Rationale
Headlines serve multiple purposes, including capturing reader attention, conveying the writer's perspective, and highlighting key aspects of a story (Morley, 1998) Due to the limited space and high information density in the press, headline writers often resort to unconventional or sensational terms that must be concise This is where the deployment of overt or covert ideology becomes evident, as certain aspects of a story are emphasized while others are downplayed (Bell, 1991) Journalists frequently use metaphors to achieve these objectives; as Koller (2004) notes, specific metaphors can shape a topic, promote a particular viewpoint, and encourage readers to adopt these interpretations Ultimately, while facts exist in the business world, it is the journalist's perspective that shapes readers' understanding, aligning with Goatly's (1997) assertion that metaphors construct reality by highlighting certain features while downplaying others.
Metaphors play a crucial role in conveying messages, making it essential to examine them from a cognitive perspective Researchers such as Hawkins (2001), Sandikcioglu (2001), and White & Herrera Soler (2003) have emphasized the significance of metaphors in communication, further supported by Herrera Soler's studies in 2006.
Journalists face the challenge of conveying their ideas effectively while navigating the use of metaphors that can reveal both overt and subtle ideologies within the press Even a seemingly neutral news style reflects the underlying beliefs and values of specific groups (Fowler, 1991) To capture readers' attention, journalists must carefully select appropriate structures, symbols, words, or schemas that facilitate the communication of their intended messages.
Aims and objectives of the study
This research investigates the metaphors present in business news headlines, focusing on the identification and analysis of conceptual metaphors and creative metaphorical expressions It explores the rationale behind the selection of specific source domains for particular target domains Additionally, the study aims to highlight effective metaphor usage in news headlines to assist in Vietnamese translations Ultimately, the research seeks to enhance foreign language learning, particularly aiding English for Specific Purposes (ESP) learners in navigating figurative expressions.
2.2 Objectives of the study or the research questions
With the hope of reaching the aims stated, the study tries to seek out the answers to two questions:
- How are the headlines constructed?
- How different between the meaning of metaphor itself and in context of economic headlines?
The study holds significant value in both theoretical and practical realms Theoretically, it uncovers the structural elements of metaphors utilized in business news headlines, while practically, it aims to enhance understanding of their impact on communication within the business sector.
3 this approach is to contribute better understanding of the business press and in the long term this research carried in hope of helping ESP learners cope with figurative expressions
Scholars and researchers worldwide have dedicated significant efforts to defining metaphor, with Gibbs (1999) humorously quoting Wayne Booth's prediction that by 2039, there would be more students of metaphor than people One of the leading figures in this field, Hungarian researcher Kovecses, has contributed his own definition of metaphor, highlighting its importance in understanding language and thought.
In cognitive linguistics, a metaphor is defined as the process of understanding one conceptual domain through another, where the source domain provides metaphorical expressions to comprehend the target domain This understanding relies on established correspondences, known as mappings, that link the source and target domains.
Definitions universally highlight the relationship between two interconnected terms based on their similarities, while often confining metaphors to merely embellishing language Lakoff and Johnson (1980:3) emphasized this perspective in their analysis.
Metaphor is often perceived as a tool of poetic imagination and rhetorical embellishment, representing extraordinary language rather than everyday speech Additionally, it is commonly regarded as a feature exclusive to language, focusing on words rather than broader forms of expression.
Metaphor is an essential component of everyday life, influencing not only language but also our thoughts and actions Contrary to the belief that we can function well without metaphor, it plays a crucial role in shaping our ordinary conceptual system, which fundamentally guides how we think and behave.
By what they found, Lakoff and Johnson indicated that metaphors not only influence our
―linguistic behavior but also our thought processes and our system of value.‖(cited in Ágnes, 2009: 21)
The publication of "Metaphors We Live By" by Lakoff and Johnson in 1980 marked a significant shift in the understanding of metaphor, driven by the advancements in cognitive linguistics This field adopts a conceptual approach to linguistic analysis, viewing linguistic knowledge—encompassing both meaning and form—as fundamentally rooted in conceptual structures.
Before Lakoff and Johnson's groundbreaking work, metaphor was primarily regarded as an ornamental element of poetry and literature, rather than a common aspect of everyday language They shifted this perception by demonstrating that metaphor is a fundamental conceptual process that shapes how we understand and categorize our experiences Far from being limited to literary contexts, metaphor is pervasive in our daily lives, influencing not only our language but also our thoughts and actions.
