CHAPTER 5 THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF MACROMOLECULESCopyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Section A: Polymer principles 1.. CHAPTER 5 THE STRUCTURE
Trang 1CHAPTER 5 THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF MACROMOLECULES
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Section A: Polymer principles
1 Most macromolecules are polymers
2 An immense variety of polymers can be built from a small set of monomers
Trang 2• Cells join smaller organic molecules together to
form larger molecules
• These larger molecules, macromolecules, may be composed of thousands of atoms and weigh over 100,000 daltons
• The four major classes of macromolecules are:
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
Introduction
Trang 5• The covalent bonds connecting monomers in a
polymer are disassembled by hydrolysis
• In hydrolysis as the covalent bond is broken a hydrogen
atom and hydroxyl group from a split water molecule attaches where the covalent bond used to be.
Trang 6• Each cell has thousands of different macromolecules.
• These molecules vary among cells of the same individual;
they vary more among unrelated individuals of a species, and even more between species.
Trang 7CHAPTER 5 THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF MACROMOLECULES
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Section B: Carbohydrates Fuel and Building Material
1 Sugars, the smallest carbohydrates, serve as fuel and carbon sources
2 Polysaccharides, the polymers of sugars, have storage and structural roles
Trang 11Fig. 5.3
Trang 14• While often drawn as a linear skeleton, in aqueous
solutions monosaccharides form rings.
Trang 15• Polysaccharides are polymers of hundreds to
thousands of monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkages
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Trang 17Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Trang 18Insert Fig. 5.6b glycogen
Trang 19• While polysaccharides can be built from a variety of
monosaccharides, glucose is the primary monomer used in polysaccharides.
• One key difference among polysaccharides develops from
2 possible ring structures of glucose.
• These two ring forms differ in whether the hydroxyl group
attached to the number 1 carbon is fixed above (beta glucose) or below (alpha glucose) the ring plane.
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Fig. 5.7a
Trang 20• Starch is a polysaccharide of alpha glucose
monomers
Trang 22• While polymers built with alpha glucose form
helical structures, polymers built with beta glucose form straight structures
• This allows H atoms on one strand to form
hydrogen bonds with OH groups on other strands
• Groups of polymers form strong strands, microfibrils,
that are basic building material for plants (and humans).
Trang 23Fig. 5.8
Trang 25• Another important structural polysaccharide is
chitin, used in the exoskeletons of arthropods (including insects, spiders, and crustaceans)
Trang 26CHAPTER 5 THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF MACROMOLECULES
Section C: Lipids Diverse Hydrophobic Molecules
1 Fats store large amounts of energy
2 Phospholipids are major components of cell membranes
3. Steroids include cholesterol and certain hormones
Trang 30• The many nonpolar CH bonds in the long
hydrocarbon skeleton make fats hydrophobic
• In a fat, three fatty acids are joined to glycerol by
an ester linkage, creating a triacylglycerol.
Trang 35Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Trang 36• The interaction of phospholipids with water is
complex
• The fatty acid tails are hydrophobic, but the phosphate
group and its attachments form a hydrophilic head.
Trang 37• When phospholipids are added to water, they selfassemble
into aggregates with the hydrophobic tails pointing toward the center and the hydrophilic heads on the outside.
• This type of structure is called a micelle.
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Fig. 5.13a
Trang 38• At the surface of a cell phospholipids are arranged
as a bilayer
• Again, the hydrophilic heads are on the outside in
contact with the aqueous solution and the hydrophobic tails from the core.
• The phospholipid bilayer forms a barrier between the
cell and the external environment.
• They are the major component of membranes.
Trang 39Fig. 5.14
Trang 41CHAPTER 5 THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF MACROMOLECULES
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Section D: Proteins Many Structures, Many Functions
1 A polypeptide is a polymer of amino acids connected to a specific sequence
2 A protein’s function depends on its specific conformation
Trang 42• Humans have tens of thousands of different proteins,
each with their own structure and function
Introduction
Trang 45• The twenty different R groups may be as simple as a
hydrogen atom (as in the amino acid glutamine) to a carbon skeleton with various functional groups
Trang 46• One group of amino acids has hydrophobic R
groups.
Fig. 5.15a
Trang 47• Another group of amino acids has polar R groups,
making them hydrophilic.
Fig. 5.15b
Trang 50• Repeating the process over and over creates a long
polypeptide chain
• At one end is an amino acid with a free amino group the
(the Nterminus) and at the other is an amino acid with a free carboxyl group the (the Cterminus).
Trang 51• A functional protein consists of one or more
polypeptides that have been precisely twisted, folded, and coiled into a unique shape.
Trang 53• Quarternary structure arises when two or more
polypeptides join to form a protein
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Trang 56• The secondary structure of a protein results from hydrogen bonds at regular intervals along the
Trang 58• Tertiary structure is determined by a variety of
interactions among R groups and between R groups and the polypeptide backbone
Trang 59• While these three interactions are relatively weak,
disulfide bridges, strong covalent bonds that form between the sulfhydryl groups (SH) of cysteine
monomers, stabilize the structure
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Fig. 5.22
Trang 61Fig. 5.24
Trang 63Fig. 5.25
Trang 64• In spite of the knowledge of the threedimensional
shapes of over 10,000 proteins, it is still difficult to predict the conformation of a protein from its
primary structure alone
• Most proteins appear to undergo several intermediate
stages before reaching their “mature” configuration.
Trang 65• The folding of many proteins is protected by
chaperonin proteins that shield out bad influences
Trang 66• This technique requires the formation of a crystal of the
protein being studied.
• The pattern of diffraction of an Xray by the atoms of the
crystal can be used to determine the location of the atoms
Trang 67Fig. 5.27
Trang 68CHAPTER 5 THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF MACROMOLECULES
Trang 72• While DNA has the information for all the cell’s
activities, it is not directly involved in the day to day operations of the cell
Trang 75Fig. 5.29
Trang 77• The pentose joined to the nitrogen base is ribose in nucleotides of RNA and deoxyribose in DNA.
Trang 78• Polynucleotides are synthesized by connecting the sugars of one nucleotide to the phosphate of the
next with a phosphodiester link
• This creates a repeating backbone of sugar
phosphate units with the nitrogen bases as
appendages
Trang 79• The primary structure in turn determines three
dimensional conformation and function
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Trang 83• During preparations for cell division each of the
strands serves as a template to order nucleotides into a new complementary strand
Trang 84• This argument can be extended to develop a
molecular genealogy between species.
4. We can use DNA and proteins as tape
measures of evolution
Trang 85• Two species that appear to be closelyrelated based
on fossil and molecular evidence should also be
more similar in DNA and protein sequences than are more distantly related species
• In fact, the sequence of amino acids in hemoglobin
molecules differ by only one amino acid between humans and gorilla.
• More distantly related species have more differences.
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings