INTRODUCTION
Statement of the problem
As a lecturer at an English-major university, the researcher has taught various English skills courses and encountered diverse teaching situations and student profiles Through self-observation, informal student interviews, and evaluations of lesson journals, she identified significant issues in her reading class, including a lack of student motivation and varying levels of engagement in class activities These observations prompted her to investigate the situation more systematically to understand the different reactions and feelings of students towards various activities.
The researcher has identified several factors that significantly influence students' motivation, including beliefs, affective state, aptitude, personality, age, and learning styles (To and Nguyen, 2009) While all these elements merit investigation, the focus will be specifically on learning styles in relation to motivation, driven by the researcher's interest and the challenges associated with studying multiple factors simultaneously.
Since the 1970s, the theory of learning styles has gained significant attention from educational researchers, largely due to advancements in brain and psychology research focusing on individual differences The decline of behaviorism in the 1980s prompted a serious exploration of individual learning preferences as a key factor influencing student learning Notable studies from this period include Cafferty's examination of the alignment between teachers' and students' cognitive styles (1980), Dunn's research on students identifying their own learning styles (1983), and the development of learning strategies based on learning style differences (Willing, 1984, 1985, 1989, 1988) These studies revealed two critical insights: learners possess distinct preferred learning styles that shape their responses to in-class activities, and teachers' adaptation to various learning styles can significantly enhance student motivation (Hunt, 1979, quoted in Willing, 1988, p.57).
Learning styles significantly influence student motivation, prompting teachers to adapt their methods to accommodate diverse learning modes Researchers debate whether educators should align their teaching styles with students' learning preferences or encourage them to engage with various approaches The differentiated instruction model has gained traction in educational environments, as highlighted by Tomlinson (2001), who emphasizes the importance of offering a variety of activities to address students' differences, including their learning styles Although empirical studies on the effectiveness of differentiated instruction are limited, positive feedback from teachers implementing this approach in various school settings has been reported globally.
In response to the challenges faced in the classroom, the researcher initiated an action research project titled “The Effects of Teacher’s Differentiated Instructions Based on Students’ Learning Styles on Their Motivation.” This study aims to address specific classroom issues, recognizing that while existing solutions from other studies may be effective, they may not be applicable to her unique context Action research is chosen for its focus on practical problem-solving rather than theoretical exploration Upon completion, this study is expected to contribute valuable insights to a relatively overlooked area of research in Vietnam and may serve as a resource for other educators facing similar challenges.
Aims, objectives and research questions of the research
a Aims and objectives of the research
This study investigates the interplay between learning styles, differentiated instruction, and academic motivation within higher education classrooms The action research project aims to address the issue of low motivation levels, which may contribute to students' underachievement at the university level.
In the light of that general aim, some specific objectives are drawn up to outline the actual directions of the study as follows:
1) To identify the given class‟s learning styles and current level of academic motivation;
2) To project and implement some instructional differentiations upon the students‟ different learning modalities aiming to improve their academic motivation;
3) To evaluate the impact of the psycho-pedagogical intervention on the students‟ motivation level
In brief, the objectives of the research could be specified into these research questions:
1) What are the students‟ learning styles and their current level of motivation? (Identifying the problem)
2) To what extent does the new intervention cater for the students‟ learning styles?
3) How does differentiated instruction approach affect the students‟ motivation level in terms of their motivational intensity, lecturer evaluation and English learning desire?
Significance of the research
This action research aims to address the lack of motivation among students learning English as a foreign language, with findings that may guide future studies on the issue If differentiated instruction proves effective, it could offer a viable solution not only for the researcher but also for other educators facing similar challenges with demotivated students Furthermore, the comprehensive literature review and reliable research tools utilized in this study can serve as a valuable reference for other researchers and teachers seeking to understand learning styles, differentiated instruction, and student motivation.
Besides, another simultaneous consequence of this action research is to raise students‟ awareness of their learning style differences Many students hardly
Understanding individual learning styles is crucial for students, as they often admire and imitate the methods of advanced classmates in hopes of improving their academic performance However, this impulsive approach can lead to failure if the adopted learning styles do not align with their natural preferences, resulting in decreased confidence and motivation In this study, after conducting learning style and motivation surveys, the findings will be shared with the students to aid their personal development If the researcher’s hypothesis regarding differentiated instruction based on learning styles proves accurate, it could significantly enhance student motivation.
While this single action research study may not significantly contribute to the existing literature or persuade policymakers and school administrators to alter methodologies or curricula, conducting additional similar studies with confirmed findings could lead to meaningful changes in educational practices.
Scope of the research
Action research allows teachers to address specific challenges within their classrooms, focusing on issues such as classroom management, instructional strategies, material usage, and student learning (Ferrance, 2000, p 3) It can be conducted individually or collaboratively, with two or more teachers working together on common subjects, either independently or with support from school principals and educational authorities.
To enhance the range of potential impacts, it is essential to consider both school-wide and district-wide action research Each of the four types of research will differ in focus, available support, potential impact, and possible side effects.
Elliott (1991, as cited in Water-Adams, 2006) asserts that the most effective and liberating action research is inherently collaborative, engaging a group of practitioners in examining and questioning the limitations of their professional experiences In contrast, individual action research often faces criticism for its shortcomings in validity, generalizability, and replicability.
