The transference of meaning through class of words denoting parts of the human body in english and vietnames

The contrastive analysis of class of words denoting parts of the human body in English and Vietnamese on semantic transference... This investigation is limited to the class of words deno

The thesis could not have been completed without the help of my teachers and friends during the time of my doing it

Firstly, I would like to express my deep thank to my supervisor - the Dean of the Department of Foreign Languages - Master of Arts Ng« §×nh Ph¬ng for his great support and constant and helpful advices on my study.

Secondly, I am grateful to Master of Arts TrÇn Ngäc Tëng and Mr chrisstaples for their useful advices from the early stages of the study.

Thirdly, I would also like to thank my teachers in the Department of Foreign Languages and friends who helped me a lot throughout my study.

Vinh, May 2004

Table of contents

Page Acknowledgements 1

Table of contents 2

Part A Introduction 4

1 Reasons for choosing the subject 4

2 Aims of the study 5

3 Objectives of the study 5

4 Methods of the study 6

5 Design of the study 6

1.3 Names of part of the human body with the transference of meaning

Chapter 2 The contrastive analysis of class of words denoting parts of the human body in English and Vietnamese on semantic transference 14

2.2.1 Quantitative features 162.2.2 Qualitative features 28

References 43

Part A. Introduction

1 Reasons for choosing the subject

Polysemantic words are a general and specific phenomenon of manylanguages in the world In both daily spoken language and literary language in

English and Vietnamese, we often meet the use of polysemy For example: "Use

your head ! "; " Report to the Head immediately "; " The arm of my jacket", " The arm of a chair ", etc We are really interested in studying them, specially the

meanings of words denoting parts of the human body in English and Vietnamese

Choosing two languages, English and Vietnamese to make a contrastiveanalysis has scientific base on linguistics and culture England and Vietnam havetheir own culture, human race, geography and history

We can also see that, the class of words denoting parts of the human body

is very familiar to us and has rich development of meaning in each language.These words are realized early by the native speakers They belong to the originalstock of the lexical system in each language Studying the transference ofmeaning through this class of words attracts us much

Furthermore, because of the importance and necessity of substratumknowledge in teaching and learning English and Vietnamese, we would like toexamine and find out some relationships between two languages When teachingEnglish or Vietnamese to a foreigner, it is not enough to only teach the meanings

of words and the rules of grammar Because of not understanding deeply the

thoughts of Vietnamese people, an English man can say “ T«i rÊt vui tim ” instead

of “ T«i rÊt vui lßng ” Teaching a language as a foreign language, first of all,

needs to teach the way of speaking and thinking as the native speakers of thatlanguage As a result, the situation the thoughts are of the learners but the means

of language is a foreign language can be avoided

Finally, no one has studied this subject, to my knowledge

2 Aims of the study

This study aims at finding out the similarities and differences on aspects ofsemantic transference through class of words denoting parts of the human body inEnglish and Vietnamese

This study to some extent, describes national cultural features reflected inthe semantic transference of class of words denoting parts of the human body

It provides materials - a big part of basic knowledge on semantictransference of English and Vietnamese words to help teaching and learningEnglish and Vietnamese as well We hope the results of the study will help thereaders have deep understanding about the mechanism of semantic transference.

We also hope that suggested exercises provided will contribute in teachingand learning semantics in general and the transference of meaning in particular intwo languages

3 Objectives of the study

We pay attention to words denoting part of the human body in English andVietnamese

This investigation is limited to the class of words denoting parts of thehuman body in English and Vietnamese that has the semantic transference

reflected in two dictionaries " Advanced learner's dictionary-Oxford University

Press, 1995 " and " Hoµng Phª(chñ biªn)- Tõ ®iÓn tiÕng ViÖt - Nhµ xuÊt b¶n khoa häc x· héi, Trung t©m tõ ®iÓn häc, 1994 "

We only study the polysemantic words having primary meaning denotingparts of the human body We do not pay attention to words having derivedmeaning denoting parts of the human body and to the phenomenon of conversion

4 Methods of the study

1 Reasons for choosing the subject

2 Aims of the study

3 Objectives of the study

4 Methods of the study

5 Design of the study

Part B Contents

Chapter 1 Theoretical preliminaries

Chapter 2 The contrastive analysis of class of words denoting parts of human body in English and VietNamese on semantic transference

