INTRODUCTION
Rationales
Euphemism is a prevalent linguistic phenomenon found in all languages Since the dawn of civilization, humans have sought effective ways to communicate and comprehend one another Over time, various forms of communication have evolved, leading to increasingly specialized and comprehensive spoken and written expressions.
Words have evolved alongside humanity, gaining the power to shape ideologies and drive social change, a concept known as the social construction of reality They interpret our experiences and are imbued with rich cultural and social significance.
55) went on to say that language and culture are inseparable from each other As an inalienable part of language, euphemism bears the mark of culture He continues that it can be easily tracked in our conversation and they reflect different levels of culture and various patterns of culture To some extent, euphemism is a mirror of culture
This article explores the role of euphemism as a unique linguistic tool in communication, focusing on its cultural significance in English and Vietnamese poetry.
Language reflects culture, and the use of euphemisms varies across different cultures These cultural differences can result in communication breakdowns (Daim et al., 2012) Thus, it is essential to examine euphemisms within the framework of a cultural contrastive analysis of English and Vietnamese poetry.
The study of euphemism in English and Vietnamese poetry has long been overlooked, despite its significance as both a social and linguistic phenomenon (Pan, 2013, p 1) By comparing English euphemisms with their Vietnamese counterparts, we can uncover the similarities and differences between the two languages and cultures This research aims to enhance EFL learners' understanding and usage of English, ultimately boosting their confidence in cross-cultural communication.
In Vietnam, research on politeness strategies in cross-cultural communication between English and Vietnamese has been largely overlooked This study aims to offer suggestions for using euphemism to avoid communication breakdowns As an English teacher, the author aspires to enhance the understanding of euphemism, thereby facilitating smoother communication through a cultural contrastive analysis of English and Vietnamese poetry.
In summary, this study explores the euphemistic expressions found in English and Vietnamese poetry through a comparative analysis, drawing on insights from various scholars focused on the elements and challenges of euphemism.
The aim and objectives of the study
This study investigates the use of euphemisms for death and sex in English and Vietnamese poetry It aims to explore the application of these euphemisms in poems while identifying cultural similarities and differences in their usage.
Research questions
This present study seeks to answer the following research questions (RQ):
1 How are euphemisms of death and sex used in English and Vietnamese poems?
2 What are the similarities and differences in the use of euphemisms of death and sex in English and Vietnamese poems from a cultural perspective?
The significance of the research
This study offers valuable insights into cross-cultural communication by examining the sociolinguistic and socio-cultural dimensions of euphemism usage It aims to improve cross-cultural motivation through the exploration of politeness strategies, cultural values, and conventional awareness, ultimately fostering harmonious communication.
Research cannot fully capture all characteristics of a target population (Charles, 1998), and this study is similarly limited to analyzing euphemistic expressions related to death and sex Human interactions often sidestep unpleasant or embarrassing subjects, leading to the proliferation of euphemisms across various themes This abundance of topics complicates the selection process for further analysis in a minor thesis.
The research method
This study utilizes a qualitative approach to collect, analyze, and interpret qualitative data, allowing for an in-depth examination of the phenomenon of interest By focusing on relationships among variables, the research aims to present a comprehensive understanding of the data, supported by a contrastive description that enhances the clarity of the comparative analysis results.
This analysis focuses on twenty poems sourced from poets.org and thivien.net, adhering to specific criteria Each selected poem includes at least one instance of euphemism and addresses one of two themes: death or sex.
The structure of the study
This study provides an overview of euphemism and its cultural implications, establishing the research problems that define the aims and objectives of the investigation It highlights the existing research gaps within the local context, emphasizing the significance of the study The research questions are thoroughly examined to clarify the scope and narrow the focus on the identified problems, demonstrating the study's feasibility Finally, a set of methodological guidelines is proposed to effectively navigate the research process.
In chapter 1, the author reviews the extant literature and research that motivates, generates and locates the research gaps, and furthermore, sets up the background for the entire study
Chapter 2 depicts the social background of Vietnamese and English cultures on euphemistic expressions and methodological approaches adopted in this study It also reviews the previous studies
Chapter 3 presents the research questions, the data and the research method employed The analytical framework is also discussed
Chapter 4 presents the key findings and discussions, offering a comprehensive interpretation of the results in relation to the research questions and previous studies This thorough analysis enhances the reliability and validity of the study's findings.
This study critically examines the core features of euphemism and dysphemism, highlighting the cultural differences between English and Vietnamese The conclusion summarizes the key findings, emphasizing both the theoretical and practical implications while also addressing the study's limitations.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Euphemism
Euphemism, originating from the Greek term "euphemismos" in the 1650s, signifies the practice of substituting favorable words for unfavorable ones The prefix "eu-" means "good" or "well," while "-pheme" relates to "speak." In ancient Greece, people avoided using ill-omened words or the names of gods during public ceremonies; for instance, Athenians referred to a prison as "the chamber" and an executioner as "the public man."
Euphemism is defined by the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary as the practice of replacing a potentially offensive or unpleasant expression with a more agreeable or inoffensive term This linguistic substitution serves to soften the impact of the original phrase, making communication more palatable.
45) defines euphemism as "the practice of referring to something offensive or delicate in terms that make it sound more pleasant." Sanderson (1999, p 259) also states that euphemism "can be used as a way of being vague and unclear, or to cover up the truth or reality of a situation." At the same time, Johnstone (2018, p 59) phrases that euphemism is "the use of a supposedly less objectionable variant for a word with negative connotations."