Ferrance, in her booklet from the Brown University series “Themes in Education,” emphasizes that different types of action research can have unique impacts and side effects To mitigate potential disagreements that could delay or jeopardize the research process, the researcher opted to conduct an individual action research project focused on addressing the specific challenges in her own classroom This approach allows her to refine the methods before sharing them with other teachers facing similar issues and ultimately proposing the findings to school administrators for broader implementation.
The researcher conducted an individual action research study exclusively with her second-year reading class to ensure a rigorous and thorough investigation This focused approach allowed for careful data collection and analysis, ultimately leading to more accurate findings.
Organization of the research
The study and findings are intended to be shown and discussed in the following chapters:
Chapter 1: Introduction, which provides a broad view of the whole research by presenting the current problem, mentioning aims and objectives of the paper, and indicating the significance as well as the scope of the study
Chapter 2: Literature Review, which is supposed to provide theoretical background on the issue of foreign language learning styles and motivation, discuss
7 the key concepts, identify the research gap and review the related studies in the history both in Vietnam and in the world
Chapter 3: Methodology, which informs readers of the participants, the chosen instruments, procedures of data collection and analysis
Chapter 4: Results and Discussion, which presents the description an interpretation of the collected data in light of research questions
Chapter 5: Conclusion which summarizes the major findings discovered by the research and written up in the previous chapter (chap 4) Moreover, it suggests some pedagogical implication for teachers who share the same problem as the researcher The limitations and suggestions for future studies are also discussed in this last chapter
LITERATURE REVIEW8 1 Key concepts
Learning styles
Individual differences have been a subject of study for many years, initially equated with variations in intelligence as measured by standard tests before the 1970s However, advancements in psychology during this decade broadened the understanding of individual differences to encompass various factors such as learning styles, interests, motivations, gender, and age Among these factors, learning styles have gained significant attention and have been extensively researched since their introduction in the 1970s, continuing to be a focal point of study for nearly fifty years.
Recent years have seen a significant rise in the number of researchers exploring learning styles across various fields Beyond psychology, this research spans multiple domains, including management, vocational training, and particularly education at different levels and settings.
Extensive research and practitioner studies have focused on learning styles, resulting in a diverse array of definitions, theoretical frameworks, models, interpretations, and assessment measures related to this construct.
The prevalence of this educational theory, as noted by Cassidy (2004), serves as compelling evidence for its significance, offering researchers a wealth of literature to deepen their understanding However, this abundance of resources can also lead to challenges, including ambiguity, conflicting results, and difficulties in selecting appropriate measurement tools.
For novices, the terms "learning styles," "cognitive styles," and "learning strategies" can be confusing, as they are often used interchangeably in research However, it is essential to differentiate between these concepts for specific purposes According to Allport (1937, in Cassidy, 2004) and Riding & Cheema (1991, in Cassidy, 2004), a person's learning style reflects how their cognitive style is applied in educational contexts, making cognitive style a crucial aspect of learning style Meanwhile, "learning strategy" refers to the techniques employed to facilitate the learning process.
“learning style” share a lot in common, except that the latter is adapted more automatically to handle different learning tasks
Understanding learning styles begins with the fundamental idea proposed by Dunn and Dunn (1983): each individual possesses unique strengths, and these strengths can vary significantly from person to person.
Since its introduction in the 1970s, the concept of "learning style" has been the subject of extensive research and debate among scholars, leading to a variety of definitions.
Among the myriad of trees, one oak stands out as essential and cannot be overlooked Keefe's (1979) definition has been frequently referenced in various studies on learning styles, as noted by Reid (1987), Willing (1988), and Coffield (2004).
Learning styles are stable cognitive, emotional, and physical behaviors that indicate how individuals perceive and engage with their learning environments These consistent patterns of functioning reveal the fundamental reasons behind learning behaviors.
Three components of learning styles referred to in the definition could be presented as follows:
The sensory channels (one or more senses) individuals rely on to perceive, understand, organize and retain knowledge (Dunn and Dunn, 1979; R Dunn, 1983; Reid, 1987)
Primary importance in shaping the way information is sought, and the way it is processed (Swassing, 1979)
Determine the state of the entire organism, the senses and the nervous system (Dunn and Dunn, 1979a)
Affective factors (i.e anxiety) influencing the person‟s level of achievement (Naiman et al 1975)
The Keefe‟s idea of these components were shared by Dunn, Dunn and Price
(1978, acknowledged in Willing, 1988, p 56) and even specified more into 18 identified learning style elements
In this study, the term "learning style" is defined according to Keefe (1979), emphasizing sensory channels and perceptual learning preferences as key components of learning style differences.
11 b Learning style theories, models and measures
The study of learning styles has garnered significant attention from researchers globally This review will focus on the most prominent learning style models and instruments discussed in major review papers, intentionally omitting lesser-known models that merely adapt key constructs for small samples or introduce new labels for existing ideas.
In the review entitled “Learning Styles and Pedagogy in Post-16 learning” by Coffield et al (2004), 71 learning models which had been developed for the last 40-
50 years were listed Among them, the reviewers identified 13 major models mostly basing on their popularity
This paper focuses on the most prominent learning style models, specifically highlighting David Kolb's Learning Style Inventory (LSI) and Dunn, Dunn, and Price's LSI, which are widely recognized in the UK and US Additionally, Joy Reid's model from 1987 is included in the review due to its relevance for the researcher’s subsequent use of his self-report questionnaire.