Chapter 3 SuggesTed exercises

Chapter 1 theoretical preliminaries

1.1 Contrastive analysis on languages

whether languages belong to a linguistic typology or not, whether they are

of family relation, they all develop and change according to the general rule oflinguistics and have similar basic functions Language reflects socio-historicalexperiences of human beings We can find common features in languages.However, each nation has its own socio-historical experience, its language reflectsand preserves its own specific characteristics Because of the specificcharacteristics of each language on its structure, on the history of developmentand the culture of the user, etc, every language may have its individuality Aslanguages have both general and individual features so that the basic to compareand make contrastive analysis them is the similar and different features of theobjectives of the study

When comparing languages, it needs to determine the basic language tocompare Depending on the aims of the study, the level of contrastive analysis can

be different The study can be done on the level of linguistic system on differentaspects as phonetics, semantics, grammar, etc It can also be done on the specificlevels as tense, aspect, gender, number, kind of word, polysemy, synonymy, type

of sentence, etc This subject belongs to the specific level of contrastive study

When making contrastive analysis on languages, the different and similar

features drawn not only convey linguistic traits but also show many problemssuch as the mind and the national culture reflected through languages This matter

is specially important to the task of translation, teaching and learning a foreignlanguage Therefore, making contrastive analysis on languages at any level besidehas to find out the general and individual characteristics of the linguistic

rule between them but also has to draw specific ones of culture of each language Comments on thoughts, culture and the habit of using language of a nationare reflected strongly and clearly in linguistics at different levels, specially lexicalsemantics Therefore, linguistic datum are needed defining scientifically whenmaking contrastive analysis on languages

For example, on the level of lexical-semantics, it is necessary to choosegroups of basic words as word denoting parts of the human body, family relation,natural phenomena, animals, plants, etc They are original stock of thevocabulary; they are recognized and named early by human beings They havemeaty meanings and diversified development of meaning They consist of fewborrowed words and so they reflect strongly specific characteristics of eachlanguage

1.2 The rule of semantic transference

It should be noted that the wealth of expressive resources of a languagelargely depends on the degree to which polysemy has developed in the language.The number of sound combinations that human speech organs can produce islimited Therefore, at a certain stage of language development of the production

of new words by morphological means become limited, and the transference ofmeaning becomes a great advantage in providing the means for enriching thevocabulary Polysematic words are those having several meanings The semanticstructure of a polysemantic word is treated as a system of meaning They arerelated to each other

For example, the semantic structure of the noun " eye " could be presented

by this scheme

word relates to the meaning I through meaning II Lash : I eyelash; II The

flexible leather part of a whip used for hitting people and animal; III A stroke from the whip or rope given as form of punishment ( Oxford advanced learner's

dictionary, page 663 )

Polysemy is the result of the semantic transference of word There arebasically two types of semantic transference for most languages: metaphor andmetonymy Metaphor is the transference of name based on the association of

similarity For example: The meaning of the noun " leg " realized in the context "

the leg of a table or a chair " originates from the main meaning of this noun " the leg of a man or an animal " The association that lies behind this development of

meaning is the similar function: a piece of furniture is supported by its legs just

as living beings are supported by theirs The foot of a mountain is its lowest part,

the original meaning being " the foot of a man " It is developed due to the

association of the similar position: the foot of a man is also his lowest part

There are various types of similarity:

- The similarity of shape

E.g: The teeth of a saw, the head of a cabbage

- The similarity of position

E.g: The tail of procession

III

III

- The similarity of movement

E.g: To worm

- The similarity of colour

E.g: Orange, rose

- The similarity of size

E.g: Elephantine

- The similarity of quality

E.g: Emotional scars

Metonymy is the transference of name based on the association ofcontiguity The name of one thing is changed for that of another to which it is

related For example: the noun " hand " has one of its meaning " worker on a

farm or a factory " which originates from the main meaning of this noun " part of the human body " It is developed due to the contiguous relation: strong, skillful

hands are the most important feature that is required of a person engaged in

physical labour Or the word " china " in the sense of " dishes made of porcelain "

originated from the name of the country which was believed to be the birthplace

of porcelain

There are various types of metonymical relations:

