Rationale
Political language is often viewed as rigid and conventional; however, metaphors can play a crucial role in making political discourse more relatable and accessible to the public This article explores the use of metaphors in the headlines of electronic articles covering the 2012 US presidential election campaign Metaphors not only showcase the creativity of writers but also reflect the cognitive processes of the human mind, as noted by Lakoff and Johnson.
In 1980, metaphors emerged as a significant rhetorical device, influencing both language and thought processes This research paper aims to explore the use of metaphors in political article headlines through the perspective of cognitive linguistics, offering readers a clear understanding of their function and impact.
The 2012 US election campaign stood out as a significant political event that garnered global attention, featuring a close contest between Democratic President Barack Obama and Republican nominee Mitt Romney This dissertation focuses on the intense rivalry between these candidates, analyzing the metaphors used in political news headlines The research aims to explore the connection between source and target domains in structural metaphors and identify the prevalent types of metaphors utilized Additionally, it seeks to uncover the most dominant source domains, illustrating the relationship between human conceptual frameworks and political language.
Despite the limited research on metaphors in politics, it is essential to examine how these figures of speech are utilized in election news to convey meaning and influence public perception.
Aims of the study
The research paper is aimed at:
Political headlines often utilize various types of metaphors, as highlighted by Lakoff and Johnson in their influential book "Metaphors We Live By" (2003) These metaphors shape public perception and understanding of political issues, illustrating how language can influence thought and behavior in the political arena.
- Exploring how those metaphors are used in such political headlines, and identifying the most pervasive source domains of structural metaphors
- Suggesting some implications for the process of teaching, learning and translating metaphors.
Scope of the study
This study analyzes the headlines of electronic articles related to the 2012 US presidential election, sourced from reputable news agencies such as Red Alert Politics, Huff Post, CNN News, USA Today, New York Times, and CBS News These well-known outlets consistently provided updates to both American citizens and the global audience on the developments surrounding the 2012 election.
Significance of the study
This research paper offers valuable insights into linguistic units from a cognitive perspective and also enhances understanding in the field of political studies.
This research aims to inspire linguistic scholars to explore the role of metaphors in politics, enhancing readers' comprehension of their application in election news It highlights the frequent use of sports and war terminology in structural metaphors within political headlines Additionally, the findings offer valuable insights for English teachers and translators, suggesting practical applications in teaching and translation practices.
Research methodology
Research questions
- How can the metaphors in the chosen newspaper headlines be categorized
- What are the reasons underlying the mechanism of cognition in the chosen metaphors?
Research approach
The study is approached from the perspective of cognitive semantics According to the theory and classification of Lakoff and Johnson in their famous book
"Metaphors We Live By," published in 1980, categorizes metaphors into three main types: ontological metaphors, structural metaphors, and orientational metaphors The metaphors identified in the selected headlines are organized according to these three classifications.
Research methods
The study primarily utilizes qualitative methods to analyze the collected data, incorporating techniques of description, classification, and analysis to address the research questions and achieve the study's objectives.
Data analysis
The author collects primary data and employs qualitative methods for analysis, focusing on newspaper headlines from US news agencies to maintain consistency in metaphor analysis from a cognitive perspective Additionally, the author incorporates numerical data to identify prevalent metaphors and quantify the usage of terms related to war, sport, race, game, and business in these headlines.
Data collection procedures
This article presents an analysis of 75 electronic newspaper headlines featuring metaphors, drawn from a comprehensive review of articles related to the 2012 US presidential election The research focuses on identifying the types of metaphors employed in these selected headlines and examining their usage Each headline has been carefully chosen to ensure it contains at least one metaphor, and they are categorized into three distinct types for further analysis.
Design of the study
This section outlines the rationale behind the research, detailing its aims, scope, significance, and methodology It also presents the research questions and the study design, providing readers with a comprehensive understanding of the research framework.
Chapter 1–Theoretical background and literature review
This chapter explores the definition and classification of metaphors, while also examining them through the lens of cognitive linguistics Additionally, it highlights the definitions and functions of headlines, providing a comprehensive understanding of their roles in communication.
In this literature review, the author presents relevant literature and diverse perspectives from esteemed scholars, writers, and linguists related to the study's subject and scope The researcher will also weave in her insights and critical analysis of these ideas.
This chapter supplies the readers with research methods, research procedures and the description of data collection and data analysis
This chapter of the study centers on data analysis, specifically examining metaphors found in selected headlines The metaphors are categorized into three distinct types, which will then be analyzed based on the established data analytical units.
This chapter presents a detailed analysis of the various types of metaphors and the frequency of source domains within structural metaphors Additionally, it explores how these metaphorical forms relate to the conceptual framework of American culture.
This final part will sum up main contents of the study, point out the study‟s limitations as well as propose suggestions for further studies Some implications in
LITERATURE REVIEW
Theoretical background
Cognitive linguistics emerged as a formal science in the 1970s, focusing on the intricate relationship between language, human cognition, and socio-physical experiences These experiences shape how individuals conceptualize their world and influence the mental representations of surrounding events By examining cognitive linguistics, we can understand how these mental and physical experiences serve as guiding principles in the production and use of language Specifically, exploring the use of metaphor within this framework reveals the underlying structure and reasoning behind its linguistic manifestations.
Contemporary metaphor theory is deeply intertwined with cognitive linguistics, which includes both cognitive grammar and cognitive semantics (Yu, 1998) Putz suggests that cognitive linguistics views language as a tool that utilizes conceptual structures and overarching cognitive processes.
Cognitive linguistics emphasizes the importance of the embodied, encultured, and imaginative aspects of meaning (Yu, 1998; Fesmire, 1994) As a result, metaphor emerges as a significant linguistic phenomenon that is naturally examined through the lens of cognitive linguistics.
From the semantic perspective, metaphor is simply defined as “transference of meaning from one object to another based on similarity between these two objects”
(Nguyễn Hòa, 2004: 105-106) Another Vietnamese scholar Đỗ Hữu Châu (1962:
54) has claimed that “ẩn dụ là cách gọi tên của sự vật này bằng tên của sự vật khác; giữa chúng có mối liên hệ tương đồng” (Metaphor is a way of calling an object by the name of another, based on the similar relationship between them) Nguyễn Hữu Quỳnh (2001: 259) has also shared the same idea with his definition on metaphor:
A rhetorical metaphor involves using the name of one object to symbolize another, grounded in the associative similarities between the two Essentially, it serves as an implicit simile, drawing comparisons without direct statements.
Ortony (1993) argues that metaphor is a fundamental aspect of linguistic creativity, while also being a deviation from standard language use Similarly, from a classical perspective, metaphor is primarily regarded as a creative product within poetic or figurative language (Lakoff, 1993) Traditional studies have predominantly focused on metaphor as a rhetorical device aimed at achieving aesthetic effects.
Metaphor has historically been viewed as a rhetorical device primarily utilized in literature and poetry, often regarded as an extraordinary form of language It was traditionally seen as focusing on words rather than encompassing thought or action.