David Kolb’s learning styles model
David Kolb (1984) defined learning styles as individual preferences that emphasize four fundamental learning theories: Concrete Experience (CE), Reflective Observation (RO), Abstract Conceptualization (AC), and Active Experimentation (AE) These theories are categorized into two approaches: the experience-grasping approach, which includes CE and AC, and the experience-transforming approach.
There are four basic types of learning styles, determined by the dominance of experience-grasping and experience-transforming factors within an individual These styles are categorized as RO (Reflective Observation) and AE (Active Experimentation), highlighting the unique ways individuals process and engage with information.
Learning style Dominant factors Characteristic features
Converger AC (thinking) and AE
Practical applications of ideas and deductive reasoning
CE (feeling) and RO (watching)
Imaginative and good at coming up with ideas
Seeing things from different perspectives
Assimilator AC (thinking) and RO
Capable of creating theoretical model with inductive reasoning
Accommodator CE (feeling) and AE
Actively engaging with the world and actually doing things instead of merely reading about or studying them
Table 1 Kolb’s model of learning styles
Figure 1 Kolb’s model of learning styles
Dunn and Dunn’s VAK/ VAKT models
Rita Dunn and Kenneth Dunn have spent more than 35 years devoting on the studies concerning the learning styles (identification, instruments and assessment of learning styles, etc.)
Dunn, Dunn, and Price (1978, cited in Willing, 1988) identified perceptual strengths as a key component of their learning style model, which includes 18 distinct elements This model categorizes learning preferences into three main types: visual (preference for images, maps, and diagrams), auditory (preference for listening to lectures and music), and kinesthetic (preference for hands-on activities) In the American education system, this approach is commonly referred to as VAK, or VAKT when tactile learning is included, emphasizing the importance of engaging students through various sensory modalities (Coffield et al., 2004).
Differentiated instruction
a Definition of differentiated instruction approach
Instruction differentiation theory emphasizes the need for varied instructional approaches to accommodate diverse student differences To ensure equal success in the classroom, students with varying needs should have access to multiple learning options This necessity for differentiated instruction is supported by significant findings from brain research, which align with the beliefs of many experienced educators.
No two children are alike
No two children learn in the identical way
An enriched environment for one student is not necessarily enriched for another
In the classroom we should teach children to think for themselves http://www.ascd.org
Instruction differentiation, as defined by expert Tomlinson (2000), involves tailoring teaching methods to meet the individual needs of students This approach requires teachers to vary aspects such as content, process, products, or the learning environment, enabling them to respond proactively to the diverse learning styles present in the classroom By implementing differentiation strategies, educators aim to enhance the learning experience and maintain engagement among all students.
Differentiated instruction is designed to enhance learning flexibility, improve access to materials, and increase success opportunities for all students in diverse classrooms It provides multiple options for students to engage with information, comprehend concepts, and demonstrate their understanding of what they have learned (Tomlinson, 2001).
Differentiating instruction means teachers‟ “adjusting the curriculum and presentation of information to learners rather than expecting students to modify themselves for the curriculum” (Hall, Strangman & Meyer, 2003)
Differentiated instruction involves acknowledging the diverse background knowledge, readiness levels, learning preferences, and interests of students, and responding accordingly This teaching approach aims to cater to students with varying abilities within the same classroom, focusing on maximizing individual growth and success By meeting each student at their unique starting point, educators can effectively support their learning journey.
Figure 2 Learning Cycle and Decision Factors Used in Planning and
Tomlinson (2000) clearly drew up a differentiation guideline indicating that there were three elements in the curriculum which could be differentiated to benefit students in diverse classroom
Teachers can differentiate at least three classroom elements based on student readiness, interest, or learning profile:
– what the student needs to learn or how the student will get access to the information
Several elements and materials (acts, concepts, generalizations or principles, attitudes, and skills) are used to support instructional content
Tasks and objectives to learning goals need aligning
Instruction is concept-focused and principle-driven and should be adjusted in complexity level to suit diverse learners
– activities in which the student engages in order to make sense of or master the content
Flexible grouping is consistently used
Classroom management benefits students and teachers
– culminating projects that ask the student to rehearse, apply, and extend what he or she has learned in a unit
Initial and on-going assessment of student readiness and growth are essential
Students are active and responsible explorers
22 for student responses should be varied
Table 4 Three classroom elements for differentiation
(Tomlinson, 2000) c Features of differentiated instruction
Tomlinson (2001) showed 7 key features of differentiated instruction as follows:
Effective differentiated instruction requires proactive planning by teachers to address the diverse needs of their students By anticipating the varying abilities and learning styles within the classroom, educators can develop multiple strategies for facilitating understanding and expression of knowledge This forward-thinking approach enables teachers to engage all learners actively, rather than merely responding to challenges as they arise, which is common in undifferentiated classrooms.
Differentiated instruction focuses on the quality of assignments rather than the quantity of work assigned to students While some believe that it requires more effort for advanced learners and less for those who struggle, educational expert Tomlinson (2001) argues that modifying the nature of assignments is what truly impacts student learning.
Differentiated instruction, combined with ongoing assessments, is essential for maximizing student potential Teachers can evaluate student progress through informal conversations, class discussions, individual work, and observations, allowing them to identify effective strategies tailored to each learner's unique talents and needs.
“Differentiated instruction provides multiple approaches to content, process and product”
Differentiated instruction is a student-centered approach that ensures lessons are engaging, relevant, and interesting for all learners Since students have varying levels of understanding and unique ways of connecting with the material, providing multiple pathways to achieve lesson objectives is essential This method acknowledges individual differences and fosters a more inclusive learning environment, ultimately enhancing student engagement and understanding.