Noticeably, there is another entity called dysphemism, the opposite term of euphemism, which may not often appear in our daily language use (Burridge,
Dysphemism refers to a term that carries offensive connotations about its subject or the audience, often replacing a neutral or euphemistic expression (Allan & Burridge, 1991) Typically used to intentionally offend, a dysphemism conveys negativity without explicit vulgarity, as illustrated in the phrase "My boss is something else."
Euphemism plays a crucial role in communication across different cultures, particularly when addressing sensitive topics such as religion, politics, sex, death, the human body, and diseases Its origins are rooted in social norms, as individuals must navigate their surroundings and consider how to express their thoughts without causing embarrassment or discomfort Consequently, euphemism serves as a linguistic tool that allows for indirect expression, highlighting its significance as a social construct worthy of cross-cultural comparison.
Euphemism formation
Euphemisms can manifest in various ways, with abstraction being the most prevalent form To sidestep unpleasant or embarrassing truths, speakers often opt for abstract expressions, such as saying "go to the West" instead of directly stating "die." This technique allows for a more palatable discussion of sensitive topics, as illustrated by Dũng (1948), who employed euphemistic language to convey the concept of death.
―Anh bạn dãi dầu không bước nữa Gục lên súng mũ bỏ quên đời‖
(leans on the rifle, forgets life)
According to Rawson (1981, p 9), the potency of specific taboos can be diminished by expressing concepts in broad, general terms Additionally, abstractions serve as effective cover-up words, as they are often unclear to those who lack knowledge and can be meaningless to untrained listeners.
Abbreviations are commonly used in language to refer to offensive terms or taboos, often by using initials For example, "SOB" stands for "son of a bitch," while in Vietnamese, "ĐM" represents a vulgar phrase Additionally, creative phrases like "sugar honey ice tea" serve as playful substitutes for the word "shit."
In Vietnamese, the term "cờ mờ nờ rờ" (cmnr) serves as an abbreviation for "con mẹ nó rồi," illustrating the concept of alphabeticisms as described by Baker (1981) These euphemistic forms help to mask unpleasant or embarrassing expressions, as noted by Cottle (1975) Burridge (2004) highlights that while abbreviations can facilitate fluent communication through semantic precision, they may also create barriers between speakers Adams (1985) offers a unique perspective on omissions within euphemism, suggesting that such omissions are closely tied to euphemistic language He likens euphemism to "the deodorant of language," asserting that silent omissions function similarly in softening communication.
m*." This technique is believed to make uncomfortable expressions less abrasive, as noted by Rawson (1981).
Euphemism often takes the form of foreign or technical terms, such as using "đám hiếu" instead of "đám tang." Modern languages have evolved through long-term interactions with other languages, leading to the adoption of foreign words and phrases that offer a more pleasant alternative to native terms (Cooper, 1993) This trend is closely tied to cultural perceptions, as Orwell (1970, p 160) notes that foreign words are employed to convey an impression of sophistication and elegance.
Euphemism is a unique form of metaphor that serves as a semantic tool, often used to indirectly reference sensitive topics such as death and sex For example, in Vietnamese, the term "melons" or "bưởi" is a euphemistic reference to women's breasts While both euphemism and metaphor are figures of speech, euphemisms aim to disguise or soften the impact of their subject, acting as a "protective shield" against uncomfortable truths In contrast, metaphors enhance clarity and vividness There are two notable types of metaphors: dying metaphors, which have become clichés and are no longer recognized as metaphors, and mixed metaphors, which incorporate elements like irony and humor Metaphors can be categorized into three types: structural metaphors, which frame one concept in terms of another; orientational metaphors, which organize concepts based on spatial relationships; and ontological metaphors, which treat events and ideas as tangible entities.
To show the links between poetry and metaphors, Swift (as cited in Kehl,
Metaphors play a crucial role in poetry, serving as a powerful tool to evoke readers' imaginations (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980) According to Orwell (1970), while metaphors can obscure meaning for both the speaker and the listener, their primary purpose is to generate vivid visual images When these images conflict, it suggests that the writer may not be fully engaging with the concepts they are attempting to convey (Orwell, 1970).
164) In the same line, Gambino (1973, p 16) points out poets use metaphors and similes to heighten meanings … use them to blur meanings.
Features of euphemism across cultures
Speaking of features of euphemism, Nilwati (2012) lists out three prominent linguistic phenomena as follows:
Euphemism is a universal linguistic phenomenon present in all languages and cultures, as it encompasses expressions that are often avoided in direct conversation According to Brown and Levinson (1987), research shows that euphemism is a common feature of language use across different societies.
Euphemism is deeply rooted in cultural contexts, varying significantly between societies For instance, discussing age is commonplace in Chinese culture, while it is less emphasized in English-speaking cultures, despite the reality of aging (Qi, 2010) Research by Fershtman, Gneezy, and Hoffman (2011) supports the notion that the use of euphemisms is influenced by specific cultural values and beliefs.
Euphemism is a nuanced linguistic tool that can have both positive and negative implications On the positive side, it facilitates polite and harmonious conversations, allowing individuals to maintain social grace Conversely, euphemism can also be misused to obscure or distort reality, leading to deception A historical example of this is the French referring to their involvement in the Vietnam War as "civilization Francais," highlighting the potential for euphemism to mask uncomfortable truths.
Euphemisms can be examined from various perspectives, including gender differences in their usage For instance, young women often refer to their menstrual cycle as "the old friend," highlighting the unique ways in which language reflects cultural and gender-specific nuances.
