enhance the allure of brochures and attractions Modal verbs like "will" and "can" are employed to convey promise and opportunity, while personal pronouns such as "you" and "we" create a friendly and inviting tone, encouraging tourists to visit However, the results regarding personal pronouns contrast with Dhitthita's (2009) findings, which identified third-person pronouns as the most frequently used.
“they” It seems possible that these results are due to the differences in the data corpus Dhitthita (2009) also deals with promotional texts, yet in the form of tourist leaflets