- Names of containers are used instead of the thing contained

E.g: He drank twenty glasses

- Names of material are used instead of the things made of them

E.g: I've bought a new iron

- A separate part is used instead of a whole

E.g: They all live under the same proof

- A whole is used instead of a part

E.g: His bike needs repairing

- Proper names are used as common names

E.g: wolt, watt, china, champagne

- An object is used instead of the user

E.g: The saxophone has the flu today

- A part is used as symbols

E.g: She has a good ear for music

Metaphor and metonymy appear as a result of associating two objects due

to their outward similarity or the image of one is easily accompanied by the image

of the other which are objective realities However, metaphor and metonymy arenot completely controlled by objective phenomenon The transference of meaning

also depends on the subjective acknowledgement of people about the similaritybetween different objects and about the psychological links between them.Metaphoric and metonymical meanings are of profound nationality Metaphor andmetonymy are linguistic phenomena They are general and individual features oflanguages The process of semantic transference not only has the generality andcurrency but also the specific characteristics of each nation For example, bothVietnamese and English people use a part for the whole- metonymy but the word

" chân " in Vietnamese has meaning " one's position as a member of an

organization, e.g: Có chân trong hội đồng " The word " foot "(English) does not

have this meaning

Sometimes, the process of transference may result in a considerable change

in range of meaning A word which formerly represented a notion of a broaderscope can come to render a notion of a narrower scope When the meaning isspecialized, the word can name fewer objects, i.e have fewer referents For

example: the word " case " originally meant " an instance of something" occurring; now it develops new meaning " an instance of a disease or injury; a

person suffering from this, e.g: a case of typhoid " [11;172 ] The reduction of

scope accounts for the term " specialization or narrowing of the meaning" The process reverses to specialization is termed " generalization or broadening of

meaning " In that case the scope of the new notion is wider than that of the

original one For example: " fly " originally meant " to move through the air,

using wings "; now it denotes any kind of movement in the air or outer space and

also very quick movement in any medium

1.3 Names of parts of the human body with the transference of meaning and cultural symbolism

Semantic field " parts of the human body "- nucleus of the lexical system

in each language is realized earlier than the other by native speakers It is clearthat human beings first of all got to know their own body and gave names to itsparts

The semantic field " parts of the human body " is one of the lexical groupsthat is meaty in meaning and has diversified development of meaning Metaphoricand metonymical meanings of words denoting parts of the human body are widely

used ( the nose of a plane, the head of a school, the leg of a table, a kind heart, a

clever head… ) Because parts of human body were acknowledged early, human

beings, in the process of cognition of the world first began comparing the

surrounding objects with their own body and finding common features onassociating them with their body.

The class of words denoting parts of human body expresses stronglyspecific characteristic of national culture through naming function and semanticsymbolism Symbolism, it is the way using an object, a phenomenon to manifestsymbolically and conventionally another abstract thing This phenomenon is quitecommon and familiar to many countries It reflects the popular views of eachethnic group that are sometimes expressed in language Each group of people canfix a psychological phenomenon for a certain part and vice versa a part of thebody can be assigned to symbolize different colours of psychology and feelingaccording to their conception

Each nation has its own way of symbolism Therefore, it reflects deeply

national character For example, the English consider " heart " as the central

symbol of people's feeling and emotion, meanwhile the Vietnamese consider

"lòng " ( the abdomen of the body ) as the central symbol of people's mental world in general Vietnamese people often say " vui lòng, bận lòng, đẹp lòng " not

" vui tim, bận tim, đẹp tim".

The lexical field " names of parts of the human body " has clear limit so it

is relatively closed and familiar to everybody It is very unshakeable and peoplecan use it at anytime and anywhere

Chapter 2 The contrastive analysis of class of words denoting parts of human body in English and

VietNamese on semantic transference

2.1 The origin of names referring to parts of the human body

According to the aspect of origin, names can be formed by one of threefollowing ways:

1 Using existing lexical units in language

2 Making new words by available elements

3 Borrowing foreign

The first two ways form native words The third way forms borrowed ones

In order to name parts of the human body, Vietnamese people use about

307 words and English people use about 255 words They consist of bothborrowed and native ones but the borrowed ones only take small amount

In English, native words denoting parts of human body are: arm, ear, foot,

nose, lip, heart, eye, etc

Borrowed words are: skin ( scandinavian ), face

In Vietnamese, native words denoting parts of the human body are: tay,

ch©n, bông, da, mÆt, lìi, ruét, etc

Borrowed words are: ven, ami®an, t©m nhÜ, phÕ qu¶n, yÕt hÇu, huyÖt,

khÈu…

In two classes of words denoting parts of human body in English andVietnamese, there are words having primary meanings referring to parts of humanbody and words having derived meaning referring to them ( their primarymeanings aren't names of the parts of the human body Thanks to the process ofsemantic transference they have these meanings )

For example: " Bottom "