The term "red light" is frequently used among women, highlighting a tendency to avoid impolite comments about physical appearance, such as calling someone "fat." Lakoff (2004) investigates the reasons behind women's generally higher levels of politeness compared to men.
Euphemism varies significantly across different social classes, with the upper class often feeling less constrained by taboos in their language due to their social power In contrast, individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds tend to be more careful with their word choices in everyday conversations, as they may fear offending those in positions of authority (Pan, 2013).
Euphemism plays a significant role in daily and social interactions, serving as a communicative tool that reflects societal development and cultural sophistication (Pan, 2013) As people strive to demonstrate civility and refinement in their language, euphemisms function as devices of politeness, fostering respect and harmonious relationships while helping to achieve effective communication.
Euphemism, viewed through a cultural lens, has been extensively studied by scholars Fershtman et al (2011) found that taboos vary significantly between societies, indicating that euphemism is inherently culture-based They also noted that taboos evolve over time, with some gaining strength while others fade away.
In various cultures, food taboos play a significant role, such as the restrictions on kosher food in Jewish society and the prohibition of beef among Hindus A study by Al-Shamali (1997) examined the euphemistic expressions in the Jordan Valley dialect, revealing that traditional social variables influence the selection of specific euphemisms.
Also in terms of religious euphemism in cultures, Frajzyngier and Jirsa
In both English and Polish, various terms are used to refer to Jesus and Mary, highlighting their significance in religious contexts In English, Jesus is often called "Lord" while Mary is referred to as "Virgin." Similarly, Polish expressions such as "Pan Jezus" (Lord Jesus), "Zbawiciel" (Saviour), and "Najs wie tsza Maria Panna" (The Most Holy Virgin Mary) reflect the reverence for these figures Additional titles like "Niepokalana" (Immaculate) and "Matka Boska" (God's Mother) further emphasize their importance in Polish culture.
Euphemism serves as a linguistic and cultural tool that transforms unpleasant ideas into more palatable expressions, promoting politeness and preventing communication breakdowns In this context, Grice (2013) introduced the four maxims, also known as Gricean maxims or the Cooperative Principle (CP), which guide effective communication.
Conversations are typically collaborative efforts, where participants share a common purpose or direction, rather than a series of disconnected remarks (Grice, 2013, p 49) Grice (2013, p 50) outlines four maxims that guide effective communication: Quantity, Quality, Relation, and Manner.
Examining Gricean maxims through the lens of culture reveals significant cultural differences Euphemisms play a crucial role in fostering acceptance, as they require speakers to focus not only on what is said but also on how it is communicated This highlights the importance of politeness and face-saving strategies, as outlined by Brown and Levinson (1987) Euphemisms are often employed to avoid face-threatening acts (FTA), emphasizing their role in maintaining social harmony and respect in communication.
& Levinson (1987, p 313) take into account ―the relative wieghtings of three wants:
Effective communication of the content of a Face Threatening Act (FTA) involves balancing three key factors: the urgency of the message, the desire for efficiency, and the need to preserve the addressee's dignity Redressive actions are crucial as they aim to mitigate any potential face damage caused by the FTA, thereby ensuring that the addressee feels respected and valued during the interaction.
Sex and death euphemisms in review
2.4.1 Death euphemisms in English and Vietnamese
In Vietnamese, the number of death euphemism accounts for about 280 (Hinh, 2004, p 55), in another work by Giang (1997, as cited in Trương, 2003, p
8), he lists more than 1000 death euphemisms In a general grasp, we see that Vietnamese death euphemisms fall into two groups: compound and phrase
In Vietnamese culture, various euphemisms are used to refer to death, reflecting sensitivity towards the topic Terms such as "mãn lộc" (out of luck) and "ngạ tử" (die of hunger) convey the finality of life, while "tịch diệt" (loss of everything) and "vĩnh quyết" (parting forever) emphasize the emotional aspects of loss Other expressions like "băng hà" (the king dies) and "biệt cõi trần" (leave life) highlight the gravity of death in different contexts Additionally, phrases such as "bỏ mình" (lose one’s life) and "bỏ tuổi xanh" (lose young life) reflect the sorrow associated with untimely deaths, culminating in the more general term "qua đời" (pass away).
Của có không nào khác đám mây Người tan hiệp sao dường bọt nước Tịch cốc can bề ngạ từ
Hai con Cô Trúc đã về đâu? (Thanh, 1968) or
Nằm đây tưởng chuyện ngàn sau Lung linh nến cháy hai đầu áo quan Gió lìa cành lá không vang
Tin ta vĩnh quyết trân gian hững hờ (Dzếnh, 1943) or
Lưu Trọng Lư ơi! Biệt cõi trần Tiếng thu man mác nhạc trong ngần Nửa đêm sực tỉnh Đời pha mộng
Da diết lòng Anh một chữ Nhân! (Hữu, 1992) or
Tám mươi ba tuổi Tết Tân Mùi
Vợ đã qua đời, mắt lại đui!
Số vậy, thân đành cam chịu vậy Người vui, mình cũng gượng làm vui
Lư trầm dĩ vãng nâng niu nhúm Bếp lửa ưu tư lặng lẽ vùi
Ngồi tựa bình mai nghe pháo nổ Nửa xuân gần gũi nửa xa xôi (Tấn, 2007)
Euphemisms for death often involve combinations of verbs and nouns in Vietnamese For instance, phrases like "bỏ đi" (leave), "ra đi" (leave), and "tắt thở" (stop breathing) serve as gentle expressions of passing Additionally, the term "trăm tuổi" (100 years old) reflects cultural beliefs surrounding death, as illustrated in the saying, "my parents go to a funeral; when they reach 100 years old, people will come to cry for them, which is referred to as 'exchanging funeral cry'." These expressions highlight the nuanced ways in which death is approached in Vietnamese culture.