1.2.2 Metaphor under the light of cognitive linguistics
Contemporary theories on metaphors highlight the essential role of cognitive linguistics in understanding this rhetorical device Since the late 1970s, it has been recognized that everyday language is rich with metaphors, reflecting our thoughts, conceptual systems, and actions The collaboration between linguist George Lakoff and philosopher Mark Johnson in 1980 laid a solid foundation for the theory of conceptual metaphors within cognitive linguistics Their influential work, "Metaphors We Live By," emphasizes that metaphors permeate all aspects of life, not just poetic language As Lakoff (1993) asserts, "the locus of metaphor is not in language at all, but in the way we conceptualize one mental domain in terms of another." This theoretical framework proposed by Lakoff has significantly advanced our understanding of how metaphors shape our cognition and communication.
In 1980, Lakoff and Mark Johnson revolutionized our understanding of metaphor, highlighting its crucial role in shaping language and thought Their work reveals that metaphors are deeply rooted in our fundamental physical and social experiences, permeating our daily language, thoughts, and actions often without our awareness This groundbreaking research has paved the way for a new perspective, encouraging scholars worldwide to further investigate the nature of metaphor.
Holding the same viewpoint, Barcelona has found that metaphor is the
A cognitive mechanism involves mapping one experiential domain onto another, allowing the second domain to be partially understood through the lens of the first This process enhances comprehension by creating connections between different experiences (Nguyễn Hòa, 2004, p 106).
Malotki (1983) highlights the crucial role of metaphor in human language and cognition, stating that language serves as an essential intermediary in our quest to understand and express a world that remains largely unknown He emphasizes that language offers a variety of coping mechanisms, with metaphor being one of the most effective and valuable tools in this process.
In Vietnam, notable figures in cognitive linguistics, including Trần Văn Cơ, Nguyễn Đức Tồn, and Lý Toàn Thắng, have significantly contributed to the exploration of conceptual metaphors and their impact on language and cognition During the late 20th and early 21st centuries, cognitive linguistics emerged as a pioneering approach to investigate metaphors, highlighting the intricate relationship between language and thought.
Vietnamese linguists have become familiar with the concept of "conceptual metaphor," which, along with cognitive linguistics, has transformed the analysis of metaphors within Vietnamese language and culture In his book, "The Stylistics of Modern Vietnamese," Hữu Đạt (2001: 302) highlights these significant changes in metaphorical interpretation.
Metaphor serves as a vital linguistic tool that connects one object to another, reflecting the thought processes and cultural nuances of a society It is essential to recognize that metaphor cannot be isolated from the interplay between language and culture As highlighted by Professor Trần Văn Cơ in his work "Cognitive Linguistics – Notes and Thoughts," the study of conceptual metaphors reveals their evolution through the framework of cognitive linguistics, emphasizing the intricate relationship between metaphor, language, and cultural identity.
Lakoff and Johnson (2003) identify three primary types of metaphors: structural, orientational, and ontological Among these, structural metaphors are the most significant, as they illustrate how we understand and experience one concept through the lens of another This fundamental aspect of metaphor is most clearly demonstrated through structural metaphors, highlighting their essential role in our comprehension.
Structural metaphors are created by mapping the image-schematic structure of the source domain onto the structure of the target domain (Lakoff & Johnson,
Literature review
Headlines are a unique form of text prominently displayed at the beginning of articles, typically in large, bold font Concise news headlines enhance memorability, making it easier for readers to recall the information.
Report headlines serve to succinctly convey the essence of an article, enabling readers to quickly identify news that piques their interest and encouraging them to delve deeper According to Studer (2008), news headlines fulfill two key functions: they promote the article's content and provide a summary or introduction to the topic Additionally, figures of speech such as puns, irony, metaphors, and similes are often utilized in headlines to enhance their appeal and attract reader attention.
Metaphors play a crucial role in enhancing newspaper headlines, effectively capturing readers' attention and leaving a lasting impression This rhetorical device not only revitalizes headlines but also evokes vivid imagery in the minds of audiences According to Fowler (1991), language shapes thought by channeling our mental experiences, indicating that news serves as a representation of reality Analyzing the use of conceptual metaphors in news headlines reveals how language influences our perception of the world and reflects human cognition through the medium of news.
Research on the impact of metaphors in news headlines is limited, with a notable study by Jian-Shiung Shie (2012) titled “Conceptual Metaphor as a News-Story Promoter.” This study examines the use of conceptual metaphors in the headlines of the New York Times, aimed at native English speakers, and the Times Supplement, intended for English-as-a-foreign-language learners Shie's analysis highlights that metaphors in the New York Times are often sophisticated and unconventional, distancing readers from the actual message, while those in the Times Supplement are clearer and more conventional, aligning closely with the authors' intentions Although this finding is significant, Shie does not address the varying difficulty of metaphors across different themes A comparative analysis of metaphors based on their conventionality and conceptual distance for similar topics across diverse audiences could enhance understanding of how different readers acquire metaphorical language.
This MA thesis is expected to open a new window in the analysis of how metaphors are used in politics generally and in headlines of election news particularly
Lakoff and Johnson highlight that everyday language is fundamentally metaphorical, impacting not only communication but also our thoughts and actions This metaphorical nature extends to politics, where political language can significantly shape public attitudes towards candidates and elections (Matlock, 2012) Tennie Matlock (2012), a prominent scholar in the field of metaphor in political campaigns, identifies two crucial ways in which language influences perceptions of political figures and electoral processes: through grammar and metaphor.
Political campaigns frequently utilize phrases such as "race," "run," "jogging," and "finish line," causing their literal meanings to diminish These terms are often employed metaphorically to discuss political dynamics without awareness of their figurative implications Research indicates that motion metaphors are prevalent in political messaging, aligning with cognitive science findings that suggest humans are naturally inclined to mentally simulate motion, even in static situations Matlock (2013) highlights the significance of these motion metaphors in framing political races.
Political campaigns are often viewed as competitive races, with national politics functioning as a dynamic movement and the nation itself serving as a vehicle for change Examining the metaphors used in political elections is crucial, as they can shape or transform public beliefs regarding who is fit for office This exploration holds significant value for comprehending the political mindset and its impact on electoral outcomes.
Lakoff (1996) analyzes the formation and persistence of political belief systems, revealing that conservatives view the government as a strict father figure exerting control over citizens, while progressives see it as a nurturing parent offering guidance and support This contrast highlights the significant role of metaphors in shaping political discourse and framing.
Research by Mio, Riggio, Levin, and Reese (2005) revealed that metaphors in political contexts serve as a powerful source of inspiration for both the electorate and the public Their findings indicated that charismatic presidents are more likely to employ metaphorical language in their inaugural addresses, using nearly twice as many metaphors compared to their non-charismatic counterparts This stylistic device enables influential politicians to inspire, motivate, and attract a larger following.
Contemporary political discourse is rich in metaphors that highlight the figurative nature of political thought, as noted by Gibbs (1994) He emphasizes that political language often draws on sports and warfare terminology This MA dissertation aligns with Gibbs' perspective, as it identifies numerous instances of sports and war-related language in selected report headlines.
Mio (1997) highlighted the role of metaphorical expressions in making complex political issues more accessible, while questioning the extent to which voters might shift their opinions after encountering such messages He observed that many Americans show little interest in national news, suggesting that metaphors resonate primarily with politically savvy individuals Despite this perspective, there remains a vast array of theories regarding the impact of metaphors on readers' political preferences, indicating that many underlying effects are yet to be uncovered.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research questions
The research is carried out in order to seek answers for the following questions:
- How can the metaphors in the chosen newspaper headlines be categorized based on the classification of Lakoff and Johnson?