1 The lower part or point of something

2 The part of the body on which one sits, the buttocks, e.g: She smacks

the child's bottom [11; 128]

- C¸nh“ ”(wing)

1 The part used to fly of birds, bats and insects form symmetry pair in thetwo sides of their body

2 Part of human body from the shoulder to the wrist in the two sides of the

body, e.g: Kho¸c c¸nh nhau ®i KÒ vai s¸t c¸nh" [12; 127]

Names having primary meaning referring to parts of the human body takemajor amount in both classes of words) Vietnamese has about 92% (283/307)and English has about 82% (209/255) this kind of names Most of words havingderived meanings denoting parts of the human body in English and Vietnamesebased on metaphoric mechanism to get them.

For example: The word " tube " ( a long hollow pipe or cylinder of metal, glass, rubber ) has another meaning " a hollow organ in the body, shaped like a

tube " This is a case of metaphor based on the similarity of shape.

“Mao qu¶n ”( small pipe ) has another meaning " the small blood vessel

connects with vein " This is the case of metaphor based on the similarity of form.

In English, slang words denoting parts of the human body are used much.Slang's colourful and humorous quality makes it catching, so that a considerablepart of slang may become accepted by nearly all the groups of speakers For

example: mutt, paw ( for a hand ), mug, puss ( for face ), knocker ( for a women's breasts ), nut ( for head, e.g: He cracked his nut on the ceiling ), trap ( for mouth, eg: Keep your trap shut), snout ( for nose ), shank ( for a leg)

In Vietnamese, some words denoting parts of human body ( generally

speaking) but they are always used with symbolic meaning as x¬ng m¸u, ®Çu ãc,

g©n cèt, m¸u thÞt, ruét gan, etc

For example: Ruét gan: one's bowel and liver that are considered as the symbol of the endurance of emotion, e.g: Ruét gan nãng nh löa Ruét gan rèi bêi.

[12;809]

- Cöa miÖng: mouth, on the aspect of being used to speak, e.g:

Nh÷ng lêi thèt ra tõ cöa miÖng.[ 12 ; 222 ]

2.2 The features of semantic transference

Words denoting parts of human body in English and Vietnamese havediversified transference of meaning in both quantitative and qualitative aspects

2.2.1 Quantitative features

- The amount of meanings

In English, there are 82 words having primary meaning referring to parts ofthe human body possessing the transference of meaning The number of wordshaving two or three meanings make up 76% ( 62/82 ) and the number of wordshaving more than 3 meanings occupy 24% ( 20/82 )

In Vietnamese, there are 71 words having primary meanings denoting parts

of the human body possessing the transference of meaning The number of words

having two or three meaning make up 75% ( 53/71) and the number of wordshaving more than 3 meanings occupy 25% ( 18/71 ).

- Types of semantic transference

Words referring to parts of the human body in English and Vietnamesedevelop new meanings basing on the mechanism of metaphor, metonymy andnarrowing and broadening of meaning Analytical result of the definitions indictionary of these words allows us to define 17 forms of the types of semantictransference that are used in this class of words ( this classification is based on the

view of professor Nguyễn Đức Tồn in“ Tìm hiểu đặc trng văn hoá dân tộc của

ngôn ngữ và t duy ngời Việt( trong sự so sánh với những dân tộc khác) [13]

-statistical data follows the order English - Vietnamese, the numerator indicatesthe number of meanings transferring to a form of a type of semantic transference,the denominator indicates the total number of meanings produced by the semantictransference.)

2.2.1.1 Metaphor based on the similarity of form: 23% (42/179); 28%

(43/148)

For example:

In English: " Tooth":

1.The teeth of a person

2 The teeth of a saw / gear / comb [11; 1259]

In Vietnamese: “ Tai " ( Ear ):

1 The ear of a man

2 The part of some objects that is shaped like ear, e.g: Tai

1 The eye of a person

2 The power of seeing, the ability to see, e.g: The eyes often

deteriorate as one gets older [11; 410]

In Vietnamese: " Đầu "( head ):

1 The head of a person

2 Symbol of thinking, cognition, e.g: vấn đề đau đầu [12; 289]

2.2.1.3 Metaphor based on the similarity of position: 11% (20/179); 16%

(24/148)

For example:

In English: " Foot ":

1 The foot of a man

2 The foot of stairs / ladder [11; 458]

In Vietnamese: " Lng ":