In another poem ‗Kính viếng 10 cô gái Ngã ba Đồng Lộc‘ by Hảo (2016) , he wrote:
Ngã ba Đồng Lộc anh hùng
Mười cô yên nghỉ bóng lồng hương hoa
Non sông đất nước quê nhà
Tiếng chuông vang vọng ngân nga đất trời
Xuân hương sắc tuổi đôi mươi
Mười cô yên nghỉ giữa đồi cỏ xanh
Rừng thông bát ngát reo quanh
Vọng lời tổ quốc hát thành bài ca (Hảo, 2016)
He describes the death as ―yên nghỉ‖ (rest in peace ), in so doing, he promotes the patriotic spirit of the ten heroines in Dong Loc Battle
In English literature, euphemisms for death serve as a longstanding method of addressing a sensitive topic, reflecting the vast number of expressions available (Enright, 2004) Notable references for these euphemisms include the Bloomsbury Dictionary of Euphemism (Ayto, 2000), the Oxford Dictionary of Euphemisms (Holder, 2008), the Slang and Euphemism Dictionary (Spears, 1981), and the Death Euphemism dictionary (Ahmed, 2011).
Holder (2008) highlights numerous euphemisms for death commonly used in contemporary English, including expressions such as "pass away," "go to a better place," "eternal sleep," and "kicked the bucket." These phrases, which serve to soften the harsh reality of death, reflect cultural attitudes towards mortality and the desire to approach the topic with sensitivity Other examples include "leave the land of the living," "departed," and "breathed her last," illustrating the diverse ways people articulate the concept of dying.
Pray do not ask me how!
To think of answering you!
Going to heaven! (Emily Dickinson, 2007) or
Part of being Jewish is a Choice Part of being Jewish is a Choice
As one becomes an act of preservation
Seders start the stream of admonition, Stories meant to bind one to the past (Emily Dickinson, 1989)or Don‘t cry for me
My soul is at rest, my heart lives on (Christy Ann Martine, 2004) or
Twilight and evening bell, and after that the dark!
And may there be no sadness of farewell, when I embark (Lord Alfred Tennyson, 1990) or
The only way to get ahead
Is exploit the weak and to burn your dead Just look to history
Society in moral decay Here tomorrow
Oh yeah We‘ll return to ashes one day (Jamie Christopherson, 2000)
2.4.2 Sex euphemisms in English and Vietnamese
In Vietnam, discussions surrounding sex and sexual body parts have historically taken on a religious significance, often shrouded in mystery and perceived as taboo Those who address these topics may be viewed as having a lower social status Hinh (2004) highlights the prevalence of this phenomenon, identifying approximately fifty-five euphemisms for sex in the Vietnamese language An example of such euphemisms is illustrated in the phrase: "Đương khi lửa tắt cơm xôi, Lợn kêu, con khóc, chồng đòi tòm tem" (Ngọc, 1997).
Other cases originate from daily life such as ngủ, đi lại, chung đụng, ân ái, tính giao, or mây mưa as in:
Mây mưa đánh đổ đá vàng
Quá chiều nên đã chán chường yến anh
Nào người phượng chạ loan chung
Nào người tiếc lục than hồng là ai? (Du, 1814 (1814-1820?))
Phan Huyền Thư talked of sexual arousal as:
Cùng sương triền đê đôi bờ Ỡm ờ nước lũ (Thư, 2000)
According to Holder (2008), discussing body parts in English often inherently involves sexual connotations, frequently expressed through euphemisms for sexual partners like "mate," "boyfriend," or "good friend." Additionally, various phrases denote sexual acts, including "get busy with," "hooking up," and "scoring," illustrating how language intertwines with sexual references in everyday conversation.
Touch yourself for me Then I‘ll ride you like a horse
Touch me all over Then plunge it deep inside me Like that! Yes! Yes! Yes! or
I wonder, by my troth, what thou and I Did, till we loved? Were we not weaned till then?
In their 1991 study, Allan and Burridge highlighted the vast array of terminology related to human anatomy, noting approximately 1,200 terms for "vagina" and 1,000 for "penis," along with 800 additional terms This extensive vocabulary underscores the complexity and cultural significance of sexual language throughout history, as exemplified by John Donne's 1633 reflection on the topic.
The term "copulation" and an extensive array of approximately 2000 synonyms for "whore" highlight the complexity of language surrounding sex As Giddens (1991) notes, the realm of euphemism has expanded significantly, leading to the continual emergence of new terms related to sexual discourse.
The growing movement to address sexual connotations in language reflects a broader societal shift towards gender equality The term "Ms." represents a significant milestone in the fight for women's rights, as noted by Lakoff (2004) This title serves as a euphemism that combines "Miss" and "Mrs." to obscure a woman's marital status, promoting more inclusive and harmonious communication.
In an online database, Goad (2014) identifies 400 euphemisms for sexual intercourse, including terms like belly-bumping and cave-diving Epstein (1985) suggests that the need for euphemisms arose from the discomfort associated with discussing sexual topics People often prefer using expressions such as "make love" instead of the more explicit "have sexual intercourse." This tendency to use euphemisms highlights the societal challenges surrounding open conversations about sex and the human body.