“Differentiated instruction is a blend of whole-class, group and individual instruction.”
Differentiated instruction is an evolving process where teachers strive to tailor their teaching methods to best suit their students' needs at any given moment As students progress, the initial learning matches may become less effective, prompting teachers to make necessary adjustments to ensure continued success in their instruction.
Figure 3: The Flow of Instruction in a Differentiated Classroom
In "How to Differentiate Instruction in Mixed-Ability Classrooms," Carol Tomlinson (2001) outlines 17 essential strategies for teachers to effectively implement differentiated instruction She emphasizes that there is no one-size-fits-all approach, as the goal is to accommodate the diverse needs of students Successful differentiation relies on various unique factors, including learners' individual styles, personalities, and learning profiles.
Here are 17 “megastrategies” which can be used to successfully differentiate instructions to make learning fit students better:
To effectively differentiate instruction based on student readiness, interest, and learning profiles, it is essential to establish a strong rationale that can be communicated to both students and their parents By clearly explaining these "new rules of the game," we can foster understanding and support, reducing resistance and encouraging active participation in innovative learning methods.
Start differentiating instruction at a pace that feels comfortable for you The speed at which you implement differentiated strategies should depend on your readiness as a teacher, benefiting both you and your students Begin from a point where you feel most confident and enjoy the process, ensuring a positive experience for everyone involved.
To enhance student success, it's essential to implement time-differentiated activities that cater to varying attention spans Advanced students typically maintain focus for longer periods compared to their struggling peers Therefore, when designing differentiated lessons, educators should ensure that the duration of class activities is shorter than the attention spans of both advanced and struggling students, promoting engagement and effective learning for all.
Implementing an "anchor activity" allows teachers to concentrate on their students while minimizing downtime in the classroom Advanced students often complete tasks more quickly than their peers, leading to periods of inactivity Therefore, having engaging anchor activities can effectively manage this dynamic and keep all students engaged.
To effectively manage classroom dynamics, teachers should prepare 25 anchor activities tailored to students' readiness and interests These activities serve as valuable resources for students who finish their work early, allowing them to remain engaged without requiring teacher assistance This approach enables educators to dedicate more time to support those who need it while ensuring that all students are involved in meaningful tasks.
Learning motivation in ESL/EFL context
Motivation is a crucial factor for teachers, as it significantly impacts students' ability to achieve lesson and course objectives Various elements, such as material complexity, teaching methods, and learning resources, can hinder student success However, poor motivation, often evident through signs like slumped postures, lack of participation, or drowsiness in class, is a critical concern According to Tucker et al (2002), motivation directly influences academic achievement, while other factors only affect learners indirectly through their motivation levels.
Dürnyei (1994) identified motivation as a key factor in learning a second or foreign language (L2), highlighting that students lacking motivation often face challenges in their academic performance The foundational studies on motivation were conducted by Canadian psychologists Robert Gardner and Wallace Lambert, who pioneered the use of scientific research methods and standardized assessment techniques, establishing high standards for research in this field.
29 bringing L2 motivation research to maturity” However, Gardner‟s motivation construct was then challenged and degraded as being too “influential” or
Dürnyei highlighted that the concept of "dominance" often led to the neglect of other important ideas He noted that Gardner's Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) encompasses a broad range of social environmental factors, rather than concentrating solely on academic motivation, although it does include some educational aspects through questions related to classroom motivation.
Academic motivation refers to a student's desire to engage with academic subjects, characterized by their approach, persistence, and interest, as they measure their competence against established performance standards This concept is a specific aspect of effectance motivation, which is the inherent need to succeed and effectively navigate one's environment.
This study adopts Wlodwoski's (1985, as cited in Root, 1999) comprehensive definition of motivation, which encompasses four key processes: it arouses and instigates behavior, provides direction or purpose to that behavior, sustains the persistence of behavior, and influences the selection or preference for specific behaviors.
Gardner and Lambert (1972) mentioned the following factors which are rather related to motivation that will attempt to relate the second language ability to these two functions
1 Integrative motivation, defined as the desire to be a part of recognized or important members of the community or that society that speak the second language It is based on interest in learning the second language because of their need to learn about, associate or socialize with the people who use it or because of purpose or intention to participate or integrate in the second
30 language using the same language in that community; but sometimes it involves emotion or affective factors a great deal (Saville-Troike, 2006, p 86)
2 Instrumental motivation involves the concepts of purely practical value in learning the second language in order to increase learners‟ careers or business opportunities, giving them more prestige and power, accessing scientific and technical information, or just passing a course of their study in school (Saville- Troike, 2006, p 86)
Furthermore, the motivation is further classified into two main categories as the following:
1) Extrinsic motivation refers to a desire to get a reward and avoid punishment
External factors play a crucial role in motivating learners to engage in educational activities, such as completing homework, achieving good grades, or satisfying teachers (Arnold, 2000, p 14) Both integrative and instrumental motivations fall under the category of extrinsic motivation, highlighting the importance of external incentives in the learning process (Harmer, 1991, p 4).
Extrinsic motivation, driven by external rewards and punishments, can negatively affect students' learning While the promise of rewards may initially boost attendance and engagement, it often leads to a lack of intrinsic interest in the subject When rewards are removed or punishments are absent, students may lose motivation and become disinterested in attending classes or learning the language This reliance on external incentives can hinder the development of a genuine passion for learning.