- What are the reasons underlying the mechanism of cognition in the chosen metaphors?
Research methods
This study utilizes qualitative methods to analyze and evaluate the metaphors found in headlines of electronic articles related to the 2012 US presidential election campaign The research design aligns with the study's objectives, while a quantitative approach is also employed to categorize and quantify the various types of metaphors, ultimately identifying the most prevalent among the three categories.
The procedure of investigation undergoes several stages:
Firstly, the author finds all the headlines related to the US election event in
In 2012, she carefully selects headlines from US newspaper agencies to ensure consistency in content and sources Headlines from UK or other international online newspapers, despite being relevant, are excluded to avoid differing conceptualizations of the same event across countries Additionally, any report headlines that contain metaphors are also removed from consideration.
In analyzing political headlines, metaphors are categorized into three distinct types based on the theoretical framework established by Lakoff and Johnson (2003) It is important to note that a single news headline can encompass multiple metaphors, highlighting the complexity and richness of political language.
Then, the research paper will show the percentage of each kind of metaphors as well as disclose the pervasive source domains in structural metaphors
Last, some implications in teaching and learning English, translating metaphors are mentioned while suggestions for further research are apparently pointed out.
Data collection and data analysis
This MA thesis utilizes data gathered from various reputable US online news agencies, including Red Alert Politics, Huff Post, CNN News, USA Today, NY Times, and CBS News, which provide authoritative coverage of the 2012 US election campaign These sources are recognized as neutral and objective, as they do not represent any political party, ensuring that the language used in their reports remains impartial.
Drawing on Lakoff and Johnson's theoretical framework in "Metaphors We Live By" (2003), this MA dissertation aims to explore the cognitive mechanisms that influence American perceptions of political metaphors Specifically, it seeks to elucidate the reasons why language in political report headlines frequently draws from sports and warfare, revealing the underlying motivations that lead to the deep integration of these themes into political discourse.
This article analyzes 75 relevant news headlines from prestigious US electronic reports through the lens of cognitive linguistics and conceptual metaphors by Lakoff and Johnson The focus is on the intense competition between President Barack Obama and Republican candidate Mitt Romney, highlighting their efforts and activities during the presidential election campaign.
The data categorization is based on Lakoff and Johnson's Conceptual Metaphor Theory (2003), which classifies metaphors into three types: structural metaphors, orientational metaphors, and ontological metaphors.
The notion that "our conceptual system is largely metaphorical" (2003: 3) broadens the scope of metaphors beyond poetic language to encompass everyday communication Investigating metaphors in political elections reveals the strong connections between source and target domains, highlighting their relevance to the American conceptual framework in the political arena.
This dissertation employs qualitative methods to explore the functioning of metaphors in political headlines, utilizing verbal, descriptive, and impressionistic explanations It integrates both descriptive and explanatory approaches while incorporating quantitative methods when needed to identify the dominant types of metaphors and the proportions of source domains in structural metaphors.
Firstly, data is qualitatively analyzed as follows:
The typical representations of metaphors in chosen political headlines
The explanation of why election campaigns are understood and described in such ways
Making use of experiences of source domains in the cognitive process of creating meaning extensions
American culture prominently features war and sports terminology, reflecting its values and societal attitudes This article explores the reasons behind the frequent use of these terms and analyzes the various types of metaphors employed By examining the frequency of different source domains, we gain insight into the cognitive mechanisms that shape the American mindset.
The data is quantitatively analyzed to determine the frequency of different types of metaphors used in political campaigns, specifically focusing on the prevalence of sports and war terminology.
This paper categorizes and analyzes data based on three types of metaphors identified by Lakoff and Johnson (2003) It highlights and discusses the most prominent metaphorical patterns found in presidential election campaigns, focusing on typical metaphor sets The analysis includes 11 conceptual metaphor sets, constructed from syntactic linguistic units such as noun phrases, verb phrases, adjective phrases, and prepositional phrases that pertain to politics and elections.
- More is up, less is down
- Foreseeable future events are ahead
- Nonhuman entities carry human capacities
DATA ANALYSIS
Structural metaphors
Structural metaphors significantly shape our understanding of politics, framing it in terms of war, sports competition, race, games, and business Out of 85 metaphorical expressions analyzed, 67, which represent 78.8%, fall under the category of structural metaphors These expressions can be categorized into five primary themes, highlighting the diverse ways in which politics is conceptualized.
IS WAR, POLITICS IS SPORT COMPETITION, POLITICS IS RACE, POLITICS
IS GAME, and POLITICS IS BUSINESS
The connection between war and politics is evident in the language used to describe fierce political competition, likening presidential races to intense battles Terms commonly associated with warfare, such as "attack," "battle," "defend," and "destroy," frequently appear in newspaper headlines, illustrating the aggressive tactics employed by candidates This metaphorical framework highlights the severity of political rivalries, where candidates engage in a struggle akin to combat, employing strategies to counter their opponents and assert their positions.
[1] Mitt Romney returns to attacking Obama
[5] In presidential debate, Obama fights back
[7]President Obama defends his foreign-policy record, fires back at Mitt Romney
[24] In TV terms, Obama struggles, Romney dominates first debate
[19] The second presidential debate: Obama strikes back
The metaphor "POLITICS IS WAR" dominates political discourse, representing 40.3% of metaphorical expressions with 27 instances This suggests that presidential candidates are viewed as leaders of rival armies, where their election strategies act as weapons, and their proposed policies serve as targets for adversaries to challenge.
[15] Optimism turns out to be secret weapon for Romney
[3] Obama, Romney battle over economic visions
[9] President Obama attacks Mitt Romney‟s jobs plan
[22]Romney attacks Obama‟s foreign policy
Each group of army, more specifically, presidential candidates will fight for the supports of voters in the key battlegrounds, or potential states in the US:
[4]Why Mitt Romney and Barack Obama are battling for the rural vote?
[21] Obama, Romney continue battle for women‟s votes
[13] Obama takes key battlegrounds to win re-election
Sport is an essential aspect of American life, deeply embedded in the culture and frequently featured in newspapers and politics For many Americans, sports like soccer, basketball, baseball, and boxing serve as a comforting escape, particularly during weekends when they gather with loved ones to enjoy thrilling matches and momentarily forget their daily struggles Moreover, sports hold a unique place in American society as they promote equality, allowing everyone the opportunity to participate and enjoy Ultimately, sports act as an invisible bridge that unites individuals across diverse backgrounds, transcending social status, age, gender, profession, religion, and race.
The metaphor POLITICS IS SPORT COMPETITION accounts for 28.4% of the 67 structural metaphorical expressions analyzed, making it the second most prevalent metaphor Notably, the language of sports, particularly boxing and horse racing, is frequently utilized in these contexts.
[28] Romney campaign: No „knock-out punch‟ planned
[29]The final presidential debate: Four punches that knocked out Mitt Romney
[30] Debate ends abruptly as Obama punches Romney in face
[33] Neck and neck, Romney and Obama enter home stretch in presidential race [39]Romney on the fast track
[41]Obama, Romney neck-and-neck in Wisconsin
A presidential debate resembles a boxing match, where candidates like Barack Obama and Mitt Romney strive to deliver powerful blows to outmaneuver each other Similarly, the election campaign is likened to a horse race, with each contender vying for a lead, often leaving their rivals behind When candidates are closely matched in the polls, they are said to be running neck and neck, akin to horses sprinting at the same speed, making it hard to predict the winner This intense competition typically intensifies as they approach the final stretch of the race, mirroring the tight contest between presidential hopefuls as voting rates remain closely contested.