Popcorn and coke beneath the stars
Making love on a long hot summer‘s night (Higgins, 1994)
2.4.3 Sex and death euphemisms from a cultural perspective
Numerous scholars and researchers, including Frajzyngier & Jirsa (2006) and Gathigia et al (2015), are exploring the relationship between death and sex euphemisms in English and various native languages Their findings highlight the strong connection between euphemism and culture For instance, Glass (1975) refers to death as "return" in his poignant poem "When You Didn't," illustrating the profound impact of the Vietnam War through the absence of a friend.
You did so much to support and love me, and there were countless things I wanted to share with you upon your return from Vietnam.
Euphemisms, such as "the big divide" for "divorce," serve as effective linguistic tools that allow individuals to navigate sensitive topics with greater ease (Rice, 2016) A cross-cultural study by Greene (2001) highlighted the avoidance of taboo terms related to death and sex among Russian and English speakers, demonstrating the universal tendency to use euphemistic expressions in discussions of delicate subjects.
Frajzyngier and Jirsa (2006) highlight that death euphemisms differ across cultures, illustrating this with examples from the Kwa languages of Ghana, where phrases like "the chief went to the sea" or "the chief went to the village" replace the direct statement of death Similarly, in English, expressions such as "he is not with us" or "he passed away" are commonly used in various social contexts to convey the same sentiment.
Euphemism in death and sex attracted the attention of some other researchers (Al-Shamali, 1997; Elyyan, 1994; Greene, 2001; Makin, 2003) In which, Elyyan
In 1994, a study examined the frequency of euphemisms related to death and illness, revealing a tendency to avoid direct taboos Greene (2001) explored the differences in euphemism and taboo usage surrounding sex and death in Russian and English, concluding that both males and females prefer to use taboo terms in informal contexts rather than formal ones Conversely, Makin's research presents contrasting insights.
(2003) studied euphemism in conversations and found out that utterances produced by female speakers were judged to be more polite
METHODOLOGY
Ressearch questions
With a view to make a contrastive analysis of English and Vietnamese euphemisms in poetry, this present research project seeks to answer the following questions:
1 How are euphemisms of death and sex used in English and Vietnamese poems?
2 What are the similarities and differences in the use of euphemisms of death and sex in English and Vietnamese poems from a cultural perspective?
This article explores the use of euphemisms related to sex and death in English and Vietnamese poetry It aims to analyze the linguistic aspects of these euphemisms while also identifying cultural similarities and differences in their application within both languages.
Research approach and method
This research employed the descriptive and contrastive method in analyzing the data and adopted a qualitative approach Data qualitative approach (Creswell,
The study utilizes descriptive and contrastive methods to conduct an in-depth analysis of euphemisms related to death and sex in English and Vietnamese poetry from a cultural perspective Contrastive analysis serves to differentiate essential learning components for language learners by evaluating the similarities and differences between the two languages, thereby supporting the concept of language universals This approach not only enhances understanding of the data but also provides valuable insights during the analysis process.
The data
This study analyzes ten prominent English poems and ten Vietnamese poems, selected for their rich use of euphemistic expressions related to the themes of sex and death The publication years of these poems are not considered in the analysis, allowing for a focused comparison of their lexical items as discussed in previous chapters of the thesis.
Euphemism and dysphemism are two linguistic domains commonly recognized in both academic literature and the author's personal experience as a bilingual Vietnamese and English speaker.
The criteria for data collection included the requirement that each poem must feature at least one euphemistic element related to the researched domains Additionally, all Vietnamese poems were sourced from www.thivien.net, a comprehensive website dedicated to Vietnamese poetry, which boasts a substantial corpus of 51,460 poems relevant to the study.
This article features a curated selection of English poems sourced from reputable websites, including Family Friend Poems, Poets.org, and the Poetry Foundation All poems included are authored by recognized poets and have been officially published, ensuring their credibility and literary value.
Data collection procedure
The data collection procedure was carried out as follows:
1 went to thivien.net, poet.org, familyfriendpoems.com and poetsfoundation.com and searched for two selected themes: sex and death
2 identified the poems containing euphemisms of sex and death
Data collection was conducted through a manual search, where the researcher meticulously filtered the raw data from various websites Unnecessary information, including poem descriptions and album details, was removed, and the curated data was saved in the appendices for further analysis.
Data analysis procedure
Data analysis of rhetorical devices in literary texts involves four key processes: categorizing, synthesizing, identifying patterns, and interpreting data The initial step, cyclical categorizing, entails creating potential categories by intersecting different dimensions and refining them through iterative analysis (Glesne & Peshkin, 1991; Patton, 1987) The second process focuses on consolidating meanings by regrouping findings in relation to existing theories (Dey, 1999) The third step, as noted by Bernard (2011), involves searching for patterns within the data to uncover underlying explanations Finally, Saldaña (2015) emphasizes that a critical outcome of qualitative analysis is interpreting how the various components of the study interconnect.
The data was categorized into two main groups: death and sex The findings were then synthesized into a table and organized into specific patterns, exploring themes such as death as sleep and journey, as well as sex as companionship, war, and romance Finally, a detailed discussion of the key findings was provided, emphasizing cultural perspectives.
Analytical framework
This study utilizes analytical frameworks to enhance the analysis process, ensuring a thorough understanding of the data The accompanying tables outline key analytical outputs at each stage, serving as a roadmap for both data analysis and the final discussion, which addresses the research questions Additionally, the selected euphemisms in the poems are based on their formation, with all euphemistic expressions presented as single words or phrases.