1 The back of a person

2 The back part of something, e.g: Nhµ quay lng ra hå [12; 577]

2.2.1.4 Metaphor based on the similarity of quality: 8.3% (15/179); 4%

(6/148)

For example:

In English: " Artery":

1 The artery of a man

2 Important route for traffic or transport [11; 56]

In Vietnamese: " YÕt hÇu":

1 The pharynx of a person

2 A very important place where determines a matter of life

and death, e.g: C¨n cø yÕt hÇu [12; 1129]

2.2.1.5 A part for the whole - metonymy: 6.7% (12/179); 12%(18/148)

For example:

In English: " Brain ":

1 The brain of a man

2 A clever person, e.g: He is one of the leading brains in the

family [11; 131]

In Vietnamese: " KhÈu ":

1 The mouth

2 Person, e.g: Nhµ cã bèn khÈu [12; 478]

2.2.1.6 Metaphor based on the similarity of function: 6.6% (12/179);

6.1%(10/148)

For example:

In English: " Leg ":

1.The leg of an animal or a person

2 The leg of a chair / a table [11; 673]

In Vietnamese: " X¬ng ":

1 The bone of the bodies of human and animals

2 The hard part forms the core of something, e.g: X¬ng l¸,

x¬ng qu¹t [12; 1125]

2.2.1.7 A part for related characteristics - metonymy: 4.5%(8/179);

2 A condition in which one is nervous and worried , the feeling

that produce this , e.g: Everyone s nerves are on edge after the ’s nerves are on edge after the

accident [11; 779]

In Vietnamese : " MÆt ":

1 The face of person

2 An expression shown on the face, e.g: MÆt l¹nh nh tiÒn.

1 The ankle of a person

2 The thinner part of the leg between this joint and the calf,

e.g: be ankle - deep in mud [11; 40]

In Vietnamese: " Mi ":

1 Eyelid

2 Eyelash, e.g: Hµng mi cong [12; 609]

2.2.1.9 A part for things cover it – metonymy: 5%(9/179); 5.4%(8/148)

For example:

In English: " Foot ":

1 The foot of a person

2 The foot of sock [11; 458]

2 A style of handwriting, e.g: He has a good hand [11; 537]

1 The skin of a person or an animal

2 The skin of dead animal [11; 1109]

In Vietnamese: " Tiền đình ":

1 The vestibule, e.g: Tiền đình miệng, mũi.

2 The vestibule in the inner ear, e.g: Bị rối loạn

tiền đình [12; 950]

2.2.1.12 The tool to measure for its length -metonymy: 1.1%(2/179) ; 0%

For example:

In English: " Hand ":

1 The hand of a man

2 A unit of measurement about 4 inches or 10,16 centimeters [11; 537]

2.2.1.13 The whole for a part- metonymy: 1.1%(2/179); 0.7%(1/148)

For example:

In English: " Body ":

1 The body of a human( or an animal)

2 The main part of the human body, a part from the head and limbs [11; 289]

In Vietnamese: " Đầu ":

1 The head of a person

2 The part of the head that the hair rooted in, e.g: Gãi đầu gãi

1 The stomach of a person

2 The abdomen, e.g: Punch somebody in the stomach

[11; 1174]

In Vietnamese: " Mật ":

1 The bile

2 The bag of bile, e.g: C¸i mËt gÊu [12; 602]

2.2.2.1.15 A material for product made of material-metonymy:

0.5%(1/179); 0%

For example:

In English: " Gut ":

1 The gut of a man or an animal

2 Cat- gut ( thin strong cord made from part of the stomach of certain animals ) [11; 531]

2.2.1.16 A thing for materials make thing -metonymy: 0.5% (1/179) ; 0%

For example:

In English: " Bone ":

1 The bone of the human or animal's body

2 The hard substance of which bone are made, e.g: Buttons

are sometimes made of bone [11; 123]

2.2.1.17 A container for amount contained –metonymy : 0%; 0.7%(1/148)

For example:

In Vietnamese: " KhÈu ":

1 The mouth

2 Each small piece of something that can be put into mouth

to chew and eat, e.g: MÝa tiÖn thµnh tõng khÈu [12; 478]