Lakoff and Johnson introduced the notion of conceptual metaphors in Metaphor we live by (1980) with some famous metaphors like
LOVE IS A JOURNEY, ARGUMENT IS WAR, HAPPY IS UP
In his 1955 work, Black introduced the metaphor "MAN IS WOLF," which parallels the conceptualization framework by Lakoff and Johnson Unlike their terminology of target and source domains, Black referred to "MAN" as the principle subject and "WOLF" as the subsidiary subject He highlighted societal beliefs about wolves, characterizing them as fierce, carnivorous, and treacherous, which in turn reflects on humanity as predatory, fierce, and engaged in constant struggle Black termed the similarities between MAN and WOLF as "the commonplaces" and the "corresponding system." His analysis indicates that the concept of a conceptual metaphor existed well before Lakoff and Johnson's formal introduction of the idea.
Lakoff and Johnson illustrate how metaphorical concepts, such as ARGUMENT, shape our daily activities through the conceptual metaphor ARGUMENT IS WAR, which is evident in various expressions we use in everyday language.
He attacked every weak point in my argument
His criticisms were right on the target
I‘ve never won an argument with him
If you use that strategy, he‘ll wipe you out
He shot down all of my arguments
Lakoff and Johnson (2003) classified conceptual metaphors into three different kinds, namely structural metaphors, orientational metaphors and ontological metaphors Kovecses
(2010), despite having three other criteria for categorizing conceptual metaphors, had the same classification as Lakoff and Johnson, regarding cognitive function of metaphors
Structural metaphors, as defined by Lakoff and Johnson (2003), are conceptual metaphors where one concept is understood through the framework of another, allowing for a structured understanding of complex ideas These metaphors draw from our experiences, enabling us to use a well-defined concept to shape another, as highlighted by Kűvecses (2002), who notes that the source domain enriches our comprehension of the target concept through mappings A prime example of this is the metaphor TIME IS MONEY, which illustrates how the attributes of money are applied to the concept of time.
You‘re wasting my time
This gadget will save your time
How do you spend your time these days?
I‘ve invested a lot of time in her
You need to budget your time
Money is a fundamental aspect of our daily lives, as it can be saved, spent, and budgeted When we equate time with money, we gain a clearer understanding of the abstract concept of time, as both share similar structural characteristics Structural metaphors, such as the journey metaphor in economics, enhance our comprehension of complex ideas by mapping the familiar structure of one domain onto another Thus, the metaphor "TIME IS MONEY" illustrates the parallels between time and economic value, highlighting their interconnectedness.
Orientational metaphors are fundamentally linked to basic spatial orientations, such as up-down and center-periphery, playing a crucial role in our cognitive framework These metaphors, often referred to as "coherence metaphors," help organize our understanding of various concepts For instance, an upward orientation is associated with the concept of abundance, as illustrated by phrases like "Speak up, please," while a downward orientation signifies scarcity, as seen in "Keep your voice down, please."
HEALTHY IS UP; SICK IS DOWN: Lazarus rose from dead He fell ill
CONTROL IS UP; LACK OF CONTROL IS DOWN: I‘m on top of the situation He is under my control
HAPPY IS UP; SAD IS DOWN: I‘m feeling up today He‘s really low these days
Spatial orientation is not limited to the up-down axis; it also encompasses various spatial images such as whole, center, link, and balance, as noted by Kửvecses (2002:36).
LITERATURE REVIEW 1 Definition of metaphor
The concept of metaphor
The publication of "Metaphors We Live By" by Lakoff and Johnson in 1980 marked a significant shift in the understanding of metaphor, driven by advancements in cognitive linguistics This field adopts a conceptual approach to linguistic analysis, viewing linguistic knowledge—encompassing meaning and form—as fundamentally rooted in conceptual structures.
Before Lakoff and Johnson's groundbreaking work, metaphor was primarily regarded as an ornamental aspect of language, predominantly found in poetry and literature However, they reveal that metaphor is a fundamental conceptual process essential for understanding and categorizing our everyday experiences It permeates our language, thoughts, and actions, highlighting its significant role in daily life.
Conceptual metaphor
Lakoff and Johnson introduced the notion of conceptual metaphors in Metaphor we live by (1980) with some famous metaphors like
LOVE IS A JOURNEY, ARGUMENT IS WAR, HAPPY IS UP
In his 1955 work, Black introduced the metaphor "MAN IS WOLF," which aligns with the conceptualization framework proposed by Lakoff and Johnson, although he refrained from using their terminology of target and source domains Instead, Black identified "MAN" as the principal subject and "WOLF" as the subsidiary subject, suggesting that common beliefs about wolves—characterized as fierce, carnivorous, and treacherous—inform our understanding of humanity, depicting man as a predator engaged in constant struggle He referred to the similarities between MAN and WOLF as "the commonplaces" and the "corresponding system." This analysis indicates that the concept of metaphorical thinking was recognized long before Lakoff and Johnson's contributions.