2) Intrinsic motivation refers to learning itself having its own reward (Arnold,
2000, p 14) It means the learners are willingly and voluntarily (not compulsorily)
Intrinsic motivation plays a crucial role in students' learning, as it stems from their internal desire to learn rather than relying on external rewards This type of motivation has no negative consequences and encourages students to engage in learning driven by their own will According to Lightbown and Spada (1999), teachers have limited influence on students' intrinsic motivation due to their diverse backgrounds; thus, creating a supportive classroom environment is essential for fostering motivation Understanding the components of motivation is vital for educators to enhance students' learning experiences.
Motivation is a dynamic and multifaceted concept, making it challenging for researchers to define it without oversimplifying or restricting its meaning Over the past few decades, significant efforts have been made to develop various motivation constructs One notable example is Gardner's integrative-instrumental system, which has gained popularity in the field.
“simplicity and intuitively convincing character” Nevertheless, this construct is
Dürnyei (1994) criticized Gardner's construct for being "too static and restricted," prompting further research to enhance it by incorporating additional elements such as intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, intellectual curiosity, and factors related to past successes and failures This expanded framework also considers the need for achievement, self-confidence, classroom goal structures, and various situational learning motives, including classroom events, climate, group cohesion, course content, teaching materials, teacher feedback, and assessment methods Building on Gardner's initial model and subsequent studies, Dürnyei has synthesized these components into a comprehensive construct with three key elements.
Figure 5: Components of foreign language learning motivation
Related studies
2.1 Evidence of effectiveness of differentiated instruction as a classroom practice
Hall, Strangman, and Meyer (2003) highlighted a significant lack of empirical research supporting the validity of differentiated instruction, indicating a notable gap in the literature Consequently, future studies are essential to explore this area further While the overall approach to differentiated instruction remains unvalidated, its individual components have been subject to investigation.
Differentiated instruction theory, rooted in educational research since the mid-1980s, emphasizes key components such as readiness, effective management procedures, and engaging learners A prime example is the concept of "readiness," which advocates for presenting content that slightly exceeds learners' current mastery levels, encouraging them to stretch their abilities This principle is grounded in the work of Lev Vygotsky, highlighting the importance of pushing students just beyond their unassisted learning capabilities.
2003) and the zone of proximal development (ZPD), the range at which learning takes place, by Fisher et al (1980, in Tomlinson, 2000)
Despite limited empirical research, numerous testimonials and classroom examples highlight the effectiveness of differentiated instruction Tomlinson (2000) noted positive classroom improvements from implementing a comprehensive differentiation model, initially aimed at gifted learners who struggled with content Due to its potential to enhance learning (Hall et al., 2003) and the diverse nature of modern classrooms, this approach was soon adapted for students of all abilities Over the years, various websites emerged, offering valuable resources, advice, and lesson illustrations for educators For instance, Lewiss and Batts (as cited in Tukbure, 2011) found that a five-year differentiated instruction program increased promotion rates from 79% to 94.8% following end-of-year assessments, demonstrating significant student performance improvements.
The main drawback of this approach is teachers‟ unfamiliarity with this concept when they all can picture exactly how a “single-size instruction class” is
Teachers often struggle to envision what a differentiated instruction classroom entails, as highlighted by Tomlinson (2001) This lack of clarity can lead to a phenomenon known as "differentiation phobia," causing educators to hesitate in implementing this effective teaching strategy.
Brandt (1998) explained the link between the conditions in which people learn best and differentiation Apparently, the link indicates the rationale for differentiated classroom as follows:
Figure 6: The rationale behind differentiated classes
2.2 Differentiated instruction and learning style
Differentiated instruction is closely linked to learning styles, as the latter serves as a motivational factor for the former Learning style theory posits that each learner is unique, possessing varying abilities, interests, and learning needs, which encompass cognitive, affective, and physiological behaviors Extensive research has shown that students interpret and make sense of what they are taught in different ways This "meaning-making process" is influenced by individual factors, including prior knowledge and personal learning preferences (National Research Council, 1990, in Tomlinson, 2001).
While state-designed curricula should remain consistent, it's essential to tailor teaching methodologies in diverse classrooms to meet individual student preferences and learning processes This approach ensures that all students can achieve success in an optimal learning environment Differentiated instruction emerges as a valuable strategy to address various learning styles, driven by the inherent diversity among students Tulbure (2011) identified three theoretical and methodological reasons supporting the need for differentiated instruction based on learners' unique styles.
Consequently to a meta-analysis performed by Sullivan [apud 15], it was established that a flexible instruction, differentiated upon learning styles, leads to an improvement of the level of academic achievement;
Recent studies in the field of learning psychology revealed the fact that adults are individuals whose learning style and rhythm is stabilized
[12], an aspect that implies respect for and capitalization of inter- individual differences within the frame of higher education;
The experimental intervention took place during the Pedagogy seminars, aligning with the curriculum requirements for pedagogic disciplines studied by second-year students This approach underscores the importance of differentiating instruction based on students' learning styles, which facilitates the achievement of educational objectives and adherence to the curriculum content.
Differentiating instruction, a practice utilized for gifted and talented students over the past two decades, has gained popularity as an effective teaching strategy to accommodate diverse learning styles and enhance student engagement The concept of "learning style" is frequently referenced in differentiation literature For instance, Tomlinson (2001) illustrates that a student with kinesthetic strengths and reading difficulties might better understand a story by acting out its events while listening to someone read it aloud, followed by reading the story independently This approach provides various pathways for students to learn according to their unique preferences.