Table 1: How death and sex euphemisms are used in English and Vietnamese poems
When I visit the grave where you lie in eternal peace
Death is perceived as peace to avoid the unpleasant reality Nhưng mắt đóng trong Death is perceived as a to avoid the unpleasant đêm câm dằng dặc sleep reality
The arrows of delight shot through my body
Sex is perceived as a war to avoid taboo
Chuyện đời hành lạc từ kim cổ
Sex is perceived as nature to avoid taboo
Table 2: Similarities in the use of death and sex euphemisms in English and
Until I journey to that peaceful shore and see you again Áo bào thay chiếu, anh về đất (coming back to the land)
Your strong tongue and slender fingers reaching where I had been waiting for you in my rose-wet cave
Cỏ bồng thi mùa non, dần vào, bờ nõn (young glass leaves, young lips)
Perception Death is perceived as a journey
Sex is perceived as romance
Function to avoid the unpleasant reality
Table 3 : Differences in the use of death and sex euphemisms in English and
When we with daisies lie, that commerce will continue
Gục lên súng mũ bỏ quên đời (leans on the rifle and stogie, forgets life)
The arrows of delight shot through my body
Nằm nghiêng cùng sương triền đê đôi bờ ỡm ờ nước lũ (a river dam, two banks of a river, like flood)
Death is perceived as joyful life
Death is perceived as a heroic loss
Sex is perceived as a war Sex is perceived as nature
Function to avoid taboo and keep face
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Findings
4.1.1 Death euphemisms used in English and Vietnamese poems
In the poem "Kissing my Father" by Legaspi (2018), the author reflects on death as both a serene and sorrowful experience He poignantly describes his father's passing, noting that it occurs "three days into his wake" and emphasizes the finality of loss with the line "my father has not risen."
Three days into his wake my father has not risen
Death is often perceived as a tranquil sleep, enveloped in darkness, particularly for the father figure The author reflects on death as an inherent aspect of nature, highlighting the experiences of immigrants who come to this country, live their lives, and ultimately face death.
The church is forested with immigrants, spent after their long journey to another country to die (Legaspi, 2018)
When referring back to the father, the death was once again thought of as a sleep, a ―safe approach‖ and like being drunk (Legaspi, 2018)
In the poem "Leaving," Coke (1958) reflects on the life of his father, who passed away at ninety-four after enduring numerous strokes and hardships This experience led the author to a profound realization about the nature of existence, encapsulated in the line, "All of this, What I am, doesn’t know how to die."
1958) Then the father said he wanted a blanket designed by Dustin, and thought of the death as ―to leave this beauty, life‖ (Coke, 1958)
Damnit, I hate to leave this beauty, life
The author poetically depicts death as a comforting blanket, illustrating the serene transition with the phrase, "his breath slowed, eased, then quit." This evocative imagery conveys a gentle and euphemistic portrayal of the final moments of life, highlighting the beauty in the process of passing away (Coke, 1958).
On the fourth, came the Pendleton, delivered right on time His breath slowed, eased, then quit
In his reflections on loss, Stotler (2012) poignantly recounts the death of his sister, who was not only his sibling but also his best friend, leaving him in mourning for a year To honor her memory, he employs three euphemisms and one dysphemism, notably expressing her death as a state of tranquility with the phrase, "you lie in eternal peace."
When I visit the grave where you lie in eternal peace,
I know that death and heaven brought you release;
I try to envision your joy on that shore across the sea,
And, until I join you, that'll have to be enough for me
Until I journey to that peaceful shore and see you again
In his reflections on death, Stotler (2012) emphasizes a deep yearning for reunion with his sister, expressing sentiments like "until I join you" and "until I journey to that peaceful shore." He acknowledges death as a natural law, noting that it brought her release, which illustrates the use of dysphemism in his contemplation of mortality.
In her fourth poem, Dickinson (1886) explores the theme of death with a sense of cheerfulness, suggesting a positive perspective on life after her passing, emphasized by an exclamatory conclusion The poem is structured in two parts: the first half reflects a serene view of life and death, while the second half delves into human emotions Dickinson begins with the stark term "die" and follows with imagery of mourning, the moon, birds, bees, and daisies, portraying death as a peaceful transition She employs euphemisms for "die," referring to it as "depart" and "we with daisies lie," highlighting the beauty and natural aspect of mortality.
If I should die, And you should live, And time should gurgle on, And morn should beam, And noon should burn,
As it has usual done;
If birds should build as early, And bees as bustling go, One might depart at option From enterprise below!
‘Tis sweet to know that stocks will stand When we with daisies lie … (Dickinson, 1886)
In the second half of the poem, Dickinson (1886) described the death as the
Parting is a natural aspect of life, reflecting the ongoing cycle of commerce and trade In her words, there is a sense of calm and comfort associated with death, emphasizing its inevitability and the continuity of existence.
That commerce will continue, And trades as briskly fly
It makes the parting tranquil And keeps the soul serene, That gentlemen so sprightly Conduct the pleasing scene!
In her 2009 poem, Blackstone expresses her longing for her beloved and attempts to uplift her spirits in the face of loss She portrays death as a distressing experience, yet views it as merely a "part" of life.