Lakoff and Johnson illustrate how metaphorical concepts shape our daily activities by using the example of ARGUMENT, framed through the conceptual metaphor ARGUMENT IS WAR This metaphor is evident in our everyday language, manifesting through numerous expressions that reflect the combative nature of arguments.
He attacked every weak point in my argument
His criticisms were right on the target
I‘ve never won an argument with him
If you use that strategy, he‘ll wipe you out
He shot down all of my arguments
Classification of conceptual metaphor
Lakoff and Johnson (2003) classified conceptual metaphors into three different kinds, namely structural metaphors, orientational metaphors and ontological metaphors Kovecses
(2010), despite having three other criteria for categorizing conceptual metaphors, had the same classification as Lakoff and Johnson, regarding cognitive function of metaphors
Structural metaphors, as defined by Lakoff and Johnson (2003), are a type of conceptual metaphor where one concept is understood through the framework of another These metaphors are deeply rooted in our experiences and facilitate the use of a well-defined concept to shape another According to Kűvecses (2002), the source domain in structural metaphors provides a richer knowledge structure that aids in comprehending the target concept through mappings A prime example of this is the metaphor "TIME IS MONEY," which illustrates how the structured concept of money is applied to the understanding of time.
You‘re wasting my time
This gadget will save your time
How do you spend your time these days?
I‘ve invested a lot of time in her
You need to budget your time
Money is an integral part of our daily lives, often saved, spent, or budgeted By equating time with money, we can grasp the complex idea of time more easily, as both share a similar structure Structural metaphors enhance our understanding of abstract concepts by mapping them onto more familiar domains Similarly, journey metaphors used in the economic realm align with the TIME IS MONEY metaphor, highlighting the structural similarities between journeys and economic processes.
Orientational metaphors are closely tied to fundamental spatial orientations, such as up-down and center-periphery, playing a crucial role in our cognitive framework Often referred to as "coherence metaphors," these metaphors help us understand various target concepts in a consistent manner For instance, an upward orientation is associated with the concept of abundance, as seen in expressions like "Speak up, please," while a downward orientation signifies scarcity, as illustrated by "Keep your voice down, please" (Kửvecses 2002: 36).
HEALTHY IS UP; SICK IS DOWN: Lazarus rose from dead He fell ill
CONTROL IS UP; LACK OF CONTROL IS DOWN: I‘m on top of the situation He is under my control
HAPPY IS UP; SAD IS DOWN: I‘m feeling up today He‘s really low these days
Spatial orientation is not limited to the up-down axis; it also encompasses various spatial images such as whole, center, link, and balance, as noted by Kửvecses (2002:36).
Ontological metaphors, also known as entity and substance metaphors, are rooted in our physical experiences They allow us to conceptualize abstract ideas as tangible entities or substances, enabling us to refer to, categorize, group, and qualify these less concrete notions.
2003:26) Take the INFLATION IS AN ENTITY metaphor from Metaphors We Live By (Lakoff
& Johnson 2003:27) as an example Inflation is understood as an entity and it enables us to refer to and qualify it in the following sentences (Lakoff & Johnson 2003:27):
Inflation is lowering our standard of living
If there‘s much more inflation, we‘ll never survive We need to combat inflation
Inflation is hacking us in to a corner
Inflation is a significant factor that impacts our daily lives and can be addressed effectively By utilizing ontological metaphors, individuals can conceptualize inflation as a tangible entity, facilitating better discussion and understanding of its effects.
Previous studies of metaphor in economic
Economy as an abstract field has drawn much attention to many economists and scholars, and so far many studies of metaphors in economy from different angles have been done
The American economist McCloskey is the pioneer who deep study on metaphors in economic In his article Towards a Rhetoric of Economics, he claims that metaphor is the
Economic rhetoric is crucial for understanding economic thought, even in its most formal expressions McCloskey (1988) highlights that economics is filled with metaphors that reflect empirical realities, building on the insights of Kuttner and Goodman Similarly, Paul Krugman (1995) views metaphor as a valuable heuristic modeling technique that effectively communicates economic insights These studies indicate that while metaphors are significant in the economic field, much of the analysis has focused primarily on their rhetorical aspects.
Since the 1980s, cognitive perspective studies have gained momentum, particularly in analyzing metaphors in financial reporting Gao (2008) investigates metaphors in The Economist's 2007 articles, identifying three distinct types of economic metaphors Her analysis reveals that concrete terms from our physical experiences are employed to grasp abstract economic concepts, suggesting that understanding conceptual metaphors can enhance metaphorical thinking in economic discussions This approach allows non-expert readers to better comprehend complex economic discourses through relatable, tangible language.