Learning styles differ among students and can change over time, which is why differentiated instruction offers three or four task options for the entire class, ensuring that every learner finds an engaging activity Unlike the individualized instruction of the 1970s that required teachers to create unique lessons for each student, differentiated instruction emphasizes meaningful learning and powerful ideas for all students Teachers may need to work with the whole class, in small groups, or with individuals to achieve this goal (Tomlinson, 2001).
To effectively prepare for instruction, teachers must identify students' learning styles using a reliable inventory created by experts By understanding each student's strengths and weaknesses, educators can tailor their instruction to meet diverse performance indicators, ensuring that students can access knowledge effectively and develop essential skills While core curriculum concepts remain consistent for all learners, the complexity of content, learning activities, and products should be adjusted to challenge every student without causing frustration.
Differentiated instruction offers four key strategies to achieve teaching goals, one of which involves adapting the learning environment and accommodating diverse learning styles While theories by Dunn and Dunn, David Kolb, and Howard Gardner may not align perfectly, they collectively enhance the learning experience This instructional approach aims to provide students with a variety of teaching methods, allowing them to thrive in their preferred learning environments while also encouraging the exploration of other styles for a more comprehensive educational development.
Figure 7: Range of activities in a differentiated classroom
2.3 Differentiated instruction and ESL/ EFL motivation (In the world and in Vietnam)
Academic motivation can be enhanced through various strategies, particularly by offering students choices in class activities that promote their sense of autonomy This approach highlights the connection between differentiated instruction and increased academic motivation, emphasizing the importance of tailoring learning experiences to meet individual student needs.
40 instructions in classroom provides a wide range of activities, which helps every student “find learning a better fit much of the time” (Tomlinson, 2001), thereby increasing their motivation to attend class
Research by Tulbure (2011) reveals a significant correlation between learning styles, differentiation, and intrinsic motivation The study demonstrates that tailoring instruction to align with students' learning styles enhances their intrinsic academic motivation and overall achievement.
METHODOLOGY
Participants
The study involved 26 second-year university students, aged 19 to 21, predominantly female (89%), who had just completed their first year The students hailed from diverse backgrounds: 23% from urban areas, 57.7% from rural regions, 11.5% from coastal areas, and 7.7% from mountainous regions Despite a standardized curriculum mandated by the Ministry of Education and Training in Vietnam, the quality of education varies significantly across different areas due to disparities in facilities and teaching staff Consequently, while all students passed the university entrance exam, this does not indicate uniformity in their abilities, English proficiency, learning styles, or motivation Observations suggest that students from less developed areas excel in grammar due to a prevalent grammar-translation teaching method, whereas urban students benefit from more exposure to communicative approaches and additional classes with foreign teachers.
Well-equipped classrooms in urban areas enable teachers to diversify learning methods, allowing city students to develop greater adaptability and flexibility compared to their peers in remote regions.
1.2 Description of the major and course
The university offers a Bachelor of Arts degree in English language teacher education, requiring students to complete a series of courses over four years In the first two years, students focus on enhancing their English proficiency through skill courses in speaking, reading, listening, and writing The final two years emphasize English teaching methodology, alongside theoretical subjects like research methodology, critical thinking, and translation, with a combination of compulsory and optional courses Additionally, students gain practical experience through a practicum in selected high schools.
In the second year, students are required to simultaneously master three courses during the first semester: 3A (English for Social Purposes), 3B (English for Academic Purposes), and 3C (Test-Taking Skills) These courses build on the foundational knowledge gained in the previous year, specifically from courses 1A, 1B, and 1C in the first semester, and 2A, 2B, and 2C in the second semester Following these, students will progress to the sequencing courses 4A, 4B, and 4C This research focuses specifically on course 3A, providing an in-depth examination of its content and objectives during the first semester of the second year.
This course aims to help students achieve a B2+ level in the CEFR and/or a Band 6.5 in IELTS It emphasizes the sustainable development of integrated language skills—Listening, Reading, Speaking, and Writing—through competence-based and task-based teaching approaches A diverse range of practice activities is included to enhance proficiency.
This course comprises 43 tasks designed to enhance students' communicative language competence, aligning with the targeted CEFR level Additionally, it aims to guide students in developing effective learning strategies for improved language acquisition.
- Lecturers in Division 2, ULIS, VNU (complied & edited) (2013) Reading Supplementary Materials
1.3 Description and reflection of the teacher (the researcher)
My passion for English language was so great that I did not have to think much before selecting my university After four years studying here, I graduated in
In 2011, I earned a Distinction degree through a fast-track program, which paved the way for my role as a lecturer at this university With two years of teaching experience, including a year during my studies, I acknowledge my status as a novice teacher facing challenges in classroom management However, I benefit greatly from the support of experienced colleagues and valuable insights gained from the works of renowned researchers and educators worldwide Consequently, I am witnessing steady progress in my teaching skills each day.
44 teaching which sometimes resulted right in students‟ motivation and college achievement
The investigated class was a mixed-ability group, where a minority of students displayed a strong work ethic and motivation to advance their learning In contrast, the majority of the class exhibited passivity in their studies, despite their desire to achieve academic success.