Wisconsin, as pointed out in headline [41] above
Other terms which are associated with other sports like baseball, American football, basketball and marathon also represent the source domain of this structural metaphor POLITICS IS SPORT COMPETITION:
[40] Obama hits a home run against Mitt Romney last night
[37] Obama throws penalty flag on Romney economic plan
[32] Why isn‟t Oregon a slam dunk for Obama?
[43] Obama on marathon tour; Romney runs across Ohio
In the previous section (Section 3.1.2), headlines featuring the term "horse race" were compiled, while some simply refer to election campaigns as races without specifying the type While a race signifies competition, not all are categorized as sports Consequently, the metaphor "POLITICS IS RACE" is discussed in a separate section Out of 67 structural metaphorical expressions, 8 exemplify this metaphor, accounting for 11.9% In the competitive arena of garnering citizens' votes, each party representative must strive to outperform rivals and swiftly reach the ultimate goal—the finish line of the election.
[47] Obama wins 2012 presidential election, defeats Romney in tight race
[51]Obama, Mitt Romney dash to finish line
The metaphor POLITICS IS RACE within the scope of this MA research is also understood as PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION IS RACE
As stated by Zoltan Kovecses (2010), together with „war‟, „sport‟, and
The metaphor of "politics as a game" is prevalent, with 9 expressions accounting for 13.4% of all structural metaphors in this research Presidential nominees develop effective game plans and establish strong ground strategies to outmaneuver their opponents A well-crafted game plan not only provides a competitive advantage but can also position a candidate as a game changer, significantly influencing the election's outcome Key examples of the structural metaphor POLITICS IS GAME highlight its significance in political discourse.
[55] Obama wins a second term with a strong groundgame
[56]The game plan that lets Romney beat Obama
[62] Obama‟s edge: the ground game that could put him over the top
[63] Was the first presidential debate a game-changer for Mitt Romney?
Remarkably, the presidential election is also illustrated through the image of a
[59] Obama, Romney try to play it safe in 2012 gamble
The election campaign for politicians is akin to a high-stakes gamble, filled with risks and challenges that require careful navigation Each candidate must strategize wisely to avoid significant losses in this competitive arena Economic policy, in particular, plays a crucial role in the campaign strategy, as highlighted by Obama's assertion that "economic fairness isn't enough" for his overall game plan.
Among the 67 structural metaphorical representations analyzed in article headlines, the metaphor "POLITICS IS BUSINESS" is the least frequent, appearing in only 4 instances, which accounts for approximately 6%.
[64] Obama uses 2012 campaign tactics to sell healthcare law
[66] Romney touts business background in presidential Bid
[67] After Republican convention, Romney touts his jobs agenda in Ohio
Convincing voters is akin to selling a product; just as a successful seller persuades customers to make a purchase, a presidential candidate must effectively communicate their political policies, expertise, and leadership abilities to gain voter support Utilizing public speaking skills and advertising tools like social media, candidates aim to make their policies appealing to potential voters To capture attention and earn approval, both products and political policies must demonstrate clear benefits and sustainable advantages that resonate with citizens.
The relationship between the source domains of war, sports competition, race, game, and business, and the target domain of politics reveals a significant conceptual connection, as proposed by Lakoff and Johnson in 1980 Their concept of "metaphorical systematicity" allows us to understand political dynamics through the lens of business, for instance However, it is important to note that not all elements are directly comparable, as seen in the metaphor POLITICS IS BUSINESS, where while some parallels exist—such as presidential candidates being akin to sellers and voters as customers—other aspects, like payment methods, differ fundamentally from the nature of a political campaign.
The frequency of each source domain in structural metaphors is summarized in the table below:
The analysis reveals that the source domain of war dominates with 40.3%, while sport competition and game follow with 28.4% and 13.4%, respectively Additionally, the race domain constitutes 11.9%, and the structural metaphor POLITICS IS BUSINESS has the least representation at 6%.
Orientational metaphors
Orientational metaphors are fundamentally linked to spatial orientations, reflecting our bodily experiences within our physical environment These metaphors utilize terms such as up-down, front-back, on-off, center-periphery, ahead-behind, and near-far to convey meaning A key indicator of orientational metaphors is the use of prepositions Out of a total of 85 metaphorical expressions, 10 are specifically classified as orientational metaphors.
Lakoff and Johnson (2003) illustrate that there is a strong connection between physical size and strength, suggesting that the winner in a confrontation is often positioned above their opponent This concept highlights the underlying physical basis of orientational metaphors.
HAVING CONTROL IS UP is realized through two news headlines:
[77] Barack Obama seizes the upper hand over Mitt Romney at second debate
[85] Obama‟s edge: the ground game that could put him over the top
Phrases like "seizes the upper hand over" and "put over the top" illustrate the metaphor HAVING CONTROL IS UP, highlighting the link between having control or an advantage and being in a superior position In the second debate, President Barack Obama clearly demonstrates his control and advantage over Mitt Romney in the political arena.
3.2.2 More is up, less is down
An event like presidential election campaign is based on voting rates or numbers to measure the final result Therefore, the metaphor MORE IS UP, LESS
IS DOWN is logically connected to the political context Particularly, this orientational metaphor is adopted in the headlines of two articles:
[80] Poll: Romney up, Obama down among women
[82] Romney promises unemployment down to 6% in 4 years
During the election, women voters showed a higher preference for Romney over Obama Romney's commitment to reducing the unemployment rate from 7.9% to 6% within four years highlights his belief in the effectiveness of his economic plans By promising this significant decrease, he aims to attract more voters, positioning his strategies as a solution to the country's joblessness.
The headline "Obama's and Romney's campaign promises and how they stack up" utilizes an orientational metaphor, where the preposition "up" suggests a spatial direction The phrasal verb "stack up" evokes the image of a growing pile of promises, indicating that both candidates have made numerous commitments that continue to increase This visualization not only highlights the abundance of promises but also blurs the line between orientational and ontological metaphors, as these promises are both visible and quantifiable Thus, the headline embodies elements of both metaphor types, a topic that will be explored further in the section on ontological metaphors.
There are two news headlines being exposed to the orientational metaphor LESS IS BEHIND:
[78] Polls show Romney behind Obama in battle ground states
[79] Mitt Romney close behind Obama after debate, poll shows
This conceptual metaphor also implies that MORE IS AHEAD The physical
The concept of "down" refers to the process of increasing the quantity of a substance or objects within a container, resulting in a higher level This notion is rooted in the idea that a higher index consistently precedes a lower one, establishing a strong foundation for this directional metaphor.
3.2.4 Foreseeable future events are ahead
This orientational metaphor is based on the conceptualization “future is ahead” of most peoples and cultures in the world, including American people
Lakoff and Johnson (2003) highlight the cognitive link between future events and spatial direction, noting that we instinctively look towards the direction we are moving Since the ground beneath us is perceived as stable, approaching events seem to draw nearer to our line of sight, resembling an object that grows larger as it comes closer.