We analyzed the derived meanings of words denoting part of the human

body in two dictionaries “Advanced learner's dictionary-Oxford University Press,

1995 " and " Hoµng Phª(chñ biªn)- Tõ ®iÓn tiÕng ViÖt - Nhµ xuÊt b¶n khoa häc x· héi, Trung t©m tõ ®iÓn häc, 1994 " The following table is the specific results

of the types of semantic transference of each meaning that are defined

Table 1: The classification of meanings according to the types of

Semantic transference

Symbols :

a: metaphor

b: metonymy

c: narrowing and broadening of meaning

a1: Metaphor based on the similarity of form

a2: Metaphor based on the similarity of position

a3: Metaphor based on the similarity of quality

a4: Metaphor based on the similarity of function

b1 : A part of the body for symbols -metonymy

b2: A part for the whole-metonymy

b3: Apart for related characteristics -metonymy

b4: A part for another part concerned - metonymy

b5: A part for things cover it – metonymy

b6: A means for product made by this - metonymy

b7: The whole for a part -metonymy

b8 : The tool to measure for its length – metonymy

b9: A container for things contained -metonymy

b10: A material for product(result) made by this –metonymy

b11: A thing for materials make thing-metonymy

b12: A container for amount contained –metonymy

Numbers: 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 , 7 , 8…the order of meanings of wordsthe order of meanings of words

3,4,5 Order

2,3,4

2,3

of the types of semantic transference used in these classes.

Table 2: The percentage of the forms of each type of semantic transference

3,4 5,6

3,4,5 6,7,8

LanguageMetonymical forms

fámforms

A part for the whole 12 ( 6.7% ) 18 ( 12% )

Table 3: The table of percentage of the types of semantic transference

6( 3.3% )

179( 100% )

( 55% )

65( 44% )

2( 1.3% )

148( 100% )

2.2 Qualitative features

Basing on above statistical data, we can draw some comments on thetransference of meaning in the class of words referring to parts of the human body

in English and Vietnamese

First, both classes of words show the tendency to preferring using metaphor

to metonymy ( Metaphor used in Vietnamese class of words is 55% and inEnglish is 49% meanwhile metonymy used in Vietnamese class of words is 44%and in English is 47% ) It is clear that Vietnamese class of words denoting part of

LanguageMetaphoric forms

the human body uses more metaphor The rate between metaphor and metonymy

in Vietnamese is more unequal than that in English

Second, in two classes of words, the semanteme " shape/ form ", " position" and " symbol " take major role in semantic transference of words denoting parts of

the human body ( metaphor that is based on the similarity of form in English class

of words: 23% and in Vietnamese: 28% Metaphor that is based on the similarity

of position in English: 11% and in Vietnamese:16% A part of the body- symbols - metonymy in English class of words: 19% and in Vietnamese: 17% )

for-However, in Vietnamese class of words " part of the human body " the semanteme " form " and " position " are used more than those in English.

Third, looking at the phenomenon of semantic transference based on

metaphoric mechanism, metaphor that is based on the similar quality in Englishclass of words is double that in Vietnamese ( compare 8.3% ( English ) and 4%( Vietnamese ) Metaphor that is based on the similarity of function in Englishand Vietnamese class of words is nearly equal

Fourth, considering metonymical forms, we can see many differencesbetween them in English and Vietnamese A part for the whole - metonymy in Vietnamese class of words is nearly double that in English class of words A partfor another part concerned - metonymy in English class of words is nearly triplethat in Vietnamese However, a container for thing contained - metonymy used inVietnamese class of words is nearly triple that used in English class of words Ameans for product made by this - metonymy in English class of words is thequadruple of that in Vietnamese In English class of words denoting parts of thehuman body, a container for amount contained –metonymy is not used And, inVietnamese class of words, the tool of measure for its length - metonymy, amaterial for product made of material - metonymy and a thing for material makething - metonymy do not appear

Fifth, a part for the whole- metonymy is used more by Vietnamese people

than English people in the class of words "parts of the human body " Meanwhile

English people use more a part for another part concerned - metonymy The

Vietnamese tends to use widely a part of the body to show the whole body TheEnglish often uses a part of the body to show the whole body and another relatedpart

Sixth, the phenomenon of semantic transference in English class of words "

parts of the body " is more diversified than that of Vietnamese class of words The

number of words having primary meaning denoting parts of the body in English isfewer than Vietnamese ( compare 209 ( English ) with 283 ( Vietnamese ) )

However, More words in English class of words have the transference of meaning( compare 82 words ( 39% ) in English and 71 words ( 25% ) in Vietnamese).