Class problem from the teacher‟s perspective
When I first came in this class, it was quite easy to see that these students had serious difficulty in understanding what I am talking to them in English, and even some of them could not use English to communicate at all When I asked one of them several simple familiar questions such as could you tell me something special about you, the student was so confused that she had to seek translating support from the others sitting around This appeared quite surprising to me because these students had finished their first year They were supposed to master English as a communicative tool, at least in daily life context In the second week, when I started teaching the first unit according to the syllabus, it was even more problematic because most of them (except some students counted on one hand) were hardly involved in the lesson When I asked them elicit questions related to the lesson, they either looked down and stuck their eyes on the table or simply looked at nowhere I admitted it was a trauma which really made me think to look for reasons and then solutions to the problems
At first, I formed some hypotheses about the causes of the problem:
Their low level of English proficiency which leads to a serious lack of confidence may prevent them from proactively participating in class activities;
Their lack of motivation which is caused by their not-accommodated different learning styles may discourage them to achieve success in classroom
The initial hypotheses motivated the commencement of this action research to evaluate the underlying theories of the issues Upon reviewing their study records from the first year, I confirmed the validity of the first hypothesis.
Figure 8: The proportions of the students by their study record in the first year
The pie chart illustrates the distribution of students' academic performance at the conclusion of their freshman year, revealing that 85% of students achieved a GPA below 3.0 Notably, more than one-third of these students recorded a GPA between 1.0 and 2.0 by the end of the second semester.
I conducted a motivation survey to assess the students' interest in learning within the classroom The findings revealed a significant lack of motivation among the majority of students, regardless of whether they were categorized as "advanced" or "struggling."
46 presented in the next part A learning style survey was also delivered to the students in hope to find the cause for the motivation shortage.
Action research
According to Mackey and Gass (2005), “an all-encompassing definition of action research” seems not to exist In fact, action research, also known as
“collaborative research” or “practitioner research” or “teacher-initiated research,” can be defined and undertaken in many different ways in the field
Classroom research is often conducted by external researchers focused on theory construction and testing, which frequently overlooks the perspectives of teachers In contrast, research that stems from teachers' own challenges and concerns is crucial, as action research empowers educators to seek solutions to their specific classroom issues.
Action research is considered the most effective method for discovering solutions tailored to specific contexts While findings from other researchers may demonstrate effectiveness, they are not universally applicable Therefore, it is essential for teachers to engage in action research alongside their teaching practices (Waters-Adams, 2006).
“Action research is a process in which participants examine their own educational practice systematically and carefully, using the techniques of research
It is based on the following assumptions:
- Teachers and principals work best on problems they have identified for themselves
- Teachers and principals become more effective when encouraged to examine and assess their own work and then consider ways of working differently
- Teachers and principals help each other by working collaboratively
- Working with colleagues helps teachers and principals in their professional development”
Action research, as described by Ferrance (2000), is a cyclical process distinct from traditional library projects or mere problem-solving efforts aimed at diagnosing issues Instead, it focuses on identifying genuine educational challenges, collecting relevant data, reflecting on the findings, and determining actionable steps The primary aim of action research is to enhance educational environments, ultimately benefiting students.
The researcher emphasized the importance of action research as a practical approach to addressing classroom challenges, prioritizing personalized solutions over generalized findings from other educators' experiences.
Research instruments
The adaptation of motivation and learning style questionnaire
According to Dürnyei (2003), questionnaires are a widely utilized method for data collection in both quantitative and qualitative research due to their ease of construction and efficiency A well-crafted questionnaire can significantly save researchers time, money, and effort while effectively gathering substantial information in a systematic manner, often within an hour.
According to Dürnyei's book on questionnaires, they can be categorized into three types based on the respondent: factual, behavioral, and attitudinal In this research, the questionnaire utilized was of the attitudinal type, aimed at identifying the learning preferences of student participants, specifically focusing on their interests in particular activities.
While questionnaires are commonly used in research, there is a misconception that anyone can create an effective one, as noted by Oppenheim (1992, cited in Dửrnyei, 2003) This belief often confuses casual questions with the structured design required for a successful questionnaire In reality, not everyone possesses the skills to craft a well-designed questionnaire that accurately gathers the necessary information A poorly constructed questionnaire can significantly undermine even the most engaging research topics (Dửrnyei).
2003) For these reasons, the researcher decided not to design a questionnaire by herself, but adapting existing ones whose validity and reliability have been already proved over time
The researcher decided to adapt Perceptual Learning-Style Preference Questionnaire (PLSPQ) developed by Reid (1984) as the measuring instrument of students‟ learning styles, particularly for learners of foreign language
The survey's validity was confirmed using the split-half method, leading to a refinement of the learning styles subset from 10 to 5 statements after correlation analysis According to Sabeh et al (2011), Reid's PLSPQ has been extensively utilized in various studies, ensuring its established validity and reliability This "user-friendly" PLSPQ features 30 randomly ordered statements, which participants respond to using a 5-point Likert scale.
“strong disagree to strongly agree” Some questions were repeated to increase the internal consistency of the questionnaire after being paraphrased a bit
The PLSPQ was chosen as the research instrument due to its relevance; however, modifications were necessary to enhance clarity and prevent misunderstandings Specifically, question 15 was replaced, question 16 was translated, and question 17 was exemplified The questionnaire was not fully translated into the students' first language, with the exception of the instructions and the in-bracket translations for certain questions.
16) because the language use in each statement was quite simple and easy to understand Moreover, if some repeated statements were in Vietnamese, the students would easily find out and consider them as “the ridiculous trick.”