[81] Polls: Obama, Romney neck and neck 6 months ahead of election
[83] Wives support Obama, Romney ahead of debates
[84] Nasty campaign tactics surface ahead of decision day
The headlines illustrate the metaphor of the FORSEEABLE FUTURE, highlighting upcoming events such as the election campaign, presidential debates, and Election Day These significant occurrences are scheduled to take place at specific times, making them predictable and visible in advance.
Ontological metaphors
Ontological metaphors transform abstract concepts into tangible entities, often referred to as entity and substance metaphors A key indicator of these metaphors is personification, which serves as a notable signal for identifying ontological metaphors.
When abstract concepts are examined through the lens of human abilities, they become identifiable and defined Out of 85 metaphorical expressions analyzed, only two demonstrate personification, while six incorporate the ontological metaphor that treats abstracts as tangible entities.
3.3.1 Nonhuman entities carry human capacities
The ontological metaphor NONHUMAN ENTITIES CARRY HUMAN CAPACITIES covers two headlines:
[68] China and its trade practices are coming to the debates
[73] The GOP says Romney can‟t win; history says he can
Foreign policies and diplomatic history are personified in political news headlines, transforming abstract concepts into a living entity that participates in presidential debates This personification endows these policies with human traits, allowing them to express opinions and make predictions about election outcomes Such stylistic choices create a vibrant and engaging portrayal of political events, enhancing the overall impact of the headlines.
Ontological metaphors utilize our experiences with tangible entities in our environment to represent abstract concepts Many headlines exemplify this phenomenon, categorized under the notion that "abstracts are things."
[69] Obama‟s, Romney‟s campaign promises and how they stack up
[70] Obama and Romney campaign seek breakthrough strategy
[71] Barack Obama, Mitt Romney seek foreign policy edge in final debate as race tightens
[72] Mitt Romney seeks to seize the debate
[74] Obama uses 2012 campaign tactics to sell healthcare law
[75] Optimism turns out to be secret weapon for Romney
Three headlines illustrate abstract concepts—strategy, edge, and debate—as if they were tangible entities that can be actively sought and seized The verbs "seek" and "seize" emphasize human actions directed toward these concepts, suggesting their existence in the physical realm To investigate ontological metaphors, one can analyze the verbs used in these expressions to determine their impact on the entities they reference While identifying verbs is a strategic approach, it is not the sole method for tracking ontological metaphors.
The headline "Optimism turns out to be a secret weapon for Romney" illustrates an ontological metaphor by juxtaposing the abstract concept of optimism with the tangible idea of a weapon While optimism is typically an intangible notion, it gains a concrete meaning when framed as a weapon, suggesting it can be actively utilized in real-life situations This relationship between the abstract and the specific highlights the transformative power of optimism in Romney's context.
Ontological metaphors intersect with other metaphor types, highlighting the lack of clear distinctions among them Lakoff and Johnson (2003: 264) noted that all metaphors can be seen as structural, ontological, and often orientational, indicating significant overlaps between these categories This phenomenon is particularly evident in the following three headlines, which exemplify the complex interplay between different metaphorical forms.
Obama‟s, Romney‟s campaign promises and how they stack up
Obama uses 2012 campaign tactics to sell healthcare law
The expression “Obama’s and Romney’s campaign promises and how they stack up” serves as an example of orientational metaphors, as discussed in Section 3.2.2 For promises to be compared or "stacked up," they must first be represented as tangible objects This transformation allows us to visualize and organize these promises, affirming the presence of ontological metaphors when abstract concepts like "promise" take on identifiable shapes that we can perceive and interact with.
The metaphorical expression “Obama uses 2012 campaign tactics to sell health care law” exemplifies a two-in-one metaphor, combining structural and ontological elements The term "sell," typically associated with business, transforms the healthcare law from an abstract concept into a tangible product or service that can be recognized and exchanged This shift from an intangible policy to an identifiable product highlights its categorization within ontological metaphors, emphasizing the law's newfound status as something that can be marketed and traded.
Last but far from least, the ontological metaphors again cover the headline –
“ Optimism turns out to be secret weapon for Romney” with its shadow while
“weapon” is found to be a war term The language of war is used to build equivalence between optimism and weapon In this situation, the expression,
"Optimism is a weapon" serves as a structural metaphor, where war represents the source domain and optimism the target domain This metaphor suggests that optimism functions as a secret weapon, empowering individuals to combat, overcome, and even defeat their adversaries By transforming the abstract concept of optimism into a tangible idea, it becomes easily recognizable Essentially, metaphorical expressions can be categorized into structural and ontological metaphors.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Findings
The analysis of 75 electronic news headlines from various American report agencies reveals that 7 headlines feature two distinct types of metaphors A total of 85 metaphorical expressions were identified, with 67 categorized as structural metaphors, representing 78.8% of the total Orientational metaphors accounted for 10 expressions, or 11.8%, while ontological metaphors comprised 8 expressions, making up 9.4% This data indicates that structural metaphors are the most prevalent, followed by orientational metaphors, with ontological metaphors occurring the least frequently The distribution of these metaphor types is visually represented in the accompanying pie chart.
Chart 4.1: Proportions of three kinds of metaphors
Proportions of three kinds of metaphors
Structural metaphors predominantly draw from the domain of war, accounting for 28.4% of usage, followed by sports competition and games at 13.4% In contrast, business represents the least utilized source domain, comprising only 6% The accompanying chart illustrates the frequency distribution of these source domains in structural metaphors.
Discussion
War and sports competition serve as predominant sources of metaphorical understanding for American people, who recognize the tension inherent in both This leads to a perception of presidential candidates as adversaries engaged in fierce battles, where their foreign policies, economic visions, welfare programs, and job plans become targets for criticism While the concepts of war and politics differ significantly, the cognitive framework of Americans allows for this comparison to be seen as logical However, it is important to note that the brutality and inhumanity associated with war do not have direct parallels in the political arena.
The use of war as a structural metaphor significantly shapes how Americans perceive politics, illustrating the concept's partial nature as highlighted by Lakoff and Johnson (1980) They emphasize that this metaphorical framework does not equate one concept with another but rather offers a limited understanding of political dynamics through the lens of warfare.
Political news often adopts terminology from war and sports, making it more relatable to a diverse American audience This connection is best illustrated through structural metaphors, which reveal the logical relationship between the source domain (war and sport) and the target domain (politics) The frequent use of terms from these domains significantly contributes to the prominence of structural metaphors in political discourse.
Orientational metaphors in American culture reveal significant insights into how political issues are conceptualized in relation to spatial orientations The prevalent up-down spatialization is frequently utilized in political contexts, with the metaphor HAVING CONTROL IS UP aligning with mainstream cultural perceptions Additionally, the metaphor LESS IS BEHIND is relevant in political discourse, particularly in relation to voting rates for candidates during presidential election campaigns, paralleling the metaphor MORE IS.
In examining the spatial orientation of metaphors across different cultures, it becomes evident that American individuals perceive the future as being in front of them rather than behind This concept is reinforced by the metaphor "FORESEEABLE FUTURE EVENTS ARE AHEAD," previously discussed in Chapter 3, highlighting the cultural significance of these orientational metaphors in political news headlines.