Seventh, English people and Vietnamese people use many parts of thehuman body as symbols for different things However, each nation has its ownmode of symbolism, this phenomenon reflects strongly national characteristics

- Parts relating to speech are used for different symbols in English and

Vietnamese To Vietnamese people, " mép " ( the mouth's corner where two lips

join together ) symbolizes the action of speaking much but not really honestly or

not doing as what spoken (e.g: Chỉ nói mép Thằng bẻm mép [ 12; 606 ]) Another part " họng " ( the hollow at the back of the mouth ) is the symbol of utterance, e.g: Bắt phải câm họng [12; 439 ] To English people, the organ of speech "

tongue " denotes a language ( e.g: He speaks English but his native tongue is German, ) and a manner of speaking ( e.g: She has a very sharp tongue

[11;1259 ] ) Other parts as " jaw " and " lip " also denote the action of speaking.

"Jaw " refers to a long talk or gossip, for instance: They have a jaw about old time

[11; 637 ] " Lip" refers a to rude or impudent talk, for instance: That's enough of your lip [ 11; 686 ].

- A part of the body can be used for the same symbol in English andVietnamese class of words To show the mind, both Vietnamese and English

people use " head ", a part contains the brain whose function is to control thoughts For example: The thoughts never enter my head [11; 549]; Vấn đề đau

đầu [12 ; 289] Another part " sinew ", " gân " is used to show one's physical

strength For example: He has plenty of sinews but lacks the mind [11; 1104] Thử

gân anh ta một chút [12; 360 ].

- The same part but is used for different symbols The part " hand ", " bàn

tay" symbolizes the action of human in Vietnamese ( e.g: Chặn bàn tay đẫm máu của kẻ sát nhân [12; 28 ] ) or symbolizes the skill in using hand ( e.g: She has a light hand with sewing), the active help ( e.g: Please, give me a hand with the washing-up [11; 537]) and the promise to marry in English Another part " brain",

" óc " refers to intelligence in English ( e.g: You need brain to become a

professor [11; 131]) but in Vietnamese, it refers to the ability of thinking ( e.g: giàu óc sáng tạo ) or the sense and thoughts of each person ( e.g: óc địa vị [12;

726 ])

- " Cổ " ( neck ), " vai " ( shoulder ) and other parts of the upper limbs as "

ngón " ( finger or toe ) and " tay " ( arm ) are used only in Vietnamese as symbols.

The neck denotes the opposition ( e.g: Anh ta thật cứng cổ Cỡi cổ [12; 196] ) The shoulder symbolizes strength (e.g: Chung vai gánh vác công việc [12; 1057]) The finger or toe symbolizes the trick ( e.g: giở ngón bịp bợm [12; 664]) and

one's talent or strong points ( e.g: Anh ta có ngón đàn hay [12; 664] Other parts

as " bụng ", " dạ " (belly), " ruột " ( intestine ) " gan " ( liver ), " họng " ( throat ),

" mép " are also used only in Vietnamese as symbols.

- Parts of the body as " backbone ", " bile ", " bosom ", " breast ", "cheek",

" gut ", " jaw ", " lip ", " muscle ", " spleen ", " wrinkle ", " vein ", " tooth ",

"tongue" are used only in English to symbolize things Some parts have very special symbolic meanings For example: The cheek denotes disrespectful and rude behaviour ( e.g: He had a cheek to ask me to do his work for him [11; 190 ]), the wrinkle symbolizes useful suggestion or hint The vein symbolizes a manner, style or a mood ( e.g: in lighter vein The rest of her letter continues in the same

vein [11; 1322]).

- In English, some parts used with the symbols relating to their functions

For example: The ear refers to a sense of hearing and a willingness to listen The

eyes denote the power of seeing, the ability to see The foot symbolizes the

manner of walking or moving ( e.g: She has a light feet [11; 458]) The nose manifests a sense of smell ( e.g: A dog with good nose [11; 159]) The palate with its symbol as a sense of taste ( e.g: A wine that will deligh even the most jaded

palate [11; 835]) The tongue symbolizes a manner of speaking.

Eighth, names of parts of the body reflect strongly psychology - feelingsymbolism through semantic transference in English and Vietnamese

- In English, the part of the body " heart " is considered as the central

symbol of a person's thoughts, mood and emotions, of the ability to feel emotion

For example: Have you no heart? She knew it in her heart [11; 152 ] In Vietnamese, " lòng " ( the belly of a person ) is the central symbol of one's psychology, feeling, will and spirit, for example: Đau lòng Nản lòng Bền lòng.