The PLSPQ questionnaire also included its scoring sheet which guided the user how to elicit the respondent‟s learning styles via 30 questions
Due to the assumption that students may not be familiar with the term "learning styles," a concise explanation was given during the administration of the survey Additionally, the questionnaire clearly stated the assurance of confidentiality and anonymity to participants.
50 b Motivation questionnaire (adapted from Gardner’s AMTB)
Despite some criticisms from researchers like Dürnyei (1994), Gardner's Attitude Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) is widely recognized for its validity and reliability in motivation research Originally developed by Gardner and Lambert in 1958, the AMTB was designed to assess the non-linguistic factors of motivation and attitude among English-speaking Canadian students learning French This questionnaire has since been adapted and utilized in various studies on language learners' motivation across the globe (e.g., Clement, Gardner & Smythe, 1977; Laine, 1977; Gordon, 1980; Muchnick & Wolfe, 1982) The AMTB examines learners' motivation and attitudes towards the target language through six distinct categories.
Integrative orientation: learners‟ motivation for learning English is for their daily life or social purpose;
Instrumental orientation: learners need to acquire language usage skills to a proficiency level for pursuing knowledge in their specific fields of study;
Motivational intensity: the level of learners‟ motivation in learning a language as a second/foreign language;
Desire to learn English: the insight into how strong is the students‟ desire to learn the language;
Parental/Lecturer’s encouragement: the effects of these two factors on students‟ motivation in learning English; and
The rating of English skills: the supplementary and complementary information which can be linked to other factors under study
To enhance respondent commitment and minimize administrative time, some researchers have opted for the mini-AMTB version, which consists of just 12 items compared to the original 104 items in the AMTB.
Guilford (1954) instead of the full AMTB Despite its small number of survey items
The mini version of the AMTB consists of 12 items instead of the original 104, while still maintaining the essential conceptual framework of the full AMTB Each item in this condensed version aligns with a corresponding scale from the complete AMTB, ensuring consistency and relevance.
Figure 9: Equivalent scales of 12 mini-AMTB items
On the other hand, Gardner (2004) suggested that the “Guilford style” mini- AMTB should not be used as a substitute for the full AMTB The reason was that
Single item scales often suffer from significant measurement errors and offer a limited range of response options, which can affect how these items relate to other variables This restriction, with only one item per scale measuring motivation and attitude, limits the depth of measurement and may compromise the validity and reliability of survey results.
To address the limitations of the mini-AMTB, the researcher modified key sections of the full AMTB to create a tailored list of survey questions for participating students.
The adaptation of the AMTB for this research utilized an English-language version, chosen for its alignment with the study's overall language This version was originally translated for Gardner's international research project and specifically designed for students learning English as a foreign language The similarity between the original survey subjects and the participants in this study enhances the questionnaire's relevance However, it is important to note that the original subjects were secondary school students, while the participants in this research are university students, indicating a difference in age range.
To enhance the study's focus and maintain the content validity of the AMTB, the researcher adapted the survey by selecting specific categories that align with the research objectives, including motivation intensity and lecturer encouragement, thereby reducing the volume of data for analysis.
The survey, referred to as "English teacher evaluation," aimed to assess the desire to learn English among participants While ten items from the selected scale were retained, modifications were made to the English teacher evaluation section Originally designed for secondary school students with a single English teacher, the English-version AMTB was adapted for university English majors who typically have at least two English teachers instructing different skills in a semester Consequently, the items in the English teacher evaluation were revised to specify "English reading teacher."
Procedure of data collection
In phase 1, the PLSPQ questionnaire was administered to a class of second-year English majors to identify problems, and the collected data was visually represented in a chart for the students Additionally, the AMTB motivation questionnaire was distributed to assess the students' levels of motivation.
55 were usually in a reading lesson before the new differentiated instruction approach was employed
In Phase 2 of the intervention, the researcher will develop a hypothesis based on data collected from two questionnaires and implement a differentiated instruction teaching approach aimed at enhancing student motivation by accommodating individual learning styles Throughout the classes, the teacher will engage in self-observation and reflection After the intervention, a follow-up motivation questionnaire will be distributed to assess any improvements in student motivation, and interviews will be conducted with students to gather additional insights at the end of the process.
After the cycle one of the research, the researcher would decide whether or not to conduct the second cycle based on the result of the first one
Figure 11: The research first cycle
Phase 1: PLSPQ and AMTB questionnaire + interview with some students
Phase 2: Intervention (differentiated instructions by learning styles)
Procedure of data analysis
This study employs both qualitative and quantitative methods to analyze the collected data
After gathered, the PLSPQ questionnaire will be assessed and analyzed with the guidance from the scoring sheet of the PLSPQ (see Appendix 2) provided by Reid (1987)
The AMTB motivation questionnaire will be analyzed using a scoring sheet, with each item assigned a numerical value between 1 and 6 Positively keyed items score from "strongly disagree" at 1 point to "strongly agree" at 6 points, while negatively keyed items score in reverse, from "strongly disagree" at 6 points to "strongly agree" at 1 point.
The survey allows respondents to achieve a maximum score of 180 by selecting "strongly agree" for positively keyed items and "strongly disagree" for negatively keyed ones Conversely, the minimum score is 30, reflecting a choice of all 1-point-value alternatives This scoring system indicates that higher scores correlate with greater motivation levels among participants.
The interviews with the students, classroom observation and student‟s diaries will be coded, transcribed, analyzed and quoted as the evidence in the study
All the collected data cooperated to help the researcher gain a thorough overview on the problems and seek out the best solutions