As regards ontological metaphors, the two authors of the masterpiece
In "Metaphors We Live By" (2003), it is highlighted that metaphors serve to enhance our understanding of abstract concepts, making them more tangible by framing them as physical objects or entities This conceptualization helps to clarify events, actions, and states that are otherwise invisible and boundless In the political realm, two prevalent ontological metaphors emerge: "NONHUMAN ENTITIES CARRY HUMAN CAPACITIES" and "ABSTRACTS ARE THINGS," illustrating how these metaphors shape our perception of political dynamics.
Investigating metaphors from a cognitive perspective offers valuable insights into the thought processes of American individuals Analyzing conceptual metaphors in political news headlines enables readers to better understand the intricacies of American cognition Through the use of metaphors, political news not only creates a lasting impact on readers but also presents information in a more engaging and approachable manner.
Recapitulation
This research investigates the use of metaphors in electronic newspapers covering the 2012 US election campaign Utilizing the metaphor theory proposed by Lakoff and Johnson, the study analyzes 75 relevant news headlines, encompassing 85 metaphorical expressions The aim is to illustrate the employment of metaphors in political headlines and identify the most prevalent type among three categories.
The analysis reveals that all three types of metaphors—structural, orientational, and ontological—are present in article headlines, with structural metaphors being the most prevalent Additionally, the study highlights that war and sport are significant source domains Ontological metaphors are the least common, comprising only 9.4%, closely following orientational metaphors at 11.8%.
The research also proves its significance in catching readers‟ attention of the omnipresence of metaphors in daily language in general and political news headline in particular.
Limitations and suggestions for further research
Metaphors play a crucial role in enhancing the vibrancy and appeal of election language; however, further research is necessary to understand their impact on readers' perceptions and engagement with the content To gain deeper insights, it is advisable for future studies to utilize tools like questionnaires and interviews to investigate how metaphors influence readers' thoughts and willingness to engage with articles.
The exploration of metaphors in political contexts, particularly during elections, offers intriguing insights; however, the MA thesis primarily focuses on a limited examination of metaphor usage in news headlines In contrast, the articles covering the US presidential election present a rich opportunity for linguistic researchers to delve into the diverse cognitive dimensions of metaphors.
This research paper highlights a limited aspect of the broader issue of metaphors in our lives, focusing solely on data from American newspapers Consequently, exploring how metaphors are utilized in election news by online publications from Australia, Britain, and Canada presents an intriguing opportunity for further study.
Apart from politics, there are a lot of fields like economics, education, business, sports, love and even law in which we can look into the beauty and influences of metaphors
Further research is recommended to explore specific types of metaphors, particularly those associated with sports, war, business, and motion, to gain a deeper understanding of their various implications in election news.
Implications
A number of implications in teaching, learning, and translating have been associated with the research outcomes
English teachers play a crucial role in helping students recognize the significance of metaphors in various aspects of life, such as politics and election news Understanding metaphors not only captures readers' attention but also enhances their imagination However, metaphorical language can sometimes obscure the intended message To navigate the benefits and challenges of metaphors, both teachers and students should adopt effective methods for interpreting these expressions It is essential for English teachers and students majoring in English to acknowledge the interconnectedness of different types of metaphors, as overlaps can occur For non-English major students, grasping the underlying message of metaphors involves understanding their literal meanings before exploring their figurative implications, a process that is facilitated by the guidance of English teachers.
Effective translation requires a deep understanding of cultural elements in the source language In the U.S., sports are intertwined with history and culture, yet many popular sports like basketball, horse racing, baseball, lacrosse, and soccer remain unfamiliar in Vietnam This cultural gap highlights how the perception of the physical world varies across cultures Since Vietnamese people lack experience with these sports, they struggle with related terminology and metaphor comprehension Therefore, translators must focus on conveying the underlying messages of metaphorical expressions rather than simply finding equivalent Vietnamese terms For example, the headlines “Obama, Romney neck-and-neck in Wisconsin” and “Obama throws penalty flag on Romney economic plan” should be translated in a way that captures their intended meaning rather than a direct translation of sports terminology.
In the context of the political landscape in Wisconsin, the Vietnamese phrases "Obama, Romney bám đuổi sát sao ở Wisconsin" and "Obama không đồng tình với chính sách kinh tế của Romney" illustrate the close competition between the two candidates and Obama's disagreement with Romney's economic policies While some metaphorical elements may have diminished, the essential messages are conveyed effectively and clearly in the translation.
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APPENDIX 1 The classification of headlines into three kinds of metaphors
Politics is war Politics is port competition
Politics is race Politics is game
1 Mitt Romney returns to attacking
2012 presidential election, defeats Romney in tight race
55 Obama wins a second term with a strong ground game
64 Obama uses 2012 campaign tactics to sell healthcare law
2 Romney assails Obama on Middle East
29 The final presidential debate: Four punches that knocked out
48 Barrack Obama, Mitt Romney seek foreign policy edge in final debate as race tightens
56 The game plan that lets
Romney battle over economic visions
30 Debate ends abruptly as Obama punches Romney in face
49 Obama, Romney race to close election finish
57 Economic fairness isn‟t enough for Obama‟s game plan
66 Romney touts business background in presidential Bid
Barack Obama are battling for the rural vote
31 Mitt Romney shows he‟s no expert on foreign policy, but seems to avoid getting knocked out by Obama
50 Polls show very tight US presidential race
67 After Republican convention, Romney touts his jobs agenda in Ohio
5 In presidential debate, Obama fights back
32 Why isn‟t Oregon a slam dunk for
51 Obama, Mitt Romney dash to finish line
59 Obama, Romney try to play it safe in
Mitt Romney‟s campaign of welfare lies and Obama enter home stretch in presidential race
Romney maintains turnout edge game plan
Obama defends his foreign- policy record, fires back at
34 Obama didn‟t scoreknockout but landed more punches
53 Obama, Romney race to the finish line
Let‟s make this all about the Republicans
35 Romney drops the ball on Lybia in last presidential debate
54 In close race, Obama battles for second term
62 Obama‟s edge: the ground game that could put him over the top
Obama, Romney neck and neck
63 Was the first presidential debate a game- changer for
Obama in the first presidential debate