I'm building my own little library, embedded in my heart, for all the moments spent with you before you had to part
In the Vietnamese poem "Tây Tiến" by Dũng (1948), death is portrayed with a beautiful euphemism, as seen in the line "Gục lên súng mũ bỏ quên đời" (leans on the rifle, forgets life), which reflects the soldier's heroic acceptance of mortality This expression conveys a soft and patriotic view of death, emphasizing a noble sacrifice Similarly, the phrase "anh về đất" (becomes astray) reinforces this sentiment, showcasing the absence of dysphemism in Dũng's portrayal of death.
Anh bạn dãi dầu không bước nữa Gục lên súng mũ bỏ quên đời!
(leans on the rifle, forgets life) Chiều chiều oai linh thác gầm thét Đêm đêm Mường Hịch cọp trêu người
In the poem by Bốn (2012), death is portrayed as an irreversible state, encapsulated in the phrase "anh không về nữa đâu," suggesting a sense of acceptance and personal agency in facing mortality The imagery of returning to the earth, expressed as "giờ nằm trong đất," symbolizes a final resting place, emphasizing the natural cycle of life and death.
Giờ nằm trong đất sâu (rest in the land) Anh chẳng còn được biết
Tiếc mình không đi hết Những vui buồn trong em
In the poem "Chết" by Cận (1940), the author employs a striking contrast between euphemism and dysphemism, notably using a dysphemism in the title to address death directly Throughout the poem, however, Cận opts for euphemistic expressions to describe death He refers to dying as "nghỉ bước," or "stop walking," suggesting that death is a natural continuation of life's journey Additionally, he portrays death as a part of the body returning to the earth, emphasizing a connection between life and the land.
Tai dưới đất để nghe chừng tiếng sóng (a part of the body was in the land)
In Cận's 1940 poem, death is depicted as a form of sleep, symbolized by closed eyes, and also represents the disintegration of the body, highlighting the profound separation of physical existence.
Nhưng mắt đóng trong đêm câm dằng dặc, (a closure of eyes) Còn biết gì trời đất ở bên kia;
Bướm bay chi! tay nhậy đã chia lìa; (the break-up of the body) Tình gọi đó, nhưng lòng thôi bắt mộng
On July 24, 1968, at Dong Loc Y-Junction in Can Loc, Ha Tinh, ten female volunteers sacrificed their lives during a US air force bombardment, with one body remaining missing for two days This tragic event inspired poet Thanh to write the poem "Cúc ơi" on July 25, as a poignant tribute to the lost second sergeant Cuc In the poem, Thanh employs euphemisms such as "không về tập hợp" (not come to attendance) and "đất nâu lạnh lắm" (the brown cold land) to metaphorically express Cuc's death and her resting place in the earth.
Tiểu đội đã xếp một hàng ngang
Cúc ơi em ở đâu không về tập hợp? (not come to attendance) Chín bạn đã quây quần đủ hết
… Cúc ơi! em ở đâu? Đất nâu lạnh lắm (the brown cold land)
In the poem ―Tưởng chuyện ngàn sau‖ by Dzếnh (1943), we found one case of death dysphemism and six cases of death euphemisms The poem begins with
In the reflective narrative "nằm đây" (lie here), the author, embodying a deceased individual, shares profound thoughts about the distant future, symbolized by the flickering candles atop the coffin This poignant moment signifies the metaphorical "gió lìa cành lá" (wind leaves the leaves), a euphemism for death, as the author bids a final "vĩnh quyết" (farewell to people) (Phê, 2018, p ).
Nằm đây, tưởng chuyện ngàn sau, (lie here) Lung linh nến cháy hai đầu áo quan
Gió lìa cành lá không vang, (wind leaves the leaves) Tin ta vĩnh quyết trần gian hững hờ! (farewell to people)
Discussion
This section offers an in-depth analysis of the key findings from Section 4.1, focusing on cultural perspectives to address the second research question The results are compared with previous studies, highlighting the characteristics of English and Vietnamese euphemisms related to death in poetry in Section 4.2.1, while Section 4.2.2 examines euphemisms for sex in both English and Vietnamese poetry.
Since the dawn of humanity, communication has been essential for survival, evolving from basic signs to a complex system of language Over time, language has become increasingly specialized, serving as a powerful tool for individuals to express their desires and achieve their goals In today's world, words hold the power to both save and destroy lives, as they embody deep cultural and social significance.
Upon analyzing twenty selected poems, the researcher discovered that poets often break linguistic norms to convey meaning through euphemism In both languages examined, euphemism is not employed for the sake of being informative or truthful, highlighting a universal characteristic of euphemism usage (Nilwati, 2012).
Maintaining face is a universal aspect of euphemism in both English and Vietnamese poetry, where poets employ euphemistic expressions to create vivid imagery Despite cultural differences in the concept of face, the shared understanding of public self-image and the social necessity to navigate it in interactions is considered universal (Brown & Levinson, 1987) This highlights that euphemism serves as a politeness strategy in poetry across cultures.
The study reveals that the majority of euphemisms in both English and Vietnamese poetry are abstract, with two instances of foreign words and no abbreviations Since the data consists solely of written poems, the analysis did not address mispronunciations This suggests that Vietnamese euphemisms share universal characteristics with their English counterparts in the realm of poetry.