In Vietnam, significant research on metaphors in economic literature includes M.A Nguyễn Thụy Phương Lan's 2009 thesis, "Khảo sát ẩn dụ trong các sách kinh tế tiếng Anh," and Nguyen Thi Hong Nhung's 2013 study, "Metaphor and Metonymy in Editorial Headlines." These studies explore the use of metaphor and metonymy in economic texts and newspaper headlines, contributing valuable insights to the understanding of language in economic discourse.
Research has uncovered both typical and intriguing characteristics of metaphors, particularly in newspaper headlines Studies focusing on economic metaphors offer valuable insights into the economic landscape Nevertheless, there is a scarcity of specialized research in this area.
This study focuses on a specific metaphor found in economic news headlines, analyzing data collected from these headlines to gain insights into their usage.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 1 A descriptive approach
Data collection
This study analyzes metaphors in business headlines from widely circulated publications, focusing on popular magazines that reach diverse audiences across different age and economic backgrounds The samples are drawn from well-known online sources, including The Economist, Financial Times, CNNMoney, and Business Week, ensuring a comprehensive representation of business discourse.
To begin with, 60 headlines were collected from these sources and then a selection was carried out, the one that did not contain metaphorical linguistic expressions were left out.
Data analysis
To achieve this goal, we first researched various sources for material collection Next, we identified and categorized metaphorical words and expressions based on their source and target domains Finally, we applied the theory of conceptual metaphor to analyze and discuss these metaphorical expressions.
The corpus under investigation here consists of 60 headlines, taken from the business and finance sections of The Economist, Financial Times, the Business Week and CNNMoney
The researched headlines effectively utilize rhetorical devices, including metaphors, metonymies, punning, pseudo-direct quotes, and cultural allusions Initial analysis focused on identifying metaphors within the headlines, distinguishing them from metonymies and idioms, although the latter two were only identified without further analysis due to a specific interest in metaphorical conceptualizations A manual examination of the limited corpus allowed for a detailed differentiation between literal and metaphorical occurrences The subsequent step involved deducing the conceptual metaphors that underpin the linguistic expressions, employing the concept of 'conceptual metaphor' to link two distinct mental domains Some metaphors were identified as 'fuzzy,' indicating their complexity and potential fit within multiple conceptual categories In such cases, a search for predominant features helped determine the 'best fit' category, while certain metaphors were recognized as representing multiple conceptual structures.
Steen's metaphor identification procedures (1999a, 1999b, 2002) have been utilized to identify metaphorical conceptualizations by analyzing non-literal linguistic expressions within their immediate context This involves deducing conceptual metaphors by considering the headline alongside the accompanying co-text, thereby placing the metaphorical expression in its proper context Ultimately, the immediate article context related to the headline serves as the primary factor for interpreting the metaphors.
According to Steen (1999b), metaphorical headlines can be categorized based on their identification context When a literal referent is explicitly identified within the article, the metaphor is considered co-textual Conversely, if the literal referent is absent, the metaphor is deemed contextual, relying heavily on the interpreter's contextual knowledge, understanding of conventional language, and the shared culture of the discourse community.
This research briefly differentiates between conventional and novel metaphors in the analyzed headlines While some headlines feature conventional metaphors, others showcase 'strong metaphors' (Cameron 1999) that are more novel, exhibit greater incongruity, and demand higher cognitive engagement from the audience.
Certain economic terms like float, sink, boom, fall, rise, flow, and slump are not viewed as metaphorical due to their established usage in the field Additionally, phrasal verbs such as give in, give out, and give up were excluded from this analysis, as their metaphorical meanings may be unclear to users, suggesting the need for further investigation into these expressions.
This article presents forty-seven economic metaphorical expressions sourced from the Financial Times and CNNMoney, categorized into four domains: human beings, machines, plants, and buildings Each expression is numbered and referenced accordingly, with Financial Times examples marked [FT] and CNNMoney examples marked [CN] The piece will also provide an in-depth analysis and discussion of the economic metaphorical expressions, their source domains, and the functions of these conceptual metaphors.
Plato, the ancient Greek philosopher, posited that humans are the measure of all things, a notion that helps to interpret abstract economic concepts through human traits By personifying these economic phenomena, we can better understand and relate to them, as applying human characteristics to economic discussions makes the complexities more accessible.
Human beings rely upon their own experience and knowledge to reason about the abstract and complicated economic concepts and phenomena
4.1.1 Stages of Economic System are Stages of Human Beings
Life encompasses four fundamental phases: birth, growth, maturation, and death These stages can be applied to economic contexts, illustrating the various stages of economic organization and business development.
(1) The European Central Bank is in its infancy.[FT]
(2) Mature market should not be mistaken for a stagnant market.[FT]
(3) The Korean economy is in great danger of becoming an aging economy [FT]
In example (1), infancy, the first stage of human life, implies that the European