37 Obama throws penalty flag on Romney economic plan
Romney go on attack in final debate
12 GOP attacks on front-runner
39 Romney on the fast track
Romney might help Obama in
13 Obama takes key battlegrounds to win re- election
40 Obama hits a home run against Mitt Romney last night
14 Romney and Obama‟s social-media war: By the numbers
41 Obama, Romney neck- and-neck in
15 Optimism turns out to be secret weapon for Romney
42 NBA passes the ball to
16 In final debate, fierce battle over foreign policy
Bain Ad that could ‘kill’
44 For the president, punch, punch, another punch
Romney tends to ‘shoot’ first and ‘aim’ later
45 GOP attacks on front-runner Romney might help Obama in Nevada
19 The second presidential debate: Obama strikes back
46 Romney says it‟s time to fire Coach Obama fire Coach
Romney continue battle for women‟s votes
23 Scenes from the political battlefront
24 In TV terms, Obama struggles,
26 In close race, Obama battles for second term
Obama in battle ground states
2 Orientational metaphors and Ontological metaphors
Ontological 68 China and its trade practices are coming to the debates
69 Obama‟s, Romney‟s campaign promises and how they stack up
70 Obama and Romney campaign seek breakthrough strategy
71 Barack Obama, Mitt Romney seek foreign policy edge in final debate as race tightens
72 Mitt Romney seeks to seize the debate
73 The GOP says Romney can‟t win; historysays he can
74 Obama uses 2012 campaign tactics to sellhealthcare law
75 Optimism turns out to be secret weapon for Romney Orientational 76 Obama‟s, Romney‟s campaign promises and how they stack up
77 Barack Obama seizes the upper handover Mitt Romney at second debate
78 Polls show Romney behind Obama in battle ground states
79 Mitt Romney close behind Obama after debate, poll shows
80 Poll: Romney up, Obama down among women
81 Polls: Obama, Romney neck and neck 6 months ahead of election
82 Romney promises unemployment down to 6% in 4 years
83 Wives support Obama, Romney ahead of debates
84 Nasty campaign tactics surface ahead of decision day
85 Obama‟s edge: the ground game that could put him over the top
Total: 75 news headlines; 85 metaphorical expressions
1 USA Today‟s Staff (2012) Mitt Romney returns to attacking Obama USA Today http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2012/11/01/romney- campaign-virginia-last-days/1673693/
2 USA Today‟s Staff (2012) Romney assails Obama on Middle East USA Today http://www.usatoday.com/story/onpolitics/2012/10/08/romney-foreign-policy- speech-obama-libya/1619729/
3 William, M W (2012) Obama, Romney battle over economic visions USA Today http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2012/10/03/debate-obama- romney-election/1611397/
4 Oconnel, F (2012) Why Mitt Romney and Barack Obama are battling for the rural vote US News http://www.usnews.com/opinion/blogs/ford- oconnell/2012/06/15/key-to-presidential-election-lies-in-rural-america
5 Thrush, G (2012) In presidential debate, Obama fights back Politico http://www.politico.com/story/2012/10/obama-fights-back-082508
6 Jones, S (2012) Obama fires back against Mitt Romney‟s campaign of welfare lies Politicus USA http://www.politicususa.com/2012/08/14/obama-swinging- mitt-romneys-campaign-deceit.html
7 Press, A (2012) President Obama defends his foreign-policy record, fires back at Mitt Romney Cleveland http://www.cleveland.com/nation/index.ssf/2012/09/obama_defends_his_foreign -poli.html
8 Janes, M (2012) Mc Cain defends Romney campaign USA Today.http://www.usatoday.com/story/onpolitics/2012/09/19/mccain-defends- romney/1580759/
9 Henderson, N M & Nakamura, D (2012) President Obama attacks Mitt
Romney‟s jobs plan The Washington Post https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2012/07/16/gJQAVFLipW_story.html
10 Wyler, G (2012) Mitt Romney absolutely destroyed Obama in the first presidential debate Business Insider http://www.businessinsider.com/romney- zingers-debate-obama-2012-10
11 William, M W (2012) Obama, Romney go on attack in final debate USA Today http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2012/10/22/debate-obama- romney-foreign-policy/1650331/
12 Demirjian, K (2012) GOP attacks on front-runner Romney might help Obama in Nevada Lasvegas Sun.http://lasvegassun.com/news/2012/jan/11/attacks- front-runner-romney-may-resonate-nevada/
13 Cohen, T (2012) Obama takes key battlegrounds to win re-election CNN News http://edition.cnn.com/2012/11/06/politics/election-2012/
14 The Week Staff (2012) Romney and Obama‟s social-media war: By the numbers The Week http://theweek.com/articles/471182/romney-obamas- socialmedia-war-by-numbers
15 Kudlow, L (2012) Optimism turns out to be secret weapon for Romney The New York Sun http://www.nysun.com/national/optimism-turns-out-to-be-secret- weapon-for-romney/88064/
16 Madison, L (2012) In final debate, fierce battle over foreign policy CBS News http://www.cbsnews.com/news/in-final-debate-fierce-battle-over-foreign-policy/
17 Kroll, A (2012) The devastating Bain Ad that could „kill‟ Romney in Ohio
Mother Johns http://www.motherjones.com/politics/2012/11/obama-super-pac- election-ohio-priorities-usa-action
18 Montanaro, D & Loffman, M (2012) Obama: Romney tends to „shoot‟ first and „aim‟ later NBC News http://firstread.nbcnews.com/_news/2012/09/12/13833174-obama-responds- romney-tends-to-shoot-first-and-aim-later
19 Baker, P (2012) The second presidential debate: Obama strikes back The New
York Times http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/17/us/politics/in-second-debate-
20 Messina, I (2012) Romney says it‟s time to fire Coach Obama The Blade http://www.toledoblade.com/Politics/2012/09/02/Romney-says-it-s-time-to-fire- Coach-Obama.html
21 Saine, C (2012) Obama, Romney continue battlefor women‟s votes VOA News http://m.voanews.com/a/obama_and_romney_continue_battle_for_womens_vot es/1538520.html
22 William, M W (2012) Romney attacks Obama‟s foreign policy USA Today http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2012/10/22/debate-obama- romney-foreign-policy/1650331/
23 Group of authors (2012) Scenes from the political battlefront The New Media
Bureau http://www.ucjournalism.org/archives/2720
24 Zularwik, D (2012) In TV terms, Obama struggles, Romney dominates first debate The Baltimore Sun http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2012-10- 04/entertainment/bal-tv-debate-obama-struggles-romney-dominates-
20121003_1_gop-candidate-mitt-romney-obama-struggles-tv-terms
25 Cohen, T (2012) Romney, Republicans increase attacks on Obama CNN News http://edition.cnn.com/2012/09/14/politics/campaign-wrap/
26 Presutti, C (2012) In close race, Obama battles for second term VOA News http://www.voanews.com/content/article/1538579.html
27 ABC News Staff (2012) Polls show Romney behind Obama in battle ground states ABC News http://abcnews.go.com/GMA/mitt-romney-obama- battleground-states-polls-17327122
28 Acosta, J (2012) Romney campaign: No „knock-out punch‟ planned CNN News http://politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com/2012/10/03/romney-campaign-no- knock-out-punch-planned/
29 Dickinson, T (2012) The final presidential debate: Four punches that knockedout Mitt Romney Rolling Stone http://www.rollingstone.com/politics/news/the-four-punches-that-knocked-out- romney-20121023
30 Borowitz, A (2012) Debate ends abruptly as Obama punches Romney in face The New Yorker http://www.newyorker.com/humor/borowitz-report/debate- ends-abruptly-as-obama-punches-romney-in-face
31 Lupica, M (2012) Mitt Romney shows he‟s no expert on foreign policy, but seems to avoid getting knocked out by Obama Daily News http://www.nydailynews.com/news/politics/lupica-romney-avoids-knocked- foreign-policy-debate-article-1.1189926
32 Sullivan, S (2012) Why isn‟t Oregon a slam dunk for Obama? The Washington