Ăn ở hai lòng [12; 516 ] The " heart " only symbolizes emotion, love ( e.g: Trái tim yêu thơng Một ngời không có trái tim [12; 959 ] ) Its scale of symbolism is

narrower than that of English

-To English people, " heart " symbolizes one's thoughts and emotion To Vietnamese people, another part of the body " bụng ", " dạ " ( the belly or

abdomen ) manifest one's deep thoughts and emotion to people and things

"Bụng" is the organ of thinking as the brain For example: “Nghĩ thầm

trong bụng [12; 87]” " Việc gì anh ấy trong bụng cha cho là phải, ai nói cũng khó

lọt tai " ( Đào Vũ, Con đờng ấy, H., 1971, page 43 )

Bụng is the symbol of one's deep attitude and emotion.

For example:

Trăng non lấp ló đầu cành

Đến nay tôi mới biết bụng mình thơng tôi

( Dân ca Thanh Hoá )

Em chớ thấy anh lắm bạn mà ngờ

Bụng anh vẫn thẳng nh tờ giấy phong

English people do not use this part of the body for symbol In dictionary, "belly "

or " abdomen " has no symbolic meaning.

- In Vietnamese, " Ruột " ( intestine ) besides denoting the relationship of

the same parents, it symbolizes mood and the endurance of emotion

For example : Xót ruột Ruột đau nh cắt [12; 809 ]

Yêu nhau ruột héo, xơng mòn

Yêu nhau đến thác vẫn còn yêu nhau.

( Dân ca )

In English, " bowel " or " intestine " hasn't got this symbolism.

- To show one' strong will and spirit Vietnamese people use " gan " (liver) For example: Bền gan chiến đấu Thi gan đọ sức [12; 356] This part of the body also symbolize one's courage, for example: Có gan chịu đòn Non gan [12; 356] English people use " gut " ( the stomach and the internal organs around it ) to denote one's courage and determination For example: A women with plenty of

guts He disagrees with her but doesn't have the guts to say so [11; 531].

- Vietnamese people use the part of the body " blood " as the symbol of

individual's psychological characteristic that easily joins an activity For example:

Máu cờ bạc Máu tham [12; 593] English people do not use this symbolic

meaning Blood only refers to family and race

- In English class of words " parts of the body ", " bosom " symbolizes the loving care and protection of something and " breast " symbolizes the source of feeling, emotion as the heart ( e.g: a troubled breast [11; 136 ] ) Other parts of

body as " bile " and " spleen " symbolize specific mood: bad temper For example: He unleashed a torrent of bile [11; 106] He vents his spleen on his

children [11; 1147] Vietnamese people do not use these images of symbolism.

In a word, one's common emotion or thoughts is displayed symbolically

and generally through part of the body " heart " in English Other parts as bile,

spleen, gut indicate specific emotions In Vietnamese, the word " lßng ” which has

derived meaning denoting parts of human body is used to symbolize one's internal

world Other parts of human body as bông, d¹, gan, ruét show one's specific

emotion, mood or will

Chapter 3 Suggested exercises

3.1 The basic of exercises

One of the teaching rules in teaching in general, teaching native language

or foreign language in particular is combining theory and practice Providing exercises to practise and check theoretical knowledge in teaching language is a compelling task of scientific trait

The result of the study in chapter 2 on semantic transference through class

of words referring to parts of the human body in English and Vietnamese partly shows the rule of the development of meanings, so we have scientific foundation

to build exercises on the phenomenon of semantic transference for people

practising and consolidating theoretical knowledge

Teaching words, as we know, is not only providing their sounds but also attaching special importance to teach their meanings If meaning of words is presented, the learners can understand and apply words in communication If you want to use word correctly and perfectly, you have to know meanings of that word Therefore, building exercises on semantic transference is to help the

learners grasp thoroughly meanings of word, and then they know how to use it

Teaching English to Vietnamese people is teaching a foreign language so that it is vital for the learners to understand the habit of thinking, association, the use of symbolism and specific characteristics of national culture of the English These problems reflected clearly in the meanings of words, specially through the phenomenon of semantic transference Therefore, providing practical exercises of analyzing meanings of word is one of the ways helping the learners make

comparison with cultural habits of Vietnamese people and then use words and translate the meanings more correctly Through these exercises, the learners have their own comparison, the knowledge attained will be steady and unshakeable

Meaning of words in general, the phenomenon of semantic transference in

particular is one of the subjects in English program It is also cared about by the learners of foreign language and interpreters Therefore, it is the real basic

allowing us to give exercises of identifying and analyzing meanings of words and

to let those who care can consult them

3.2 The user of exercises