4.2.1 Death euphemisms used in English and Vietnamese poems
Death is universally perceived as painful, and the fear surrounding it is common among humans (Ulman, 1962) As social beings, individuals often censor their behavior to adhere to social conventions and avoid offense, except in cases of intentional provocation (p 238) In the realm of death dysphemism, English poetry presents three instances, while Vietnamese poetry features one, notably in the poem's title This distinction arises from the Vietnamese emphasis on maintaining social relationships, which include considerations of self, others, and the community (Weigand, 2010) Consequently, the use of dysphemism is rare in Vietnamese culture, as it aims to show respect and preserve harmony Furthermore, Vietnam's history and cultural infrastructure influence its literature; during the Vietnam War, poets often refrained from directly addressing death to align with the Party and community values In contrast, Western societies tend to focus more on individualism and self-interest (Weigand, 2010).
Death is often depicted through euphemisms that liken it to a peaceful sleep, suggesting a serene transition This perspective aligns with the notion of death as a desirable state Notably, in English literature, this theme is illustrated in three instances across two poems, emphasizing the tranquil nature of death.
―Kissing my Father‖ (Legaspi, 2018) and ―Seasons of Grief‖ (Stotler, 2012): in his sleep (Legaspi, 2018), lie in eternal peace (Stotler, 2012), into his wake (Legaspi,
2018) but in Vietnamese, there is only one case (mắt đóng – close the eyes) in the poem ―Chết‖ (Cận, 1940)
Euphemisms for death, such as "into his wake" or "in his sleep," reflect a positive perception of death, suggesting it is a temporary state akin to sleep (Legaspi, 2018) This perspective indicates that death is viewed as a transient event in English culture, offering a sense of relief compared to the Vietnamese view In Vietnam, the tradition of ancestor worship and the cultural practice of "báo hiếu" emphasize the loss associated with death Consequently, Vietnamese people observe rituals like "tảo mộ" (grave sweeping) and make offerings of food, drinks, and clothing to honor the deceased, reinforcing the notion of death as a significant loss.
Death is often viewed as a journey in both English and Vietnamese cultures In English, it is described as the act of leaving behind life (Coke, 1958) or embarking on a journey to a peaceful place (Stotler, 2012) Similarly, in Vietnamese, death is expressed as not returning (anh không về nữa đâu) (Bốn, 2012), coming back to the earth (anh về đất) (Dũng, 1948), or not returning to the fold (không về tập hợp) (Thanh, 1968) This shared conceptualization highlights a universal theme in the euphemisms surrounding death in both languages.
English and Vietnamese euphemisms about death exhibit notable differences, particularly in their cultural interpretations In English poetry, death is often embraced as a natural part of life, viewed through a religious lens that offers comfort and peace For instance, in "Seasons of Grief" (Stotler, 2012), death is depicted as a joyful reunion, with phrases like "lie in eternal peace" and "journey to that peaceful shore." Similarly, the notion of death as a reunion is emphasized with the line "join you," suggesting a connection with loved ones who have passed Additionally, in "Leaving" (Coke, 1958), death is portrayed as an inevitable end, illustrated by the phrase "his breath slowed, eased, then quit." Finally, in Dickinson's "If I should die" (1886), death is framed as a farewell, using terms such as "depart" and "parting."
In Vietnamese culture, the perception of existence is deeply rooted in family, contrasting with the individualistic perspective found in English culture This cultural understanding is crucial for grasping how Vietnamese people navigate grief and the concepts of death and dying For instance, in the poem "Tây Tiến" by Dũng (1948), death is depicted as a heroic sacrifice, illustrated through lines such as "gục trên súng mũ bỏ quên đời" and "tay nhậy đã chia lìa." Additionally, death is often conceptualized as a return to the earth, further emphasizing the collective experience of loss in Vietnamese poetry.
―Anh không về nữa đâu‖ (Bốn, 2012) as ―giờ nằm trong đất‖, or case in the poem
In "Cúc ơi," Thanh (1968) portrays the cold land as a symbol of rest, reflecting both the stillness of the earth and the finality of death, as noted by Dzếnh (1943) This imagery conveys a sense of loss that contrasts sharply with the serene notions of a peaceful shore or the English expression "rest in peace."
Research indicates that cultural perceptions of death significantly influence the use of euphemisms, as noted by Al-Shamali (1997) and supported by Hai-Long (2008) In English-speaking cultures, death is often viewed as a journey, relief, reunion, or peace, while in Vietnamese culture, it is seen as a heroic loss, a return to the earth, or a natural force This distinction reflects Vietnam's long history of resistance against invaders, emphasizing the heroic spirit and the importance of ancestor worship and familial obligations Ultimately, Vietnamese culture emphasizes fate and spirit within the context of family life, whereas English culture tends to seek individual salvation through a connection with God.
4.2.2 Sex euphemisms used in English and Vietnamese poems
Euphemism, an ancient practice rooted in the discreet mention of sex, remains a vital aspect of language today, particularly in discussions surrounding sexuality While contemporary society has become more open about talking about sex, it often still carries a sense of politeness and decorum Individuals seeking to soften the impact of explicit language frequently turn to euphemisms, transforming sexual references into more poetic expressions and using these linguistic bridges to navigate sensitive topics.
The analysis of sex euphemisms in English and Vietnamese reveals intriguing cultural differences and similarities Researchers, including Greene (2001), note that both languages utilize euphemisms to navigate taboos surrounding sexuality Poets in both cultures employ metaphors to articulate the processes of sexual arousal and intercourse, using euphemism as a strategic tool to maintain social decorum While English euphemisms tend to be more abstract, Vietnamese poets occasionally borrow foreign terms, reflecting a unique approach to dysphemism in sexual contexts Ultimately, this indicates that Vietnamese speakers prefer to minimize the use of dysphemisms, favoring a harmonious and strategic mode of communication.