Post https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2012/11/01/why-isnt- oregon-a-slam-dunk-for-president-obama/
33 Raton, B (2012) Neck and neck, Romney and Obama enter home stretch in presidential race Bay News 9 http://www.baynews9.com/content/news/baynews9/news/article.html/content/ne ws/articles/bn9/2012/10/23/neck_and_neck_romney.html
34 Sinderbrand, R (2012) Obama didn‟t score knockout but landed more punches
CNN News http://edition.cnn.com/2012/10/23/politics/debate- analysis/index.html
35 Conley, R (2012) Romney drops the ball on Lybia in last presidential debate
Red Alert Politics http://redalertpolitics.com/2012/10/22/romney-drops-the-ball- on-libya-question-in-last-presidential-debate/
36 Jerry, K (2012) Obama, Romney neck and neck 6 months ahead of election
Los Angeles Times http://articles.latimes.com/2012/may/07/news/la-pn-poll- obama-romney-neck-and-neck-six-months-ahead-of-election-20120507
37 Jackson, D (2012) Obama throws penalty flag on Romney economic plan USA
Today http://content.usatoday.com/communities/theoval/post/2012/09/obama- calls-penalty-on-romney-economic-plan/1#.VlvnZnbhDIU
38 Hampton, A (2012) Romney says US needs „new coach‟, promises
„winningseason again‟ The Hill http://thehill.com/video/campaign/247061- romney-on-opening-day-us-needs-a-new-coach
39 Miller, E (2012) Romney on the fast track The Washington Times http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2012/jan/16/romney-on-the-fast-track/
40 Garcia, M T (2012) Obama hits a home run against Mitt Romney last night National Catholic Reporter http://ncronline.org/blogs/ncr-today/obama-hit- home-run-against-romney-last-night
41 Adams, K (2012) Obama, Romney neck-and-neck in Wisconsin Real Clear Politics http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2012/10/22/obama_romney_neck-and- neck_in_wisconsin_115888.html
42 Foxnews Staff (2012) NBA passes the ball to Romney, benches Obama Fox Nation http://nation.foxnews.com/2012-presidential-race/2012/08/22/nba- passes-ball-romney-benches-obama
43 Feller, B & Pickler, N (2012) Obama on marathon tour; Romney runsacross Ohio Associated Press http://news.yahoo.com/obama-marathon-tour-romney- runs-across-ohio-181238031 election.html
44 Baker, P (2012) For the president, punch, punch, another punch The New York
Times http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/17/us/politics/in-second-debate- obama-strikes-back.html?_r=0
45 Sherman, T (2012) Obama wins 2012 presidential election, defeats Romney in tight race
NJ.comhttp://www.nj.com/politics/index.ssf/2012/11/obama_wins_2012_presid ential_e.html
46 Benac, N (2012) Barrack Obama, Mitt Romney seek foreign policy edge in final debate as race tightens National Post http://news.nationalpost.com/news/barack-obama-mitt-romney-seek-foreign- policy-edge-in-final-debate-as-race-tightens
47 Bowman, M (2012) Obama, Romney race to close election finish VOA News http://www.voanews.com/content/obama-romney-race-to-close-election- finish/1539113.html
48 Malone, J (2012) Polls show very tight US presidential race VOA News http://www.voanews.com/content/polls-show-very-tight-us-presidential- race/1534225.html
49 Benac, N & Thomas, K (2012) Obama, Mitt Romney dash to finish line Huff
Post http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/10/23/presidential-election-
50 Pew, R (2012) Presidential race dead even; Romney maintains turnout edge
People Press http://www.people-press.org/2012/10/29/presidential-race-dead- even-romney-maintains-turnout-edge/?beta=true&utm_expidS098246-
KopIg.1&utm_referrer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com.vn%2F
51 Pickler, N & Thomas, K (2012) Obama, Romney race to the finish line Huff
Post http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/10/23/presidential-election-
52 Walsh, K T (2012) Obama wins a second term with a strong ground game US
News http://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2012/11/07/obama-wins-a-second- term-with-a-strong-ground-game
53 Peek, L (2012) The game plan that lets Romney beat Obama The Fiscal Times http://www.thefiscaltimes.com/Columns/2012/03/14/The-Game-Plan-that-Lets- Romney-Beat-Obama
54 Robson, N (2012) Economic fairness isn‟t enough for Obama‟s game plan The
Daily Beast http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2012/04/12/michael- tomasky-economic-fairness-isn-t-enough-for-obama-s-game-plan.html
55 National Journal‟s Staff (2012) Obama‟s gamble The National Journal http://www.nationaljournal.com/columns/political-connections/obama-s-big- gamble-20120628
56 Graham, B (2012) Obama, Romney try to play it safe in 2012 gamble USA Today http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/politics/story/2012-05-26/obama- romney-safe-campaign/55215034/1
57 Sargent, G (2012) The Obama campaign‟s real game plan The Washington Post https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/plum-line/post/the-obama- campaigns-real-game-plan/2012/08/02/gJQA2vC8RX_blog.html
58 Cassidy, J (2012) Obama‟s game plan: Let‟s make this all about the Republicans The New Yorker http://www.newyorker.com/news/john- cassidy/obamas-game-plan-lets-make-this-all-about-the-republicans
59 Ball, M (2012) Obama‟s edge: the ground game that could put him over the top The Atlantic http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2012/10/obamas- edge-the-ground-game-that-could-put-him-over-the-top/264031/
60 Welsh, T (2012) Was the first presidential debate a game-changer for Mitt Romney? US News http://www.usnews.com/opinion/articles/2012/10/04/was- the-first-presidential-debate-a-game-changer-for-mitt-romney
61 Levey, N N & Hennessey, K (2012) Obama uses 2012 campaign tactics to sell healthcare law Los Angeles Times http://articles.latimes.com/2013/may/11/nation/la-na-obama-healthcare-
62 Klein, K (2012) Obama touts jobs numbers VOA News http://www.voanews.com/content/romney-slams-obama-on-unemployment- rate/1538131.html
63 Malone, J (2012) Romney touts business background in presidential Bid VOA
News http://m.voanews.com/a/romney_touts_business_background_in_presidential_bi d/1538621.html
64 Behrman, A (2012) After Republican convention, Romney touts his jobs agenda in Ohio The Dallas Morning News http://www.dallasnews.com/news/politics/national-politics/20120901-after- republican-convention-romney-touts-his-jobs-agenda-in-ohio.ece
65 Lafraniere, S (2012) China and its trade practices are coming to the debates
The New York Times http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/16/us/politics/china- and-its-trade-tactics-are-coming-to-the-debates.html?_r=0
66 Woodward, C (2012) Obama‟s, Romney‟s campaign promises and how they stack up The Denver Post http://www.denverpost.com/ci_21928775/obamas- romneys-campaign-promises-and-how-they-stack?source=infinite-up
67 Balz, D & Rucker, P (2012) Obama and Romney campaign seek breakthrough strategy The Washington Post https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/obama-and-romney-campaigns-seek- breakthrough-strategy/2012/09/08/0e84d5a8-f935-11e1-8b93- c4f4ab1c8d13_story.html
68 Falcone, M (2012) Mitt Romney seeks to seize the debate ABC News http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/politics/2012/10/mitt-romney-seeks-to-seize-the- debate-the-note/
69 Green, J (2012) The GOP says Romney can‟t win; history says he can
Bloomberg http://www.bloomberg.com/bw/articles/2012-04-11/the-gop-thinks- romney-cant-win
70 Kurtz, H (2012) Barack Obama seizes the upper hand over Mitt Romney at second debate The Daily Beast http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2012/10/16/barack-obama-seizes-the- upper-hand-over-mitt-romney-at-second-debate.html
71 Selyukh, A (2012) Mitt Romney close behind Obama after debate, poll shows
Daily Finance http://www.dailyfinance.com/2012/10/08/mitt-romney-close- behind-obama-after-debate-poll-shows/